'01UME XVIII

^i
I

"-1,

SUMMER 1982

The quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America

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SUMMER 1982
Volume 18 Number 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FEATURE
ARTICLES

62 Sri Lanka: The Gem Island

Peter C. Zwnan

The Identification of Artificial Coloration in Diamond

Kenneth V. G. Scarratt

Heat Treating Corundum: The Bangkok Operation

Jack S . D. Abraham
NOTES
A N D NEW
TECHNIQUES

83 Pinpoint Illumination: A Controllable System of Lighting for Gem Microscopy

John I. Koivula

8 7 Radioactive Irradiated Spodumene

George R. Rossman and Yuanxun Qiu

Tugtupite: A Gemstone from Greenland

Aage Jensen and Ole V. Petersen

Carving Gem-Quality Opal

Theodore Grussing

Two Notable Color-Change Garnets

Carol M. Stockton
REGULAR
FEATURES

Gem Trade Lab Notes

Editorial Forum
Gemological Abstracts
Book Reviews
Gem News
,

A B O U T THE COVER: Cat's-eye chrysoberyl is one o f m a n y fine gemstones found on

the island o f Sri Lanka, the subject of Peter Zwaan's article i n this issue. This fine 9.57-ct
cabochon from Sri Lanka is pictured here against a 19th century lithograph b y Dr. von Kurr o f
a t w i n chrysoberyl crystal. This stone, part of the Hixon Collection, i s at the Los Angeles
C o u n t y Natural History Museum. Photograph 1978 Harold and Erica Van PeltPhotographers, Los Angeles, C A .
Composition for Gems & Gemology i s b y Printed Page Graphics, Fullerton, C A . T h e color
separations are b y Effective Graphics, Compton, C A . Printing i s b y Waverly Press, Easton, M D
"J

V 9 8 2 Gemological Institute

of America.

All rights reserved.

ISSN 0016-626X

~ O C U S

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and sapphire.

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Natural Emerald
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Gemstones and Their Phenomena
Natural Ruby
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Natural Blue Sapphire
Opal and Synthetic Opal
Diamond Simulants
Green Jade and J a d e S i m d a n t s
Synthetic Alexandrite
Natural and Synthetic Spinel

Major Gem Locations

and Production:
Muzo, Colombia-the Mining
of Emeralds
G e m Deposits of South-East
Kenya
G e m Mining in S r i I,anka:
Katnapura and Elehara
G e m Production: Chantaburi,
Thailand
Goober Pedy, Australia-the
Mining of Opals
ToLl
rl,, aline Deposits of
S a n Diego, California

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and ~

i of Sari ~Diego,
California - parts I and I1
G e m Pegmatites and Their
Pockets of S a n Diego, California
Saltwater Cultured Pearls of
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Freshwater Cultured Pearls o f

Lake Biwa, J a p a n
G e m Cutting of Idar-Obcrstein
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G e m Pegmatites of Brazil

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Editor, G e m Trade Lab Notes

C h u c k Fryer

Contributing Editor
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STAFF

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Associate Editor
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Editor, Gemological Abstracts

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Editor, Book Reviews
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Editor, G e m N e w s
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MANUSCRIPT
SUBMISSIONS

Gems a) Gemology welcomes the submission of articles on all aspects of the field. Please see the Suggestions for
Authors for preparing manuscripts in the Summer 1981 issue of the journal or contact the Managing Editor for a copy.
Letters on articles published in Gems a) Gemology and other relevant matters are also welcome.

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SRI LANKA:
THE GEM ISLAND
By Peter C. Zwaan

Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, remains one

of the single most important sources for
fine gemstones. Especially notable are
blue sapphire, pink sapphire or ruby, and
yellow sapphire; alexandrite and cat's-eye
chrysoberyl; and almandite and hessonile
garnet. Spinel, tourmaline, zircon,
moonstone, and quartz are also relatively
common; they share their country o f
origin with several rarer gemstones as
well. Most of the gem-quality material is
found i n alluvial deposits throughout the
island, which are mined by primitive
methods. In many instances, the Sri
Lankan origin of the gemstone can be
determined by characteristic inclusions,
several of which are also discussed i n
this article.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Professor Zwaan is director of the National
Museum of Geology and Mineralogy, Leiden,
Netherlands.
Acknowledgments: The author is much indebted
to Mr. W . A. M. Devil@,photographer of the
National Museum of Geology and Mineralogy at
Leiden, for the preparation of figures 3, 6, 11, 12,
13, and 14.
This article was developed from a paper
presented at the International Gemological
Symposium in Los Angeles, California,
February 1982.
'1982 Gemological Institute of America

62

Sri Lanka

he gem riches of Sri Lanlza have been legendary for

centuries. One of the earliest descriptions is that of
Nearchus, who in 334 B.C. mentioned an island not far
from Persia where beautiful translucent gems had been
found. Without a doubt, this island was the present Sri
Lanlza. Much later, at the beginning of the 16th century,
Portuguese sailors discovered the island and returned to
Europe with some of its gemstones; seamen from Holland
did the same some hundred years later.
Over the centuries, tens-probably
hundreds-of
thousands of carats of fine sapphire, ruby, chrysoberyl,
spinel, and other familiar as well as unusual gemstones
have been mined in Sri Lanka. Yet many questions continue to surround the geology of the deposits, and mining
methods remain, for the most part, very primitive.
During the course of the author's eight trips to Sri
Lanlza, he has traveled all over the country and inspected
the major mining areas-beginning in 1958 with the historically important Ratnapura area and completing most
recently, in February and November of 1981, a study of
the newer Tissamaharama area.
The author has drawn from his experiences and investigations to provide this overview of the geology of Sri
Lanlza and its mining and cutting practices, as well as special features of the various gem materials found there.
Also examined are inclusions characteristic of Sri Lankan
gemstones and production figures for the area.
GEOLOGY
Sri Lanka is one of the most important localities for gemstones in the world. Almost all of these gems, however,
occur in alluvial deposits, and their original source remains unknown today.
A geologic slzetchmap (figure 1)shows that the island
is almost entirely underlain by Precambrian roclzs. These
roclzs can be divided into threegroups based on their lithology, structure, and age, as described below.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

SRI LANKA

Figure 1. Geological
sketchmap of Sri Lanka,
with the main gemproducing areas identified.

CENOZOIC

Meetiyagod

Galle

The oldest unit on the island is the Highland

group, which contains rocks of the metamorphic
granulite facies, such as hypersthene gneisses
(charnoclzites),sillimanite-garnet gneisses (lzhondalites), biotite-garnet gneisses, and marbles in
which forsterite and spinel occur. Most of the
gem deposits are located within this group.
The second unit is the Vijayan complex. This
unit is characterized by rocks of the almandite-

Sri Lanka

PRECAMBRIAN
HIGHLAND GROUP
VIJAYAN COMPLEX

amphibolite facies, such as biotite-hornblende

gneisses.
The overlying Southwest group consists of
roclzs that belong to the cordierite-granulite
facies. It contains both cordierite gneisses and
khondalites.
Although most of these roclzs, as well as numerous pegmatites found throughout the country, contain gem materials, it is remarkable that

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

63

Figure 2. Gem pits In

Meetiyagoda.

few of the minerals found thus far in situ are of

gem quality. Yet numerous alluvial deposits on
the island contain pebbles of the same gem minerals, many of which are of gem quality. There is
no doubt that the latter originated in roclzs not far
from their present localities, but up to now the
host roclzs have not been found.
It would be particularly interesting to establish the original source of blue sapphire, the most
important gemstone in Sri Lanka. The only lznown
location of gem-quality blue sapphire in situ is in
a pegmatite located near Kolonne in the Ratnapura district, where the blue sapphire is found together with diopside (Gunaratne, 1976).The only
other gemstones found in host rock are moonstone, which occurs in Meetiyagoda, near Galle,
and some almandite garnet, which occurs in several places throughout the island.

GEM DEPOSITS
As mentioned above, almost all of the gem-quality minerals from Sri Lanlza occur in alluvial deposits; the main gem-bearing area is the Ratnapura district in Sabaragamuwa Province, some 97
lzm (60 miles) southeast of Colombo. The gems
are concentrated in more-or-less horizontal layers
at different depths in the all~ivi~im,
which consists primarily of sand and gravel. The most notable localities are Ratnapura (the name means
'city of gems"), Pelmad~illa, Balangoda, and
Rakwana.
Similar deposits are found near Elahera in the
Central Province, in particular in the valley of the
Kaluganga River. Here, the gem minerals are not
concentrated in specific levels, but are almost

64

Sri Lanka

uniformly distributed throughout in a lateriterich deposit of sandy gravel and clay.

Another gem deposit of interest is near Olzlzampitiya in the province of Uva. This deposit is
very similar in appearance to those in the Ratnapura district. It is well known for its large production of hessonite garnet.
About three years ago, gem-bearing deposits
were discovered in the Tissamaharama area (also
called the Kataragama area) in Southern Province.
The major localities are Amarawewa, about 10
lzm from Tissamaharama in the direction of Kataragama; and Kochipadana, about 5 k m east of
Kataragama. In this region, gem minerals occur
in alluvial deposits at a depth of about 1 m.
Although certain areas in Sri Lanka may be
wetter than others, it is usually not difficult to
visit the various gem-mining districts. The traveler is advised, however, to ask the assistance of
the State Gem Corporation in arranging a guide,
a necessity for every foreigner and particularly so
for the first-time visitor. The author was cautioned to exercise some care when visiting the
Elahera district, but his personal experience with
the people there was very good.

GEM MINING
Gem mining in Sri Lanlza is primitive. Usually,
pits are dug to the depth of the gem-bearing gravel
layer. Depending on the level of the groundwater,
and on whether the area is wet or dry, some
method of drainage is used. The pits are strengthened with wooden bulwarks to avoid caving. The
workers are protected from the sun by a thatched
roof (figure 2).

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

It is not unusual for some of the deeper pits to

extend a short tunnel from the bottom, although
such a tunnel is dangerous, especially in wet areas
like the Ratnapura district. In this area, pits vary
in depth from 5 to 15 m. The gem rough is very
rounded, which indicates either intensive rolling
or long transport.
In the Elahera area, the depth of the gem-bearing gravel ranges from about 3 to 9 m. Mining is
less complicated than in the Ratnapura district
because this part of Sri Lanlza is very dry. Although the gem minerals in the laterite-rich deposits are rounded only slightly, distinct, welldeveloped crystal faces are seldom seen.
In the Tissamaharama area, not only is the
material rounded only very little, but many specimens (in particular, corundum and tourmaline)
have well-developed crystal faces (figure 3). It is
apparent that these crystals have been transported by nature a considerably shorter distance
than gem minerals found elsewhere in Sri Lanlza,
which suggests that their original source is relatively close.
In all of the gem deposits, the gem-bearing
gravel, which is locally called illam, is placed in
baskets that are usually hoisted up from the pit
by means of a rope. Large quantities of this illam
are heaped near the pit.
To wash the gravel, the worker stands waist
deep in muddy water, shaking and rotating a cone-

Figure 3. Corundum crystals from Kochipudana.

For scale note that the crystal in the center at
the bottom is 17 rnm long and weighs 14.9 ct.

shaped, plaited basket (figure 4). Recovery rates

are thought to be quite high with this method. In
a short time, most of the mud is washed away,
and the larger pebbles, most often opaque or
translucent, are picked out and thrown away.
After further swirling, the washed gravel, which
is locally called dullam, is examined for gemquality material by the supervisor; in most cases,
this is the owner of the mine.
LAPIDARY TREATMENT
Cutting is done by means of a wooden apparatus
that has a horizontal axis and a vertical wheel at

Figure 4. Washing of the

"illam" in Ratnapuia.

Sri Lanka

GEMS &GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

65

Figure 5. Gem cutting in

Ratnapura.

one end. The axle can be rotated with a cord that

is moved to and fro with one hand while the stone
is pressed against the wheel with the other (figure
5). Commonly, stones faceted in Sri Lanlza are
very irregular) as can be seen in figure 6) which
represents a parcel of Sri Lanlzan gems. With the
emphasis on cutting for size rather than symmetry, much of the material is spoiled. For this
reason) many stones cut in Sri Lanlza are not suitable for sale in other countries without recutting.
Some years ago! machine cutting was introduced, mainly through the influence of the State
Gem Corporationl and is now becoming very popular. It is a significant move in the right direction.
IMPORTANT GEMSTONES
Without doubt) blue sapphire is the most important gemstone found in Sri Lanka (figure 7). It is
Figure 6. Gemstones cut in Sri Lanka. Por scale,
the green zircon at the top left weighs 9.04 ct.

66

Sri Lanka

important not only commerciallyl but also for its

unique beauty! especially its fine color. Although
blue sapphire is found in a number of places in Sri
Lanlza, the occurrence at Ralzwana in the Ratnapura district is particularly importantl while the
Tissamaharama area also promises to become a
major source. A millzy-white variety, suitable for
treatment to obtain a fine blue color, is called
"geudal' (Gunaratne) 198 1).
The red corundum, or 'lCeylonll ruby) is fairly
common in most of the gem-bearing areas, but its
color is never as saturated as that of the Burmese
ruby. In fact) ruby from Sri Lanlza tends to be pinlz
rather than red.
Sri Lanlza is one of the few sources for yellow
sapphires (figure 8). They occur primarily in Balangoda. These stones typically range in hue from
very pale to dark yellow. Some orange stones are
occasionally seen as well. Deep-orange corundum) with the d'colorof the sunriseI1'is rare) and,
therefore) highly prized. The name "padparadscha" has been applied to these rare stones.
Star corundum is common in Sri Lanlza. Such
stones occur in different colorsl but bluish grey)
pale violet) and millzy white are most common.
Star rubies and star sapphires of fine color are
rare, but some important pieces have appeared
(figure 9).
Another important Sri Lanlzan gem is chrysoberyl, especially the rare varieties alexandrite
and cat's-eye. Good qualities of both varieties are
scarce) and hence highly prized. Most alexandrites are rather clear and light greenj their color
range is moderate. The best cat's-eyes have a

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summcr 1982

Figure 7, This 6.24-ct blue sapphire represents

the fine color that comes from Srj .Lanlia. Photo
b y Tino Hammid.

honey-brown color, a sharp whitish chatoyancy,

and are truly fine gemstones. Yellow to brown
chrysoberyls also occur in Sri Lanka.
Among the garnets, two varieties are common: (11 a member of the pyrope-almandite series, and (2) the orange-brown grossulart lznown
by its variety name hessonite. The pyropealmandite garnet has the characteristic rose-red
color of iirhodolite,ti intermediate between pyrope and almandite, with a magnesium content
that is higher than its iron content. Hessonite is
mainly found in the southeastern part of the island, near Okkampitiya and Kataragama in
particular.
Spinel occurs in different colors, especially
purplish red and dark greenish blue. Iron-rich,
dark green spinel from Sri Lanlza is called ceylon-

Figure 8. Yellow sapphire from Sri Lanlia,

1.42 ct. Photo b y Tino Hammid.

Sri Lanka

Figure 9. The 138.7-ct Rosser Reeves stor ruby

from Sri Lanlia. lJhoto b y Dane Penland,
courtesy of the National M ~ ~ s e uof
m
Natural History, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, DC.

ite or pleonast, while a zinc-rich, blue spinel with

the name gahno-spinel is also a typical Sri Lankan
gemstone. Over the last four years, interest in spinels has increased enormously.
Although many colored gemstones in Sri Lanlza
are called tourmaline, this mineral seems to occur here in brown only and, in fact, is much
less common than generally thought. Most socalled tourmalines are zircons which occur in
many colorsi such as reddish browni yellowbrown, light to dark green, and olive green. The
"low-typeii zircons all have a green colori which
may be considered characteristic for zircons from
Sri Lanka.
Rather common are some quartz varieties such
as rock crystal, amethyst, rose quartzi smolzy
quartzi and cat's-eye quartz. Stars occur mainly
in rose-colored and greyish material; the asterism
is caused by included sillimanite (Woensdrecht et
al., 1980).
The island is one of the few sources of gemquality moonstone (figure 10).Stones with a fine
blue sheen are now rare. Although the southwestern part of Sri Lanlza, especially Meetiya-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

67

Figure 10. Cot's-eye n~oonstone,a b o ~ 12

~ t ct,
from Sri Lanlm The t w o rhodolite garnets are
also from Sri Lanlm Ring courtesy of Fannie M.
Mann. P h o ~ ob y Tino Hammid.

godal is famous for this variety of feldspar! the

mineral is also found in the Tissamaharama area.
Yellowish and colorless varieties of topaz occur in the Ratnapura district. ln comparison with
topaz froin other co~intries~
the Sri Lanlzan stones
in general are not very attractive and! therefore!
are less important.
UNUSUAL GEMSTONES
U n ~ ~ s ugems
a l also occur in conjunction with the
commercially important stones in several localities. Some of these! in fact! have not been found
outside Sri Lanlza and may be considered extremely Iare.
Andalusite is occasionally found in the Ratnapura district and may be discovered in parcels
of cut lltourmalinesllbecause its hardness is very
similar to that of tourmaline and zircon (which,
as mentioned above! also appears in such parcels).
Andalusite may be ~ecognizedby its extremely
strong pleochroism in greenish-brown and red
stones.
Apatite is one of the principal minerals in a
carbonatite from Eppawala, which lies about 65
lznl northwest of Elahera. Brownish crystals up to
about 1 m in length have been found! but they
usually are not of gein quality. Some greenish to
bluish-green apatites are found in Eheliyagoda
and Balangoda; those found in the Ratnapura district are often of cutting quality.

In 19611 a new metamict mineral from Sri

Lanlza was mentioned in the literature for the
first time [Gubelinl 1961). It was named elzanite
in honor of Mr. F. L. D. Ekanayake, a gemologist
in Sri Lanka at that time. Elzanite turned out to
be extremely rare! and cut stones are encountered
only occasionally. Thus far! Sri Lanlza is the only
lznown source of this calcium-thorium silicate.
lolite (cordierite) is not an important jewelry
gemstone! since its properties are very low! but
it is an attractive stone for collectors. It is very
common in the cordierite-gneisses that outcrop
at many places throughout the island! but gemquality material is found only in the Ratnapura
district. It is usually called "water sapphire1' by
the local inhabitants. Its very strong dichroism
may be observed with the naked eye; the yellow
is characteristic and unlznown in blue sapphire.
Some years agol lzornerupine was regularly
discovered in lltourmalinell parcels. Most often!
the stone is green! but frequently some brown
stones can be seen together with the green. About
five years ago, cat's-eye lzornerupine came on the
market in Sri Lanka (Korevaar and Zwaan! 1977).
Today! these cat's-eyes are considered commonl
although large stones are rare. They are said to
originate in the Galle district! while the green
stones without chatoyancy are from the Ratnapura district and from Matale in Central Province.
Sillimanite, or fibrolite! with a light blue color
occasionally occurs in the Deniyaya district near
Ralzwana. A large gem-quality piece! recently
found in Balangoda! is now in the collection of
the State Gem Corporation.
A rare gem mineral that occurs at different
places in the Ratnapura district is sinhalite, a
magnesium-aluminum borate. Its properties bear
some resemblance to those of peridotl and! in factl
many brown "peridotsl' in old collections have
been identified as sinhalites on close examination. The material was described as a new mineral
in 1952 (Claringbull and Heyl 1952). The stone
may vary from almost colorless through light yellow to dark brown with increasing iron content.
Although sphene (or titanite) was mentioned
many years ago as a possible gemstone from Sri
Lanlza (Giibelin! 1968)! only very recently was
gem-quality sphene reported from the Tissamaharama area (Zwaan and h p s , 1980; Zwaanl 19811.
Because of its high optical propertiesl sphene is
very attractive; yellow and brown are the predominant colors in sphene from Sri Lanlza.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

A pale violet mineral/ taaffeite, is found very

rarely in parcels of spinel; it has similar properties
but a distinct birefringence. Taaffeite was named
in honor of its discoverer/ C o ~ i nTaaffe
t
of D ~ i b l i n ~
Ireland (Andersont 1952).Thus far/ only about 10
specimens have been reported; their exact sourcel
somewhere in Sri Lanlza/ has not been identified.
Other ~lnusualgemstones are regularly seen/
for instancel a pale green spod~lmenefrom the
Tissainaharama area (Zwaan) 1982). lt is very
lilzely that other rare or remarlzable gemstones
will be fo~indin view of the complex geology and
mineralization of the island's basement roclzs.

omorphic crystals in a b l ~ i espinel from the Ratnapura district (fig~ire12) which were found to be
apatite (Zwaan/ 1965). Since then/ apatite crystals/ formerly thought to be quartz crystalsl are
now recognized in garnet/ c o r ~ i n d ~ l iand
n ~ spinel.
They seein to be diagnostic of the Sri Lanlzan origin of these species.
Inclusions of zircon crystals/ s~lrroundedby
halos/ are also very common in different geinstones) especially in garnet and corundum.
Hessonite garnets from Sri Lanlza characteristically contain numerousI somewhat ro~inded
crystal inclusions (figure 13) of both diopside and
apatite. This occurrence is not strange because
both are calcium minerals/ as is hessonite garnet.
Liquid incl~~sions/
resembling thumbprints and
often called liq~lidfeathers/ are characteristic in

INCLUSIONS CHARACTERISTIC
OF SRI LANKAN GEMS
Examination by the author of the ii~clusioi~s
in
different gemstones from Sri Lanlza showed some
of them to be characteristic of the locality/ as described below.
With regard to solid inclusions/ needle-lilze rutile crystals are often seen in almandite garnet
[figure l l ) / sapphire/ and other gemstones. The
needles are arranged in three directions/ malzing
angles of a b o ~ 6W
~ t with each otherj they ~ ~ s ~ ~ a l l y
are very long and run thro~lghthe whole stone.
These rutile inclusions often give a sillzy appearance to the stone) and they are responsible for asterism in many varieties of cor~lndum.
Coarse-grained rutile also occurs in various
garnets and may be present in cat's-eye lzornerupine. Most often) the r~ltilehas no distinct crystal
faces) has a blaclz colorl and shows a high metallic
u
luster.
Figure 12. A p l l t ~ t ecryslals i n s p ~ n e from
l
Sri
In 1964) the a ~ ~ t h oexamined
r
large idiL a n k a , P o l l ~ r ~ z elight,
d
magnified 3 0 X .
Figure 11. Riitile c ~ y s t a l si n a l m a n d i t e gornel
from Sri L ~ l n k a .Polarized lighl, ~ n a p i ; f ; .?nx
~d

Sri Lai11u

Figure 13. Apatite a n d d i o p s ~ d ecrystals i n

h e s s o n ~ t egarnet. magnified 3 0 X.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

S ~ ~ m m 1982
er

69

Rs (1982 exchange: approximately 8 rupees per

U.S. dollar) were reported. By 1973, after the SGC
had established itself! the figure had ballooned to
152.9 million Rsl with a total production of
478!000 ct of material. The most recent figure
available to this author! for 1975) was 188.9 million Rs. in gem exports. One can only assume that.
this number will continue to rise as the SGC furthers its efforts both to give some guidance to the
gem industry and to search for new gem-bearing
deposits.

Figure 14, Liquid feathers i n sapphire from Sri

Lanlca. Magnified 30 X .

many gemstones from Sri Lanlza! including the

corundums (figure 14).
Both these solid and liquid inclusions are of
great importance when the origin of a gemstone
has to be talzen into consideration. From the author's investigationsl they seem to be characteristic for Sri Lanlzan gemstones.

PRODUCTION IN SRI LANKA

As recently as the beginning of this century! little
information was available on the amount and
value of the gem material produced in Sri Lanlza.
Gem mining was thought to be limited to the
Ratnapura district and the area near Galle. Not
until 1923 was the discovery of good-quality material in Pelmadulla reported. But precise figures
were impossible to obtain.
Even today! reliable figures are not available
because many private miners sell their stones illegally to foreign buyers. During the author's first
visitl in 19.58)he was told that the annual figures
reported by the government represented only
about 10% of the real production. To provide
some idea of the quantities involved during this
period! in his 1965-1966 Administration Report,
the director of the Geological Survey of Ceylon
stated that exports of all types of gemstones
amounted to a little over 611000 ct. These export
figures were! however! only from customs returns.
With the establishment of the State Gem Corporation [SGC) in the early 1970s [both to improve the country's gem industry and to help curb
the large-scale smuggling of gems)! the export figures improved considerably. In 1971) before the
SGC had talzen controlJ total sales of 3.4 million

70

Sri Lanka

SUMMARY
Sri Lanlza is one of the most important sources in
the world as far as the number of different gemstones it produces is concerned. It is remarlzable
that no explanation can be given as to where these
gem minerals were formed originallyl because they
are all found in alluvial deposits.
The island consists almost entirely of Precambrian roclzsl which may be divided into three
groups: the Highland group! the Vijayan complexl
and the Southwest group. Although gem minerals
occur in different rocks of these series! few are of
gem quality.
Historicallyl the most important gem-bearing
area is the Ratnapura district in Sabaragamuwa
Province. The gem minerals are concentrated in
more-or-less horizontal levels at different depths
in the alluvium. Similar deposits are found near
Elahera! near Olzlzampitiya~and in the Tissamaharama area.
Mining methods are still primitivel as are the
ways of washing and cutting the material. Machine cutting has been introducedl though! and
significant improvements are anticipated, Very
recently some machines were brought in to help
with mining in the Balangoda areaj in Pelmadulla! in particularl tunneling and river dredging
for gems may be seen. Another mechanized mining project is going on in Samanalawewa at the
moment. It may be expected that mining methods will be modernized rapidly! resulting in an
enormous increase in the annual production.
Blue sapphire! ruby! yellow sapphirel and alexandrite and cat's-eye chrysoberyl are among the
most important gemstones found in Sri Lanlza.
Also found in quantity are some garnets! spinel!
and several varieties of quartz. A number of more
unusual gemstones have also occurred in Sri
Lanlza. In fact! cats-eye lzornerupine is now very
common.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Typical inclusions in Sri Lankan gemstones

are long, needle-shaped rutile crystals, arranged
in three directions, that often cause a silky luster
and are common in pyrope-almandite garnet and
in corundum. Apatite crystals are often seen in
garnet, corundum, and spinel, while zircon crystals surrounded by halos are also very common in
garnet and corundum as well as in other Sri Lankan gems. Finally, liquid feathers are characteristic of many Sri Lanlzan gcmstones.
Although production figures are not always
reliable, they seem to be rising significantly now
that the State Gem Corporation is supervising the
industry. The efforts of the State Gem Corporation will undoubtedly result in the discovery of
new gem-bearing deposits, as the country's supply of fine materials seems inexhaustable.
-

REFERENCES
Anderson B.W. (1952) Two new gemstones, taaffeite and sinhalite. Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 7, No. 6, pp. 171- 175.

Claringbull G.F., Hey M.H. (1952) Sinhalite (MgAlBO.,)a new

mineral. Mineralogy Magazine, Vol. 29, pp. 841-849.
Gubelin E. (1961)Ekanite-another new metamict gem from
Ceylon. Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 163-179.
Giibelin E. (1968) Die Edelsteine der Insel Ceylon. Giibelin,
Lucerne.
Gunaratne H.S. (1976) On the occurrence of gem corundum
in Kolonne. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 2930.
Gunaratne H.S. (1981)Geuda sapphires-their colouring elements and their reaction to heat. Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 17, No. 5, pp. 292-300.
Korevaar H.J., Zwaan P.C. (1977)Kornerupine cat's-eyes from
Sri Lanka [Ceylon).
of Gemrnolow,
,
. Journal
.
-. Vol. 15, No. 5,
pp. 225-230.
Woensdrecht C.F.. Weibel M.. Wessicken R. (19801
.
, Star auartz
asterism caused by sillimanite. Schweizerische Mineralogische und ~ e t r k ~ h i s c Mitteilmgen,
he
Vol. 60, pp. 129132.
Zwaan P.C. (1965)Apatite crystals in a Ceylon spinel. Journal
of Gemmology, Vol. 9, No. 12, pp. 434-440.
Zwaan P.C. (1981) Sphene, another gem mineral from Sri
Lanka. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 624-635.
Zwaan P.C. (1982)Gemstones from the Tissainaharama area
in Sri Lanka. Journal of the G e m m o l o ~ c a Association
l
of
Japan, in press.
Zwaan P.C., Arps C.E.S. (1980) Sphene, Sri Lanka's newest
gemstone. Scripts Ceologica, No. 58.
- -

~~

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GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

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71

THE IDENTIFICATION OF
ARTIFICIAL COLORATION
IN DIAMOND
By Kenneth V. G. Scarratt

Since Robert Crowriingshield's discovery

in the late 1950s that dinmonds that have
been artificially colored by irradiation
and subsequent annealing could be
identified by their characteristic
absorption spectra (in particular, the
band at 595 (592) n m , much more
information lias become available about
the radiation-related bands seen i n the
visible spectra of diamonds. The
introduction of cryogenics has made the
observation by hand spectroscope or the
recording by spectrophotometer o f a
diamond's visible spectrum less
troublesome. But it has also opened the
eyes o f the gemologisi lo the fact that.
virtually any band that can be artificially
induced in the spectrum o f diamond by
irradiation and subsequent annealing can
also occur naturally. This makes
identification o f the source of color i n
some diamonds, particularly fluorescent
green and some yellow stones, very
difficult.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Scarraft is director of the Gem Testing
Laboratory of the London Chamber of Commerce
and Industry, London, England.
The author gratefully acknowledges the
generosity of Dr. Alan T. Collins in allowing the
use of the illustrations in figures 4 and 8, and his
help in producing figures 6 and 1 1
This article was developed from a paper
presented at the International Gemological
Symposium in Los Angeles, California,
February 1982.
' 7982 Gemological Institute of America

72

Artificial Coloration in Diamond

iamond combines a magnificent brilliance and durability with a wealth of differing colors, characteristics that make it unique among gemstones. Recently,
diamonds with a definite body color have become very
popular, so that the volume of work concerned with these
stones over the past few years has increased out of all
proportion at the Gem Testing Laboratory of London. If
this can be taken as an indication of current trends, then
at long last the gem-buying public is finding out not only
that black diamond is not another term for coal, but also
that it is possible for diamonds to occur in superb shades
of yellow, green, brown, pink, and blue (figure 1) that
often make other colored gemstones seem quite dull in
comparison.
It is hardly surprising, therefore, that as with other
highly prized gemstones man has found it necessary to
try to exert his influence on the poorer examples to "improve their quality," a practice that many gem merchants
and customers find unacceptable. And it follows that the
trade has requested the advice of gemologists to distinguish a natural from an artificially colored stone. Because
of the great difficulties that can be involved, though, most
gemologists have tended to leave the problem in the
hands of the relatively few laboratories or individuals
who have been able to specialize in the subject.
In some cases, the trader can himself determine the
origin of color in a diamond fairly quickly and simply.
Two methods involving the application of a diamond
merchant's normal instrumentation are discussed below.
In those more difficult cases where radiation treatment
and subsequent annealing are involved, spectroscopy is
the most useful technique. There are some cases, though,
which will also be discussed below, in which even absorption spectra enhanced by cryogenic spectroscopy may
not be able to prove conclusively the origin of color in a
diamond.

G E M S & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 1 . A suite of colored

diamonds. The light pink (0.68
ct) and light blue (0.56 ct)
stones are naturally colored.
The yellow, orange, and green
stones have been treated to
improve color, although yellow
and orange hues similar to
those shown here are known to
occur naturally. Photo b y
Tino Harnrnid,

SOME SIMPLE METHODS OF

DETERMINING WHETHER THE COLOR
OF A DIAMOND IS NATURAL
OR MAN INDUCED
Virtually all diamond merchants possess some
form of instrument to examine their stones at
various magnifications-be it a hand lens or a
microscope-and a source of ultraviolet radiation. With some experience, the merchant often
can use the information gleaned from the stone
with these instruments to determine whether the
stone in question is naturally colored or has been
treated.
In many cases, colored diamonds have very
distinctive internal features. For example, the
color in many natural brown stones is zoned
(Kane, 1980), alternating between brown and colorless (not unlike the zoning seen in some sapphires]. In other natural brown diamonds, the
color zoning may appear to be angular. When
some natural pink diamonds are examined with
a lens, their color can be seen to be associated
with the internal structure of the stone, which
appears in the form of pink zoning on a colorless
background (figure 21,
Although cyclotron-treated stones often display a form of zoning, natural zoning is usually
associated with growth phenomena and, therefore, is aligned with the original crystal form. The
zoning in a cyclotron-treated stone is associated
with the shape of the cut stone; that is, it may
appear as a color concentration at the culet, which
looks something like an opened umbrella, or as
a color concentration at the girdle (figure 3).

Artificial Coloration in Diamond

When natural type IIg blue diamonds are

bathed in short-wave ultraviolet radiation, they
reveal characteristics that are distinctive of this
type of diamond. Such stones either have a relatively weak fluorescence or are virtually inert,
but they have a phosphorescence that is anlong
the strongest observed in any type of diamond.
They are also usually relatively clean internally
and quite large. Very large pink diamonds are
usually quite light in color and are type I1 stones,
which allow short-wave ultraviolet radiation to
pass, exposing any photographic paper on which
such a stone may be placed.
Figure 2. The color in some naturally pink
stones can be seen to be associated with their
internal structure. Here it reveals itself on a
colorless background us thin pink lines crossing
crown facets. Magnified approximately 80 X.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

73

Figwe 3. Z d n g in a cydotKm-txeated
d i d d appears as a concentrati*mof color
assm'ated with the shape of facets of the
cat stone. Left = color zoning parallding the
edges of the crow VI&wedthrough the
pavilion, #Ox Kigbt = color zpsing
paral1eling the edge of the d e t viewed
through the tabis, 3 0 x . Photos b y
Robert 5. Kane.

In the majority of cases, though, the internal

features of the stone and its reaction to radiation
are h d q u a w for h e conclusive determination
of the source of color. This is particularly true
with diamonds that have been irradiated and then
annealed to enhance or change the natural color
by methods other than cyclotron treatment,

color in a particular diamond is due to a process

of nature or to man's intervention is usuallybased
on the information obtained by the observation
of that stone's visible spectrum. Over the years)
however, other factors have come to light which
make detection by this manner in some colored
diamonds extremely difficult.

DETERMINING THE SOURCE OF

COLOR IN DIAMONDS THAT
HAVE BEEN IRRADIATED
AND SUBSEQUENTLY ANNEALED
Man first learned that he, could influence the
color of diamond at the beginning of this century,
when it was discovered that a green color could
be induced by intimately exposing the stone to
radium (Webster, 1972). However, stones treated
in this manner retained radioactivity at levels
that were easily detectable with a Geiger counter
a test that continues to be of importance in the
examination of p e n diamonds tdayl.
It was not until halfway through the century
that it was discovered that a number of other
forms of atomic bombardment could be used
commercially to "treat" diamonds and that after
subsequent annealing the irradiated green stones
would alter once again to yellow and brown.These
resulting colors were found to be strong and, in
the main, deep penetrating and stable. From this
point on, the task of identifying the nature of
color in diamond became in some cases very difficult, because these inadiated stones do not retain any detectable radioactivity for a significant
length of time, nor any other obvious indications
of treatment. We were indeed fortunate that at
this juncture Robert Crowniilgshield, director of
gem identification of the CTA Gem Trade L a b ratory in New York, came to the rescue of gemologists (Crowningshield, 19571. After observing
the visible spectra of thousands of these irradiated
and annealed diamonds, he determined the presence of an absorption band at 595 (592)*
mu. in
almost every instance.
Since that time, determination of whether the

Spectrum Changes Induced by the Process of

Irradiation and Annealing. A number of changes
occur in the visible spectrum of diamond during
the process of irradiation and subsequent annealing. mowledge of these changes is essential to
the understanding of the source of color in a given
stone.
Depending on the diamond awl on the conditions of irradiation, during the initial irradiation
process the stone usually nuns some shade of
green and a group of absorption bands are induced
into the spectrum at varying strengths. These
bands have been "numberedJ,by physicists and
given the prefix GR (generalradiation]. The pin&pal band and the one observed most often by
gemologists is the GR1, at 741 nm (dark and
Walker, 1972).Upon annealing, at least two other
absorption bands arc induced. Typically, one of
these is the sharp band at 595 nm.Also apparent
may be either the band at 503 nm or the one at
496 nm, and very often both are seen. Any naturally occurring abgorption that was evident in the
spectrum, prior to irradiation, such as the band at
415 mn, remains unaffected [figure4).
The relative strengths of the induced bands are
affected by the annealing temperature (Collies,
19781. As the temperature increases, the GR1 rcdlices in strength until it disappears at around
800CThe 595 am band increases to its maximum at around 8WC, but above this temperature the 595 weakens until it disappears at around

74

Artificial Coloration in Diamond

'This sharp ahorption band i s observed between 592

and 595 nm.The tradition in Anwican gemology has
b m to refer to this featwe us the 592 nm absorption
water.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

100WC.The band at 503 nm,which has thegreatest effect on the color of the irradiated diamond,
remains comparatively unaffected at least until
severalhundred degrees beyond the position where
the band at 595 nm "anneals out,"
It follows then that it is possible to produce an
iiradiated diamond with a strong yellow color in
which the only indication of radiation treatment
may be the bands at 503 and 496 nm.Inasmuch
as these two bands can and very often do occur
naturally, identification of treatment in such
stones may be very difficult.
Another way in which the 595 nm band is
temperature dependent is sometimes evident from
its behavior when the spectrum is being examined. If the stone is heated much above room temperature, very often the band will broaden and, if
it is weak to start with, the band will become
undetectable with the hand spectroscope until
the stone has cooled. This has led gemologists to
seek methods by which they can keep the stone
cool while under examination (see, for example,
Hofer and Manson, 1981).
Low-Tempetatare Spectroscopy. The roost successful cooling method to date entails the use of
liquid nitrogen or the gas produced from it. The
method used at the London Gem Testing Laboratory ensures a temperature in t h e region of
Figure 4. Absorption spectrum recorded at
a bout -1 60eCfor a y&w diamond feat has
been irradiated and then annealed. The 503,
496, and 415 am lines have been labeled by
physicists as fi3. Ha,and N3, respectively. The
small peaks around 741 ma are pait of the GR
system.
WWEIENOTH

TOO

500

600

tm1

<so

too

380

-160 for the m

o
dof examination. This temperature is reached gradually over approximately
a quarter of an hour. The stone is first set i
n soft
metal and then placed into a double-walled glass
vessel. The space between the two walls is evacuated in a manner similar to a thermos flask. The
nitrogen gas is then allowed to pass through the
vessel and thus cools the stone (figure 5).
The size of the vessel used depends on the size
of the stone. For the examination, the vessel is set
in the center.of an optical bench with the light
source at one end and the spectroscope at the

other.
This system not only ensures that if the band
at 595 nm is present, it will not disappear, but it
also makes the band sharper and therefore easier
to see when it is at its weakest, say, after the
stone has been annealed to 900CIn fact, this
cooling of the stone sharpens all the radiationrelated bands to such an extent that observation
becomes quite easy. This point is brought home
when one realizes that with the stone held at a
low temperature it is possible to observe the G R
system, with its main band at 741 nm, using the
hand spectroscope (Scanatt, 1979). While this
method of observation has in many respects made
the task of color identification easier, it has also
raised a number of other questions. Of particular
importance is the discovery in some cooled natPigare 5, One of ibs glass vessels wed to hold
a c o h s d diamond at about -1 W C , at which
temperature any absorption lines that may be
present in the stone's visible spectrum cue seen.
at their sharpest. The stone is held in soft
metal in the center; the nitrogen gas eaters via
an insulated pipe on the left,f l a w s over the
stone, and exhausts through the metal tabs on
the right.

- a.

3-

sF
9

6'

HI

4.

\W

11

PHOTON

Btm

Artificial Coloration in Diamond

28
ItV)

30

33

GEMS & GEMOLQGY

Smainer 1982

75

ura1 stones of absorption bands fomerly believed

to appear only in artificially colored stones. +

NATURAL IRRADIATION IN
COLORJW DIAMONDS
B. W.An&rson first noted the 595 nm absorption
band in a colored diamond in 1943 (Crowningshield, 19571. This was not in the spectrum of a
treated stone but in that of a natural uncut brown
stone from the Central African Republic [figure
6). This stone was m e of a pair given to Mr, Anderson. We have since been able to examhe both
diamonds at low temperatwes* and found not
only that the 595 nm band was present in the
spectrum of both stones but also that the GR system was stdl present in the one that did not show
t h e 595 n m band at room temperature. When it
was determined that the color of these stones was
c o n h e d to the surface ( m e 71 and wouldI
thereforel be removed with facegemologists
tended to ignore this natural occurrence of the
595 nm h e . However, these stones do give us
some background m f o m t i o n that is of great help
in our understanding of colored diamonds,
Specificdyl the presence of the GR system
tells us &at the brown s h c e coloration in this
pair is due to natural radiation. We also know that
these stones have been subject to an m n e d m g
process, both because of the presence of the 503

figure 7 Bxowzt natural radiation "staining" on

the suduce of a diamond crystal from the
Central Afican R~pubkc.Magnified appmximatdy 50x.
a

and 595 nm ban& and because of the brown

rather than green coloration (Mendelssohne t al.,
1979).This information helped us a few years ago
in our understanding of one particular faceted
stonel with a fluorescent green body color. All
naturally colored diamonds of this type reveal
very similar spectra: that isI the presence of the
503,probably the 496, and certainly the 415 n m
bands. But when the specmum of this stone was
examined at -l6O0C [figure 81, the 595 nm line
was dso seen to be present. In fact, the spectrum
was indistinguishable

from that of a nor&

treated yellow stone) and yet we lznow from the

stone's history that the color must be natural.
We lznow that the lines at 503 and 496 nm can
be induced by the annealing of a stone that has
been irradiated! so we should not have been too
surprised at recording the 595 nm band in this
type of stone. To our knowledge! though) it was
the first time it had been seen in a natural faceted
stone.
At least this particular stone revealed evidence of natural radiation damage and annealing
in the form of brown radiation stains on an uncut
portion of the girdle (figure 9)) but the fact that
the 595 nm band has been observed in this stone
malzes the identification of the origin of color in
these fluorescent green stones very difficult.
Of late) we have also been observing the GR
system in the spectrum of very large) naturally
coloredf brown type I1 stones. Because of the increased pop~llarityof colored diamonds) any diamond with a definite body colorf almost regardless of quality) is being sorted out as a possible
fancy stone. As a result) in addition to the attractive canary yellow stones that have been traditionally sought after (figure
we are seeing
many more type IBstones which! not many years
agol would have been rejected by the trade as undesirable. Many of these stones are easily recognizable because of their characteristic large areas
of cloud-type inclusionsf and because their yellow
body colors usually have some other component
present! that isf green or brown.
In the past! color identification in this type of
stone presented no problem for the gemologist,
because normally the true canary yellow (lilze any
other natural type IB diamond) shows no sharp
changes in transmission in the visible spectrum

Figure 10. Naturally colored canary yellow

diamond, 0.63 ct, Photo by Tino Hammid.

at room temperature. The color is due to the gradual absorption of wavelengths that are shorter
than 550 nm.
The appearance in the lab of inore of these
stones and the advent of low-temperature spectroscopy caused us considerable worry a year or
so ago when) in addition to the normal gradual
absorption of the shorter wavelei~gths~
we noted
at low temperatures the occurreilce of the radiation-related peal< at 637 nm and sometimes the
503 nm bani (figure 11).
Figure 1 1 . Absorption spectrum recorded 01
about -160 for a nfiturfillycolored yellovv
~
find
type 1 djamond, showing the peaks f i 637
503 n m and the typjcal 1 fl type absorp~jonof
wavelengtl~.sshorter lhan 550 nm.

Figzlre 9. Natzlral radiation "staining" on an

unpolished portion of the girdle of the stone
referred to in figure 8. Magnified approx. 7 0 ~ .

1
Artificial Coloration in Di;~nlond

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Su111mer 1982

77

Researchers have found that the 637 n m band

occurs primarily in diamonds that contain a high
percentage of the nitrogen impurity in isolated
substitutional forml that is! in type IBdiamonds.
It has been proved experimentally that irradiation
and subsequent annealing induce the 637 n m band
in synthetic type IBdiamonds, during which process the color of the stone is altered from its original yellow to pinlz (Davies) 1977).In fact! the 637
n m band had previously been reported only in
treated diamonds, particularly in treated pinlzs
(Liddicoat' 1969j1 and so the diagnostic value of
this line when seen at low temperatures in yellow
type IBstones had to be determined.
After recording the absorption curve in the
nine stones of this type in which we had observed
the 637 n m band! we noted that in each case the
line was extremely weak' and it soon became apparent that the obvious cause of the body color
was the gradual absorption of the shorter wavelengths. This being a natural phenomenon! we
decided that if these stones had been artificially
subjected to radiation and annealing it could only
have been in minimal amounts and as such had
no effect on the color of the stone. In fact, our
view was that this was yet another case of the
nat~lraloccurrence of a radiation-related pealz and
that under these circumstances it should be reported accordingly.

IN CONCLUSION
I emphasize that the foregoing problems affect
only a small percentage of colored diamonds. Certainly/ as discussed abovel reliable methods for
the detection of cyclotron-treated diamonds are
now .qeadily available to diamond merchant and
laboratory gemologist alilze. And in the "vast ma-

78

Artificial Coloration in Diamond

jority" of cases where a yellow diamond has been

irradiated and annealed by inan! it is virtually
always possible to recognize this fact with the
adept use of the hand spectroscope in conjunction
with a cold light source.
However, I can foresee a time when' at least
with some of this small percentage of colored diamonds! the methods currently available will not
be adequate to determine whether the color is
caused by man's interference. It is likely that the
problem of differentiating between irradiation by
man and irradiation by nature will continue to
arise and with even greater frequency.

REFERENCES
Clark C.D.! Walker J. (19721Optical measurements of the GRl
centre in diamond. Diamond Research, pp. 2-5.
Collins A.T. (1978) Investigating ~~rtificially
coloi~red diamonds. Nature, Vol. 273, No. 5664, pp. 654-655.
Crowningshield G.R. (1957)Spectroscopic recognition of yellow bombarded diamonds and bibliography of diamond
treatment. Gems d Gemology, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 99-104.
Davies G. (19771 Optical properties of diamond. Chen~istry
ond Physics of C(~rbon,Vol, 13, Marcel Del<l<erllnc., New
Yorlz, NY,
Hofer S.C.! Manson D.V. (19811 Cryogenics, an aid to gemstone testing. Gems ed Gemology, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp.
143-149.
Kane R.E. (1980)The elusive nature of graining in gem-quality
diamonds. Gems el Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 294-314.
Liddicoat R.T. Jr. (1969) Handbook of Gem Identification.
Gemological Institute of America, Los Angeles, CA.
Mendelssohn M.J., Milledge M.J,, Vance E.R., Nave E., Woods
P.A. (1979) International radioactive 11;110s in diamond.
Diomond Reseorcl7, pp. 3 1-36.
Scarratt K. (1979)Investigating the visible spectra of coloured
diamonds. journal of Ge~nmology, Vol. 16, NO. 7, pp.
433-447.
Webster R. (1972)Gems, Their Sources, Description a n d Identifico~ion,2nd ed. Butterworth and Co., Ltd., London.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

HEAT TREATING CORUNDUM:

THE BANGKOK OPERATION
By Jack S. D. Abraham

Following LIP on Nassau's 1981 article on

the technical aspects of heat treating ruby
and sapphire, the author reports his
personal observations of the actual heat
treatment process in Bangkok. He
discusses the potential effects that this
process can have on a stone-both
positive and negative-and emphasizes
the importance of the natural make-up of
the stone itself to the success of heot
treatment.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr, Abraham is president of Precious Gem
Resources, lnc,, New York, New York,
Acknowledgment: The author would like to thank
all his friends and associates in Bangkok for
being so candid and helping to enlighten the
public on this subject,

~V982Precious Gem Resources, lnc,

Heat Treating in Bangkok

Banglzolz gem dealer buys a lo+-ct ruby for a sixfigure sum and heats it hoping to improve its color
and value. After one heating, the stone dulls and cannot
be sold for half of its original price. But a few tries later
the stone is so improved that a major European dealer
buys i t for almost five times the original amountlznowing that it has been heat treated.
Another Thai dealer pays a large sum for a 600-ct piece
of sapphire rough. He then cuts i t into four sections and
heats each. For the largest piece, which is over 100 ctl he
receives 20% more than he paid for the entire original
stone-again from a buyer who knows the stone is heated.
A third dealer, however, heats a sapphire for which he
has paid a six-figure sum but instead of enhancing the
color, the treatment causes the stone to brealz into several
pieces. It is now worth a fraction of its original price.
Such incidents suggest that the heating of ruby and
sapphire has become a fully acceptedl if very rislzyl fact
of life in the Far East. It is generally aclznowledged in
Banglzolz that over 95% of the rubies and sapphires
exported from the Far East have been subjected to heat
treatment (figure 1). For a combination of reasons,
including increased demand for corundum gems and the
inadequacy of traditional sources, ruby and sapphire
dealers worldwide are now dependent on heat treatment
to generate meaningful market supplies.
This surge in interest in the heat treatment of
corundum has led to a number of articles discussing manners and methods of treatment as well as the detection
of treated vs. nontreated sapphire by the gemologist
(Nassau, 1981; Crowningshield and Nassau, 1981). To
date, however, very little has been published regarding
the actual treatment of these stones in Banglzolz and
relating some of the practical aspects of the treatment process. The purpose of this article is to fill this
void.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

79

Figure 1 . Thjs 80-CLblile

sapphire from Sri Lanlzo
and the five Thai rubies
(averaging 3.2 ct each)
thot s~~rround
it lire
representiitive of the
stones heat treated in
Bangkok in recent years.

In the course of three recent visits (the last of

which was in Spring 1982)) the author explored
this subject with friends and associates in Banglzolz
who are connoisseurs of the art of heat treating
corund~~m
a ~secret that is very well guarded.
During these visits) the author was able to study
several Banglzolz treatment operations firsthand
and had detailed discussions about the processes
with several leading dealers. These experiences
form the basis of this article and should serve to
augment the previous, inore detailed and technical papers on the heat treatment of corund~lm
cited above. It is important to note that Bangkolz
is not the only center for heat treating corunduml
inasmuch as Sri Lanlza) Australia, and Hong Kong
have treatment operations as well. This article
will deal only with the author's observations in
Bangkok, however, and only with those stones
that are heated to duplicate processes that could
occur in nature.
THE OBJECTIVES OF
HEAT TREATMENT
There are historical references in the literature
that discuss the heat treatment of corundum from
a purely scientific point of view (Mawe! 1813;
King, 1870; Bauer and Spencer, 1904; Church,
1905). It is questionable) though) whether the
treatment of sapphires was known to the commercial world prior to a few years agol when gem
,dealers learned that they not only could enhance
the existing color of some sapphires) but also
could transform near-colorless sapphire with

80

Heat Treating in Bangl<ol<

inherent latent qualities into fine fancy-colored

stones) including yellow and green as well as
blue. More recently) they found that excessively
dark blue material could be lightened through
heat treatment. They also found that some rubies
could be improved with heating.
It soon became evident that heating could also
result in craclzed or shattered stones) or in the
d~lllingof color or other damage. Furthermore)
because color in a stone depends on the presence
of trace amounts of certain elements (e.g., iron
and titanium)! the heating process will do absolutely nothing to improve color if these elements
are absent froin the original material.
Often) the heating of sapphire induces as much
as an 80Y0 to 9OY
' o color change) from grayish
white or millzy to various shades of blue. But all
types of sapphire, from challz white to ink blaclz,
are sent to the ovens. The specific objectives of
heat treatment vary according to the quality of
the sapphire being treated and the country of its
origin (Sri Lanlza) Thailand, Cambodia, Burma)
Kashmir, or Australia). In general) i t is easier to
deepen the color of a stone than to lighten it. Specificallyl a 70% color change from light blue to
deep blue is less difficult to attain than a 10Y0
reduction in color in an overly dark blue stone.
This fact explains why some light) near-colorless
pieces of Sri Lankan rough may sell for several
times more than most deep blue Australian rough.
In fact, the most desirable whitish-blue Sri Lanlzan
rough commands prices comparable to those paid
for blue rough five years ago. But reducing colorl
GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

as in Australian stones, and darkening color, as

in Sri Lanlzan stones, is not all that heating does.
The process is often used to reduce and even eliminate "sillz and asterism" in Burmese sapphires
and, at the same time, enhance their color
(Nassau, 1981).
Likewise, for ruby, heating is done to eliminate sillz, to reduce secondary colors, and to
increase the purity of the primary red. A mere 5%
increase in red can mask unappealing secondary
colors by the same amount. And a decrease, say,
in purple by just 5% can mean a dramatic increase
in quality.
It must be emphasized that the heat-treatment
process described here is designed to duplicate
heating processes that could occur in nature, it
can only bring out latent inherent qualities in the
stone. In the author's experience, there has been
no loss of color over time in heat-treated blue Sri
Lanlzan sapphires and in rubies. This process
should not be confused with diffusion treatment,
which provides a colored synthetic coating to a
natural stone (Nassau, 1981); this coating may be
removed in polishing. The proposed Federal Trade
Commission guides for the jewelry'industry (submitted by the Jewelers Vigilance committee on
December 31, 1981) do not require disclosure of
heat treatment if it is not detectable by a gemological laboratory, as is the case with most heattreated corundum. However, the use of a colored
synthetic coating, as in diffusion treatment, must
be made known to the buyer. Knowledgeable labs
can readily detect diffusion treatment (again, see
Nassau, 1981) and already disclose it on their gem
identification reports.

corundum can require temperatures close to the

melting point of the gem. The fire lzilns are usually no more than oil drums that have been lined
with bricks, clay, or concrete with a side door
toward the bottom through which fuel is pumped
(figure 2). The hollow center of the drum holds
the crucible containing the gem rough. Loose
briclzs control the flow and direction of the fire
to ensure that the crucible is totally engulfed in
flame. In the case of charcoal-burning lzilns, the
crucible is surrounded by the charcoal itself.
Prior to heat treatment, the gem rough is
cleaned and any heavily cracked or included portions are removed by trimming. These cracks and
internal imperfections can affect the durability of
the stone during heating and can often lead to
breakage. Many of the gems are actually preformed during the trimming process. Following

Figure 2. The basic drum often used for heat

treating corundum. The hole at the bottom
m a y serve to accommodate the fuel source
(e.g.,gas or other petroleum derivatives) or as
the access point to control the flames when
charcoal or wood is used. Illustration b y
Susan Kingsbury.

THE HEAT-TREATMENT OPERATION

Heat treatment in Bangkok is becoming more
sophisticated. The design of the ovens and lzilns
has improved and the use of natural gas, various
petroleum derivatives, and in some cases electricity allows these ovens and lzilns to reach higher
temperatures than the heat sources used in earlier
ovens. For the most part, sapphires-which
require oxygen to produce a color change-are
treated in open-fire lzilns using coal, natural gas,
or petroleum derivatives. Rubies are likely to be
treated in more sophisticated electric ovens. With
the exception of the electric ovens used for rubies,
there is still no thermostatic control. This means
that the operators must keep close and constant
watch during the entire treatment operation, particularly since the successful heat treatment of
Heat Treating in Bangkok

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

81

Figure 3. In some instances, the stones are

coated with a borax-based solution before they
are placed in the smaller crucible, which is
then inserted into the larger crucible for
heating. In other instances, the stones are left
untouched and the small crucible itself is
sealed with a borax solution. Some operators
use no solution at all. The stones on the left
have been heated to maximum color and recut.
Those i n the center have been heated and
await recutting. Corundum slated for heating
or reheating appears on the right,

cleaning and trimming, a few of the operators

soak their stones in a borax-based solution (which
varies according to the person who controls the
operation) that is believed to form a "protective
shell" on the stone to prevent damage (figure 3).
The stones are then placed in ceramic crucibles
and put into the kiln or oven, where they are
heated up to 160WC and maintained at that temperature for 24 hours or longer for sapphires and
four to eight hours for rubies. Occasionally, higher
temperatures are used, depending on the character of the stones, the oven used, and the skill
of the operator. When the heating process is completed, the temperature is gradually reduced or
the kiln is shut off and the gems left to cool
slowly. This heating procedure may be repeated
several times on a given stone until the stone
attains what the operator feels is its best potential
color and appearance; some stones are heated
every time they change ownership. This, of course,
can be very risky and improper heating may result
in the shattering, cracking, dulling, overdarken-

82

Heat Treating in Bangkok

Figure 4. These groups illustrate the various

results of heat treatment. It is evident that
many of these stones lack the natural elements
needed to attain good color. Note especially the
mass of melted corundum to the left of the
large blue sapphire in the center row.

ing, or even melting of a stone (figure 4). One can

only imagine the great sums of money that are
lost annually because dealers push their luck and
their stones to the breaking point or misjudge
color possibilities.
The heat treatment of corundum is as much
an art as a science. The practitioners of this art,
in Bangkok at least, all follow different rules, procedures, and formulas. These variations in technology and technique often make the difference
between success and failure. For this reason,
details of successful procedures remain jealously
guarded, the backbone of a fascinating industry.
-

REFERENCES
Bauer M., Spencer L.J. (1904)Precious Stones (translation o f
1896 German text). Charles Griffin& Co., Ltd., London,
p p . 265, 266, and 282.
Church A.H. (1905)Precious Stones. Wyman & Sons, Ltd.,
London, p. 66.
Crowningshield R., Nassau K. (1981)The heat and diffusion
treatment of natural and synthetic sapphires. Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 17, p p . 528-541.
King C.W. (1870)The Natural History of Gems, or Precious
Stones. Bell and Daldy, London, pp. 225, 226, 251.
Mawe J . (1813)A Treatise on Diamonds and Precious Stones.
Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown, London, pp. 67
and 71.
Nassau K. (1981)Heat treating ruby and sapphire: technical
aspects. Gems &> Gemology, Vol. 17, pp. 121-131.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

NOTES

NEW TECHNIQUES
PINPOINT ILLUMINATION:
A CONTROLLABLE SYSTEM OF
LIGHTING FOR GEM MICROSCOPY
By

John I. Koivula

Pinpoint illumination uses a highly flexible but

extremely durable glass fiber-optic bundle that
incorporates six easily interchangeable light wands
of various shapes and cross-sectional thicknesses
down to one millimeter i n diameter. The wands are
hand held and can be used to illuminate hard-toreach areas in complex jewelry ino~intings.With the
pinpoint, ill~lmina
tor, a gemstone can be examined
from any angle; the light source is placed exactly
where i t i s needed, minimizing glare and unwanted
external or internal reflections.

T h e pinpoint illuminator has its earliest roots in

medicine, specifically microsurgery. The author
adapted the lighting system first for use in mineral microscopy, to examine the pits, seams, and
vugs that occur in certain roclzs for interesting
mineral crystals. The hand-held illuminator, with
its interchangeable light wands, enables the microscopist to probe these roclzs as far as 3 cm or
more into very small openings and provides the
light necessary to examine otherwise hidden crystals. When the author subsequently applied this
lighting system to gems, he found that it was extremely useful in revealing inclusions, examining
mounted goods, and reviewing damaged stones.
The illuminator can also be polarized to provide
this special lighting effect in otherwise hard-toreach areas, and offers greater control over thin
films and other reflected light phenomena.

Notes and New Techniques

THE APPARATUS
The pinpoint illuminator consists of a highly flexible, rubber-coated glass fiber bundle that is 175cm (69 in.) long and approximately 2.5 mm in diameter; six separate, easily interchangeable light
wands that slip onto one end of the fiber bundle;
and an adapter that attaches to the other end for
quick conversion of the standard fiber-optic light
source shown in figure 1 into the pinpoint illuminator illustrated in figure 2.
The probe wands, the backbone of the pinpoint system, are constructed of glass fibers with
protective stainless steel shrouds and high-impact, heat-resistant, white plastic sleeves for easy
attachment to the main fiber bundle. Each light
wand is approximately 11.5 cm long. The inside
diameter of the glass-fiber bundles varies from 3.0
mm for the largest to 0.5 mm for the smallest.
The thickest probe is 4.0 mm, and the thinnest
is 1.0 mm, in outside diameter.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Koivula is the senior staff gemologist in the
Gem Identification Department of the Gem Trade
Laboratory, Inc., Santa Monica, CA.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank
Tino Hammid, of the Gem Media Department of
GIA, for the equipment photographs shown in
figures 1 and 2. All other photographs are by the
author.

^I982 Gemological Institute of America

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

83

Figure 1. A standard bifurcated quartz-halogen,

illuminated, fiber-optic light source.

Figure 2. The quartz-halogen illuminator

adapted for pinpoint illumination.

APPLICATIONS
With the pinpoint illuminator, the gem microscopist has at his fingertips a system of highly controllable illumination for practical application in
gemology. The hand-held probes make it possible
to put the light source exactly where it is most
needed for a variety of different tasks (see table 1
and discussion below).

glare produced by the more traditional light

sources. Fluid inclusions can be studied quite
handily by a point-source-transmitted light, allowing close scrutiny of their gaseous, liquid, or
sometimes solid contents.

Viewing Inclusions. With this lighting system,

groups of gas bubbles such as those in figure 3 (or
pinpoint-sized included crystals) are illuminated
readily and efficiently. Larger included crystals
(as in figure 4) can be examined from every angle,
revealing surface-growth details not seen before
that are free from the extraneous hot spots and

TABLE 1. Possible applications for the pinpoint

illuminator.
Searching for tiny, otherwise invisible, inclusions such
as bubbles
Studying the surface details of included crystals to
determine habit and possible identity
In the close examination and study of fluid inclusions
To illuminate gems in closed-back or intricate metal
mountings
Assessing the nature and extent of damage to
gemstones
As a maneuverable source of cool polarized light
As an oblique illuminator to discover and study thin
films
As an additional highlighting source for dark-field,
transmitted, and polarized light photomicrography
As a source of illumination for detailed jewelry
manufacturing
As a watchmaker's light source

84

Notes and New Techniques

Examining Mounted Goods. By placing one of the

light wands at the edge of a stone set in a closedback mounting, the entire interior of the gem is
illuminated without any of the harsh reflections
that make overhead sources of light virtually useless for this task. Separation planes in assembled
stones can be illuminated by simply placing a
light probe at the edge of the plane at an angle
slightly off parallel to the plane (figure 5).
Reviewing Damaged Stones. Determining the nature and extent of damage to gemstones is yet another area where the controllable pinpoint illuminator excels. Surface fractures, pits, chips, and
abrasions can be carefully examined for draglines
or percussion marks by placing the light source
right on the damaged area at the proper angle for
optimum viewing of the subject.
Polarized Light. The illuminator can be polarized
as well, and if an analyzer is placed in the usual
position over the microscope objectives, then we
have a pinpoint source of maneuverable, controllable, polarized light that can be used in the same
way a standard polarizing stage is used, but with
added flexibility. The results of polarized pinpoint illumination, shown in figure 6, look identical to those achieved by conventional polarizing
systems (Koivula, 1981).The difference lies, again,
in the greater flexibility of this system and the
ability t o illuminate areas that would otherwise
remain hidden.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 3 . A flowing stream of gay

bubbles in a blue synthetic glas:
illuminated from the side by
pinpoint illumination
Magnified 60 x

Figure 4 . An elongated included

crystal of olivine in an orangebrown diamond. Note the lack of
glare and extraneous reflections
normally encountered in diamond
photomicrographs. Pinpoint
illumination, magnified 45 X.

Figure 5 , A series of flutiened

bubbles in the cement plane of an
assembled synthetic spinel triplet.
The change of viewing angle
through different facets is
responsible for the change in
appearance of the bubbles. Pinpoint
illumination, magnified 50 x .

Notes and New Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

85

Figure 6. A n included crystal in a natural

Burmese pink spinel is lit b y polarized pinpoint
illumination. The clarity o f this photograph is
startling considering t h e difficult angle of
illumination and the degree of magnification,
1oox.

Thin-Film Effect. Thin films, like the one shown

in figure 7, and other reflected-light phenomena
(Koivula, 1980 and 1981) are more easily discovered and studied with the pinpoint illuminator
because of i t s maneuverability. The unit is used
for oblique illumination in the same way as the
bifurcated fiber optic illuminator shown in figure
1 (Koivula, 1981). However, it is considerably
more difficult to place the metal cable of the
larger fiber optic illuminator in the precise position necessary to achieve an iridescent thin-film
effect in a gemstone.
LIMITATIONS
Since the pinpoint illuminator is designed to be
a hand-held instrument, it is not an ideal source
of illumination for photomicrography unless one
uses a modified bench stand such as a "jeweler's
third hand" to hold the illuminator in a stable
position during the entire cycle of a photographic
exposure. This was in fact done to obtain the photomicrographs shown in figures 3 through 7. The
main limitation of the pinpoint illuminator is
that it is not completely portable. With a 175-cm
reach, it can be used almost anywhere it is needed
within the confines of a standard gemological laboratory, but use elsewhere depends on the availability of an electrical power outlet. Also, the in-

86

Notes and New Techniques

Figure 7. The lace-like pattern of this healing

fracture in a Thai ruby under dark-field
conditions is given additional life in the form
of a brightly colored thin film. The thin-film
interference colors resulted from the
application o f the pinpoint illuminator in an
oblique position. Magnified 45 X ,

strument is not easily packed for long-distance

travel. If the illuminator were freed from its power
source and adapted for use in a portable gemological laboratory, this one limitation could be completely overcome.
CONCLUSION
The pinpoint illumination system has applications for the gem microscopist, the skilled manufacturing jeweler, and the master watchmaker.
Anywhere a pinpoint source of cool, bright, controllable light is needed, the pinpoint illuminator
can be useful. This author sees a broad acceptance
of the pinpoint illuminator in the future of
gemology.

REFERENCES
Koivula J.I. (1980)Thin films-elusive beauty in the world of
inclusions. Gems a> Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 326330.
Koivula J.I. (1981) Photographing inclusions. Gems a> Gemology, Vol. 1.7, NO. 3, pp. 132-142.
The pinpoint illuminator is available through GEM
Instruments Corp., 1735 Stewart Street, Santa
Monica, California 90404.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

RADIOACTIVE IRRADIATED SPODUMENE

By George R , R o s s m a n a n d Y u a n x u n Qiu
During routine testing, a parcel of spodclmene
imported from Brazil was found to be radioactive.
Detailed analysis showed that individual stones
hod levels of gamma ray emission far above those
acceptable for jewelry purposes. Gamma ray
spectroscopy revealed that they had been irradiated
with neutrons. The colors o f these stones are similar to those observed in citrine and have no counterpart in untreated spodumene. They range from
brownish orange through orange to orange-yellow
and greenish yellow.

A parcel of approximately 3,000 carats of faceted

stones purchased as citrine in Sao Paulo, Brazil,
was brought for examination to the Los Angeles
office of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory after it
was observed during recutting that one of the
stones did not respond like quartz. At the laboratory, the parcel was found to contain approximately 700 ct of spodumene; the remainder was
citrine. The citrine-like color of the spodumene
was unusual for that species, ranging from brownish orange through orange to brownish yellow and
orange-yellow with an occasional greenish-yellow
stone (figure 1).Additional testing with a Geiger
counter revealed that the lot of spodumenes was
radioactive. No radioactivity was detected in the
citrine. Three representative spodumenes that
showed readily detectable levels of radiation were
removed from the parcel and forwarded to the laboratories of the California Institute of Technology
for detailed analysis. They consisted of two emerald-cut stones, one greenish yellow and one
orange-yellow, weighing 5.97 and 2.90 ct, respectively, and one orange oval-cut stone weighing
31.8 ct (again, see figure 1).

RADIATION MEASUREMENTS
All three stones indicate radioactivity when tested
with a Geiger counter survey meter. The most
radioactive stone, the greenish-yellow spodumene, registered 0.7 milliroentgens per hour, or
420 counts per minute (cpm) when in contact
with the detector. The large, orange stone had one

Notes and New Techniques

third the activity, while the orange-yellow stone

had one tenth.
The observed count rate varies among different Geiger counters because it is highly dependent on the volume and efficiency of the detector
and the geometrical proximity of the detector to
the stone. For example, the stone that gave 420
cpm with a hand-held Geiger counter survey meter gave 6400 cpm with a more sensitive, largevolume, stationary Geiger counter. Because other
types of laboratory radiation-detection instruments are even more sensitive than Geiger
counters, detailed radiation measurements were
performed with a 100-cubic-centimeter liquid nitrogen-cooled germanium detector, and an 8-in.diameter sodium iodide scintillation detector.
With the germanium detector, the 5.97-ct stone
registered 43,680 cpm; with the scintillation detector, the same stone registered 152,880 cpm.
When the observed count is corrected for the efficiency of the detector, the calculated true emission rate of the stone becomes 870,000 cpm, coming from both beta and gamma radiation.
Because the persistence of the radioactivity
will depend on the half-lives of the radioactive
species, and the penetration power of the radiation will depend on its energy, the identity of
the radioactive elements was determined with a
gamma ray spectrometer employing the germanium detector.
The gamma ray spectrum of the greenishyellow spodumene showed that the isotope scandium-46 (half-life: 84 days) is the primary cause
of the radioactivity. Minor amounts of man-

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Rossman is associate professor of mineralogy, and
Dr. Qlu is research associate in nuclear physics, at the
California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA.
Acknowledgment: The authors thank Robert E. Kane, of
the Los Angeles Gem Trade Laboratory, tor bringing the
irradiated spodumene to their attention and for
providing the details regarding its initial discovery
and testing.

&>I982Gemological Institute ot America

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

87

Figure 1. Samples of radioactive

neutron-irradiated spodiin~ene.The
large orange stone at the top (31.8
ct) was emitling abouf 249,000
gamma rays per minute at the time
of the photograph. The greenishyellow emerald-cut stone directly
below and to the rig11t (5.97 ct)
emitted 870,000 gamma rays per
minute. The third stone discussed
i n this article, a 2.90-ct orangeyellow emerald-cut spodumene, is
directly below and to the right of
the greenish-yellow stone studied.

ganese-54 (half-life: 303 days) and tin-1 13 [halflife: 115 days) were also observed. The activity
from the smaller, orange-yellow spodumene came,
in decreasing order, from manganese-54, tin-113,
zinc-65 (244 days), iron-59 (45 days), antimony125 (2.8 years), antimony-124 (60 days), and cobalt-60 (5.2 years). The large, orange spodumene
contained manganese-54, tin-1 13, zinc-65, antimony-125, iron-59, and tantalum- 182 (115 days].
All of these isotopes emit energetic, penetrating
gamma rays.
Although the radioactivity from the scandium-46 will largely decay within three years, the
presence of the longer half-life isotopes ensures
that these stones will be weakly radioactive for
many years to come. The isotopes in these spodumenes and their half-lives indicate that die
stories had been treated fairly recently with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, apparently the same
treatment given to the radioactive topaz described by Crowningshield (19811.

COLOR
When irradiated, the lavender variety of spodumene, kunzite, turns green, but the color is unstable and fades rapidly in sunlight. Other varieties of spodumene show little or no response to
gamma radiation, which is usually used for such
treatment. Gamma irradiation does not leave residual radioactivity. The orange color of the neutron-irradiated material is unusual and without
natural counterpart in spodumene. It resembles
the color of citrine. The absorption spectrum
shows Fez+features in the infrared portion and an
absorption edge beginning at 720 nm and rising

88

Notes and New Techniques

steadily toward shorter wavelengths (figure 2). A

narrow, barely visible Fe3+ absorption band superimposed at about 438 nm is the only other feature observable. The initial test of the stability of
this color to light produced no visually apparent
fading after six hours' exposure to direct sunlight.
Under the same conditions, green spodumene
would have faded completely.

DETECTION
Any spodumene with a citrine-like color should
be tested for radioactivity. Large parcels of radioactive stones can be readily detected by Geiger
counter survey meters, as can individual stones
of comparatively high activity. However, casual
investigation with a Geiger counter of a single
stone of relatively low radioactivity may fail to
detect its radioactivity. In conducting tests with
a Geiger counter, it is necessary to hold the probe
close to the stone and give the counter enough
time to respond (several seconds). In our tests, a
flat, "pancake" style probe for the Geiger counter
was more than twice as sensitive as the cylindrical probe because of the greater sensitivity of the
flat probe to beta radiation, and its larger sensitive
area.
Because gamma radiation is highly penetrating, it deposits very little energy over the thiclzness of a photographic film. In a test with an
instant film, 20 hours' exposure to the most radioactive stone did not produce an autoradiograph. This contrasts with the response of the
old radium-treated diamonds, which produced autoradiographs rapidly (Hardy, 1949).They emitted
alpha particles which had very limited penetra-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

tion ability and thus deposited most of their energy in the layer of film. Specially formulated dosimeter films with enhanced sensitivity to beta
and gamma radiation exist, but they require special processing and are not available at photographic supply companies. Given that an irradiated gemstone emitting gamma rays will not affect
a film whereas an irradiated diamond emitting
alpha rays would, the reader should not rely on
this test as assurance of the safety of a stone.
DISCUSSION
An emission rate of nearly one million gamma
rays per minute from a gemstone is undesirable
and should be a matter of concern for both buyers
and sellers. Although the levels of radiation are
comparatively low, the use of these stones would
represent a source of radiation to the body that is
both unnecessary and avoidable. To put into perspective the level of radiation that an individual
stone represents, it is useful to compare the most
intensely radioactive spodumene to natural baclzground levels of radiation. If the stone that emits
0.7 milliroentgens per hour were worn in direct
contact with the skin for 10 hours per day, 5 days
per week, in about 2% weeks it would expose the
wearer to an amount of radiation that would normally be received in one year from natural sources
such as cosmic rays and radiation from soil and
air. If it were worn 24 hours per day, seven days
a week, in one year the total dose absorbed by the
body would be about 4.2 rern*. This is above the
United States federal standard for radiation dose
to the general population (0.5 rem per year) but
below the federal standard for occupational exposure of workers (5 rem per year whole body
dose, or 18.75 rern per quarter year for dose to the
extremities such as fingers). A statement from the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission to the effect that
these stones would not be desirable for extended
personal wear was reported by Crowningshield
(1981).
While some investigators conclude that occasional exposure to such low doses does not constitute a significant health risk, others are of the
opinion that even very low doses of radiation present a statistical risk of biological effects (Upton,
' A source emitting 1 roentgen of gamma radialioii
will cause the body to absorb a dose of about 1 rem
(a rern refers to the biological effects of the
radiation).

Notes and New Techniques

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000 1100 1200 1300

WAVELENGTH, nm

Figure 2. Optical absorption spectrum of o w e ,

irradiated spod~lmenetaken with ~lnpolarizedlight
through a 1.2-em path.

1982). Even though the medical implications of

such a stone are debatable and a matter of current
controversy, it would be prudent to avoid the unnecessary exposure to radiation that these stones
represent. This is particularly true for items designed to be worn on the chest or neck which
could expose internal organs to radiation from the
penetrating gamma rays. A dealer who unlznowingly handles hundreds of radioactive stones at a
time is faced with a much less desirable situation.
The dose he receives would depend on many factors, such as length of exposure and proximity of
the stones to the body, but in a day it could reach
the level that an individual with a single stone
would reach in a year. Even though the authors
understand that several efforts are being made by
U.S. regulatory agencies and commercial interests to stop the production of radioactive gemstones, the importance of the recommendation by
Crowningshield (1981) that jewelers who handle
large parcels of gemstones should check their
stones with a Geiger counter is reinforced by the
commercial availability of radioactive spodurnene.

REFERENCES
Crowingshield R, (1981) Irradiated topaz and radioactivity,
Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 17, pp. 215-21 7.
Hardy J.A. (1949) A report on a radioactive diamond. Gems
el) Gemology, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 167-170.
Upton A.C. (1982)The biological effects of low-level ionizing
radiation. Scientific American, Vol. 246, pp. 41-49.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

89

TUGTUPITE: A GEMSTONE
FROM GREENLAND
By Aage Jensen and Ole V. Petersen
T h e red variety of the mineral tugtupite, a rare
silicate closely related to sodalite, has been used as
a gemstone since 1965. This article presents the
history of the mineral and details of its mineralogy
and gemology. A recently discovered light blue
variety of tugtupite is also described. Thus far,
tugiupite has been found in only t w o localities: ( 1 )
Lovozero, Kola Peninsula, U.S.S.R., where i t occurs
as very small1 grains; and (2) Ilimaussaq, South
Greenland, where it has been located at several
places within the Ilimaussaq intrusion. Gem-quality
tugtupite has come almost exclusively from one
occurrence, a set of hydrothermal albite veins from
the Kvanefjeld plateau i n the northwestern corner o f
the Ilimaussaq intrusion.

T h e mineral that is now known as tugtupite was

discovered in 1957 by Professor H. S0rensen in
the coastal cliffs of Tugtup agtalzorfia on the north
coast of the Tunugdliarfilz fjord, South Greenland.
It was first mentioned under the provisional name
"beryllium sodalite" in the reports of the International Geological Congress, Norden (Sgrensen,
1960).
Tugtup agtalzorfia lies within the geologically
famous 1lirnausiaq alkaline intrusion. This
approximately 150-1zm2nepheline syenite intrusion is situated on both sides of the Tunugdliarfilz
fjord a few kilometers to the east of the town of
Narssaq. Close to 200 different minerals have
been described from this intrusion in the period
from 1823 to the present.
Coinciding with the presentation of this new
mineral from South Greenland, a description of
an apparently identical mineral called beryllosodalite was published by Semenov and Bykova
(1960). The material they described came from
the Lovozero intrusion of the Kola Peninsula,
U.S.S.R. At this locality, the mineral is rather rare
and has never been found in masses larger than
3 mm.
Additional data were published by S0rensen
(1963).He concluded that the mineral was a new
species and proposed the name tugtupite, which

90

Notes and New Techniques

is derived from the locality where the mineral

was first found. In 1965, the Commission on New
Minerals and Mineral Names of the International
Mineralogical Association approved both the
mineral and the name.
Dan0 (1966) described the crystal structure of
tugtupite. A detailed description of the crystal
habit, the pseudocubic penetration trillings, and
the numerous localities where tugtupite had been
found from the time that it was first traced at
Tugtup agtalzorfia until 1971 (including the only
one that has produced gem material of any significance) was presented by S0rensen et al. (1971).
Another type of twin, pseudotrigonal contact
trillings, was subsequently described by Petersen
(19781.
The tugtupite from the type locality was
described as white, but Sflrensen (1960)mentions
that the color changes to light pink when the
mineral is exposed to strong sunshine. In 1962,
pink tugtupite was found at Kangerdluarssulz,
South Greenland; but it was only when a deeper
red tugtupite was found at Kvanefjeld, South
Greenland, in 1965 that tugtupite attained gemological interest (figure 1).Thus far, the material
used in jewelry has come almost exclusively from
the locality at Kvanefjeld. Cabochons of red tugtupite were introduced as a new gem material by
the jewelry firm A. Dragsted of Copenhagen in
1965, and presented at the Eleventh International
Gemmological Conference in Barcelona in 1966.
In the first years after its introduction tugtupite was mounted almost exclusively in gold. In
recent years, however, silver mountings have also
become common, as illustrated in figure 2.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Jensen is lecturer at the Institute of Mineralogy of the
University of Copenhagen, and Dr. Pelersen is curator of the
Mineralogy Collection of the Geological Museum, University of
Copenhagen, Denmark,
Acknowledgment: Thanks are due to Dr. J. Bailey who kindly
improved the English of the manuscript.

^I982 Gemological Institute of America

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 1 . Red tugtupite cabochon, 2-51 ct.

Photo by Mike Havstad.

Figure 2. Tugtupite mounted in silver.

This cabochon measures approximately
30 x 15 m m .

MINERALOGY
Most tugtupite is massive; only a few welldeveloped crystals of this rare mineral have been
found, growing on walls of cavities in massive
tugtupite. Such crystals are short, prismatic, and
transparent, they are colorless or pale pink, and
they range in size from 1 x 1 x 1 mm to 3 x 2
x 2 mm. Tugtupite belongs morphologically to
the crystal class 42m: figure 3a shows a drawing
of a slightly simplified idealized crystal; figure 3b
illustrates an idealized contact trilling of tugtupite.

To the authors' knowledge, fewer than 10 cabochons of blue tugtupite have been cut; five small
cabochons (1-5 ct each) have been made in the
polishing laboratory of the Institute of Mineralogy of the University of Copenhagen. Pleochroism has not been observed in the light blue
material.
Tugtupite has a vitreous luster. It has a hardness of 6Y2 on the Mohs scale. There is a weak
cleavage parallel to {101} and {110}. The fracture
is uneven. Tugtupite is generally rather opaque,
but small amounts of red tugtupite have proved
to be transparent enough to be faceted (again, see
figure 4).
Tugtupite is optically positive and is most
often uniaxial, though axial angles as large as 10
have been observed.

Optical and Physical Properties. The color of "red"

tugtupite varies from light pink to dark cyclamen
red (figure 4). Red tugtupite is pleochroic, showing two different hues of dark red, one with a
weak bluish tint and the other with a weak orange
tint.
The color of red tugtupite fades when the stone
is kept in darkness but is regained when the stone
is exposed to sunshine; the color is quickly restored when the stone is exposed to ultraviolet
radiation. Red tugtupite has been used in jewelry
since 1965. Some of the early customers have returned jewelry with faded tugtupite to the firm of
A. Dragsted, where the problem was solved by
exposing the stone to long-wave ultraviolet radiation for 15 minutes. No customer has had
this treatment performed more than once (Ove
Dragsted, personal communication).
So far only the red tugtupite has been used in
jewelry, the white variety has shown no potential
as a gem. Recently, a light blue variety of tugtupite has been found at the Kvanefjeld plateau that
might be of gemological value, but it is very scarce.

Notes and New Techniques

Figure 3. Drawings of (a) an idealized crystal o f

tugtupite and (b)an idealized contact trilling
of tugtupite.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

91

The refractive indices of tugtupite (which were

determined by means of the A - T variation
method on pure material) are: for white tugtupite
from the type locality at Tugtup agtalzorfia, n i =
n y = 1.502 0.002, n u = n a = np = 1.496 ?
0.001 (Sgrensen, 1960); and for the red tugtupite
from the Kvanefjeld plateau, n e = n y = 1.499 ?
0.001, n,,, = n u = no = 1.495 0.001 (Sgrensen
et a]., 1971).The values 1.495 and 1.499 are generally obtained when polished bases of cabochons
are measured on the refractometer. However, faceting-quality material yields slightly lower refractive indices. Measured on the refractometer, polished bases of the light blue cabochons give w =
1.495 and = 1.499.
Sgrensen et al. (1971)gave the density of red
tugtupite as 2.33 0.01 and the calculated density as 2.35. Sixteen cabochons of red tugtupite in
the possession of the Geological Museum vary in
density between 2.27 and 2.44 due to porosity and
the presence of minerals other than tugtupite in
the cabochons. The five light blue cabochons vary
in density between 2.33 and 2.36.
The fluorescence of red tugtupite has been described by Dragsted (1970)as apricot colored when
the stone is exposed to long-wave ultraviolet (U.V.)
radiation and salmon red when exposed to shortwave U.V. radiation. Povarennylzh et al. (1971)
reported that red tugtupite fluoresced yelloworange to long-wave U.V. radiation. Having
investigated most of the red tugtupite in the pos-

session of the Geological Museum of the University of Copenhagen (more than 100 specimens in
total), the present authors prefer to describe the
fluorescence of red tugtupite as dark cyclamen
red with short-wave U.V. radiation and varying
from cinnabar red to light cyclamen red with
long-wave U.V. radiation. Light blue tugtupite
fluoresces light orange-yellow to long-wave U.V.
radiation and light carmine red to short-wave
U.V. radiation, rather similar to some of the red
tugtupite exposed to long-wave U.V. radiation.
It is important to note that the exposure of
light blue tugtupite to U.V. radiation must be of
short duration (no more than 30 seconds), or the
light blue stone will turn light red. This light red
color is not stable, but on fading it leaves a reddish-blue hue that is less attractive than the original light -blue of the stone. The bottom row of
figure 4 shows, from left to right, two unexposed
light blue tugtupites, two light blue tugtupites
that were exposed to ultraviolet radiation the day
before the photo was taken, and one light blue
tugtupite that was exposed to ultraviolet radiation two months before the photo was taken.

Crystallography. According to Dan@(1966), tugtupite belongs to the tetragonal crystal system,

with space group 14. The crystals display positive
piezoelectric effect and lack a positive pyroelectric effect. The unit-cell parameters of tugtupite
show insignificant variations. The unit-cell pa-

Figure 4. Upper row: four

cabochons of dark red
tugtupite. Middle row: t w o
cabochons of light red tugtupite
and three faceted dark red
stones. Bottom row: two
untreated cabochons of light
blue tugtupite, t w o cabochons
of light blue tugtupite that were
exposed to ultraviolet radiation
the day before the photo was
taken, and one cabochon of
light blue tugtupite that had
been exposed to U .V . radiation
two months before the photo
was taken. For scale, the center
stone in the bottom row
measures approximately
7 m m x 10 m m .

92

Notes and New Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

rameters of red tugtupite from the Kvanefjeld plateau are: a = 8.637 0.001 A, c = 8.870 0.002
A (Sflrensonet al., 1971).
The crystal structure of tugtupite is very
closely related to that of sodalite. The formula for
tugtupite is NagAlaBeaSigOz4
(ClISja,while that of
sodalite is NagAl,jSifi02,,C12.
A comparison of the
two reveals a substitution of BeSi for AlAl in the
sodalite structure; this accounts satisfactorily for
the lower symmetry of tugtupite.

OCCURRENCE
Since tugtupite was first discovered in 1957, in
very sparse amounts, at Tugtup agtalzorfia, it has
been found in a rather large number of places all
over the' Ilimaussaq intrusion. Thus far, though,
only one site-in the northwesternmost part of
the intrusion-has produced gem material of any
significance.
When this gem-quality material was first discovered in 1965, access to the locality included
a rough ride by car from the town of Narssaq,
along the Narssaq River, to the foot of the Kvanefjeld plateau. From here, a half-hour walk, including a 300-m ascent along a well-marked path,
brought one to the top of the scenic plateau in the
immediate vicinity of the occurrence. Figure 5
shows the view to the east from the occurrence.
In 1979 the road was extended in connection with
prospecting activity in a potential uranium deposit. It now winds in narrow steep curves, close

Notes and New Techniques

to the old path, up to less than 100 m from the

top of the plateau. The entire occurrence covers
an area no more than 25 x 5 m, with the tugtupite
scattered in a set of highly irregular hydrothermal
veins, up to 0.5 m wide, intersecting the augite
syenite country rock. These veins are mainly
composed of fine-grained albite; they may be
zoned, with tugtupite concentrated in the central
part, but tugtupite can also be found disseminated
in the immediately surrounding syenite. The intense cyclamen red tugtupite occurs as angular
patches up to as large as 10 cm across. Figure 6
shows the major horizontal vein as it appeared in
July 1968.
Of the numerous other minerals found in the
vein, the most important are aegirine, epistolite,
sphalerite, pyrochlore, neptunite, and chlzalovite.
Figure 6. The major vein for gem-quality
tugtupite, July 1968.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

93

Substantial amounts of tugtupite were taken

from this locality in the years immediately following its discovery, and particularly large
amounts of material were taken by the Geological
Museum, Copenhagen, in 1969 and 1975.

THE CURRENT
STATUS OF
GEM TUGTUPITE
No private claims cover the occurrence of tugtupite at the Ilimaussaq intrusion. Prior to 1979,
when home rule for Greenland was established,
the area was under the jurisdiction of the Danish
government, which held the rights to the uranium deposit inside of which tugtupite occurs.
However, a special paragraph in the mining law
gave residents of the area the right to use certain
types of raw material, and intense juridical considerations were devoted to this subject with no
definitive settlement. Today all rights, except for
collecting under the auspices of the Geological
Survey of Greenland for scientific purposes, belong
to the community council of the town of Narssaq.
Collecting and mining of tugtupite have been
carried out by anyone able to get near the occurrence. All types of mining methods have been
used-picking chips with nothing but bare hands,
using hammer and chisel, bringing in drilling
equipment, and even dynamiting. Consequently,
it is virtually impossible to estimate the amount
of gem material that has been mined. Judging
from the pieces of jewelry with tugtupite that can

94

Notes and New Techniques

be seen in Greenland and Denmark, we are dealing with relatively large amounts.
More tugtupite, blue as well as red, occurs in
the area, but right now the locality where gemquality material has been found seems to be exhausted. However, renewed mining undoubtedly
will unveil new veins with more gem tugtupite.
Once the decision is made to start mining for
uranium on the Kvanefjeld plateau, hitherto unseen opportunities to find new occurrences will
arise.

REFERENCES
Dan0 M. (1966) T h e crystal structure of tugtupite
NaaAl,Be,SisO,,.,(Cl,S),. A d a Crystallographica, Vol. 20,
pp. 812-816.
Dragsted 0. (1970)Tugtupite. 1oiirnaI o f Gemmology, Vol. 12,
No. 1, pp. 10-1 1.
Petersen O.V. (1978)T h e twin formation of tugtupite, a contribution. Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 42, pp. 251-254,
Povarennykh AS., Platonov A.N., Tarashchan A.N., Belichenko V.P. (1971) T h e colour and lun~inescenceof tugtupite (beryllosodalite) from Ili'maussaq, South Greenland.
Meddelelser om Gr@nland,Vol. 181, No. 14, pp. 1-12.
Semenov E.I., Bykova A.V. (1960) {Beryllosodalite}. Dolzlady
Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol. 133, pp. 1191-1193 [in Russian).
Sgrensen H. (1960) Beryllium minerals i n a pegmatite in the
nepheline syenites of Iliinaussaq, South West Greenland.
Report of the 21st International Geological Congress, Norden, Vol. 17, pp. 31-35.
Sgrensen H. (1963) Beryllium minerals i n a pegmatite i n the
nepheline syenites of Ilimaussaq, South West Greenland.
Report of the 21st International Geological Congress, Norden, Vol. 27, Contribution to discussions, pp. 157-159.
Sgrensen H., Dan@ M., Petersen O.V. (1971) O n the mineralogy and paragenesis of tugtupite Naa~iBeiSiBOa.i(Cl,S)a
from the Ilimaussaq alkaline intrusion, South Greenland.
Meddelelser om Grijinland, Vol. 181, pp. 1-38.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

CARVING GEM-QUALITY OPAL

By Theodore Grussing
Gem-quality opal poses special problems for the
carver that are not encountered when working with
l o w - ~ u a l i t ymaterial. Herein the author uses three
examples to explore these differences and the
implications for success or failure i n the final piece.

Traditionally, opal carvings have been created

from low-quality, commercial-grade opal that has
little or no play of color and is relatively inexpensive. Consequently, neither orientation to maximize the play of color nor weight loss is a source
of concern. In the carving of low-grade opal, the
primary objective is to display the artist's skill,
all other considerations are secondary. Indeed,
some carvers prefer to work on low-grade opal
because they feel that a substantial play of color
tends to obscure the details of the carving, which
is a hallmark of their skill.
Opal dealers also have generally shied away
from having their gem-quality rough carved. To
begin with, gem-quality opal represents a very
small percentage of all opal mined, and large pieces
(generally 30 grams and up) are rare. The gemstone market usually snaps these pieces up
quickly because they yield large stones and
matching sets of gemstones for jewelry. Few gem
materials are as difficult to match stones in as
opal because of the highly distinctive colors,
which vary in intensity and pattern from stone to
stone. The larger piece of gem rough will usually
yield matching stones, and will frequently give a
higher percentage of recovery than small pieces.
By contrast, there is often no ready market for
large pieces of low-grade opal, and carvings have
been one of the best utilizations of this type of
material.
In recent years, a number of collectors have
begun to seek gem-quality opal carvings in their
desire to have a prized work of art that is also a
fine gemstone. The carving of gem-quality opal,
however, has special problems that are usually
not encountered with the lower-quality material.
Several of these are examined below together with

Notes and New Techniques

a description of three examples of success-and

failure-in sculpting this material.
KEY CONSIDERATIONS
BEFORE CARVING BEGINS
Once the decision has been reached to carve a
large piece of gem-quality opal, several problems
not normally associated with the carving of opal
arise. First, the subject matter must be oriented
in the material to maximize the play of color and
yet not unduly detract from the detail of the
carving. Second, the carving should be designed
in such a way that it will retain the maximum
amount of this valuable material. Selection of a
highly skilled gem carver is also of paramount
importance, particularly one with whom you can
effectively comn~unicate,given the seriousness of
the project. The author has worked closely with
carver Shan Gimn Wang on a number of pieces;
Mr. Wang shared many of the details of carving
opal described below.
THE CARVING PROCESS
In carving opal, most carvers, including Mr. Wang,
employ a variety of sintered and plated diamond
tools in a flex shaft or permanently mounted
arbor to rough out the shape of the carving. The
piece is kept cool with water, as overheating of
opal at any stage can be disastrous given the risk
of vaporizing the natural water content of the
- -

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Grussing is an attorney in Huntington Beach, California.

He also is an owner of BGN Ltd., a firm specializing in gem
opal.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to express his deep
gratitude to Messrs. Shan Gimn Wang and Hing Wa Lee for
their efforts in educating him in the art of gem carving and to
the many clients who have tutored him in their respective
fields of expertise in the gem and mineral trade. Special
thanks to May. George W. Owens, USAF, Ret., and to Mr.
Cleveland C. Weil, who first introduced him to the beauty and
mysteries of opal. Thanks also to Mr. Mike Waitzman and Mr.
Tino Hammid ol GIA Gem Media for their excellent job in
photographing the figures in this article. Anyone who has ever
tried to photograph opal knows what an exacting task it is.
V982 Gemological Institute of America

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

95

Figure 1 . O n e side of t h e Royal Peacocks.

T h e carving weighs 504 c t a n d measures
86 x 34 x 57 r n m . Photo b y T i n o
Hatnmid.

material, causing it to crack or pop. After the

carving has been roughed out, with particular
attention paid to the orientation of the color in
the subject matter, the carver begins the polishing
process. Some carvers prefer to use diamond paste
for the entire procedure; others use a variety of
Cratex wheels and water for coolant, and then
finish with a slurry of cerium oxide on felt and
loose cloth wheels. Fine results may be obtained
with either method, but more care must be taken
when diamond paste is used, again because of the
risk of overheating the material. Cerium oxide
tends to erode detail in the carving, so not infrequently the carver must go back and redo small
detail areas when cerium oxide is used as the polishing agent.
Generally speaking, the greatest amount of
time spent on a gem-opal carving is in prelim-

96

Notes and New Techniques

inary study of the material and in roughing out

the carving. In the first instance, the carver must
attempt to "read" the rough material to determine where the color bars go, whether the material is clean, and, if not, where faults and/or
imperfections in the stone are located. After the
stone has been charted, a subject must be chosen
that will best fit the material, take optimum
advantage of the play of color anticipated, and
remove flawed areas. After an acceptable subject
is sketched both on paper and on the opal rough,
the diamond bits are used to begin the carving. As
the stone is opened up, the carver must be prepared to alter design and orientation depending on
what he actually finds inside. Once the actual
carving is completed, the final step is simply a
matter of polishing. In a carving like "The Royal
Peacocks" (figure l), fully 75% of the approxi-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 2. Gem-quality opal rough from which

the Royal Peacocks w a s carved. Photo b y Tino
Hammid.

Figure 3. Design sketched on partially carved

opal rough of the Royal Peacocks. Photo b y
Tino Hammid.

mately 100 hours that went into this piece was

spent on charting the stone and roughing out the
subject.
The balance of this article will deal with three
carvings: The Royal Peacocks, by Shan Gimn
Wang, who carves for Lapidary International, Inc.,
of Anaheim, California; a. black opal snuff bottle,
by Hing Wa Lee of Whittier, California; and one
that will be referred to here as the "Disaster," by
an unnamed but hopefully wiser carver. Each
example illustrates a different aspect of carving
gem opal.

mately 365 m x 914 m (400 yards x 1000 yards)

and is bisected by the road to Adelaide. Until
about 1972, the field was little more than an auto
dump. Because of its close proximity to the city
(about 1 lzm from the saloon) and its location
along the major road into town, the city fathers
had the area cleaned up. The rough that was eventually transformed into the Royal Peacocks was
found in a freak pocket at about the 1.25-m level
on top of the Hard Band level (a layer composed
of jasper and gypsum that is difficult to penetrate;
the opal levels are generally below this layer).
The rough was purchased by the author in the
summer of 1981 as a high-risk piece: although
the opal showed numerous, potentially beautiful
thick red bars, there were indications that the
bars might be sandshot (i.e., granules of sand or
dirt would be lodged in the silica gel of which opal
is comprised]. No amount of "candling" with a
strong light behind the stone helped, and the only
way to know for sure was to cut into the material.
Because of the doubt about the cleanliness of

THE ROYAL PEACOCKS

This very fine piece, shown in figure 1, weighs
504 ct and measures 86 x 34 x 57 mm. The piece
of rough from which it was created weighed
slightly more than 700 ct and is shown in figure
2. The opal was mined in 1978 by Paul "Gopher"
Fraser and Ian "Gunna" Fraser from the Black
Flag field in Coober Pedy, South Australia. The
Black Flag field encompasses an area of approxi-

Notes and New Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

97

the red bars, the author sold the piece to a friend

who was willing to take the risk. Shortly thereafter, the decision was made to carve the material.
Shan Gimn Wang was commissioned to do the
carving, through Lapidary International. After
studying the opal for several weeks, Mr. Wang
proposed several viable plans based on his lznowledge that the central area, as previously mentioned, was comprised of numerous thiclz, straight
red bars and the sides of the piece were potch
[common opal, no play of color) with several
undulating bars and swirls of intense blue and
green in them. The idea that appeared most promising was to use both outer sides in a heavy relief
carving, and to cautiously expose the underlying
red bars; if the finished carving was to reach its
maximum potential, these bars would have to be
exposed substantially and they would have to be
good, clean material, not sandshot. Peacocks were
selected as the subject matter of the relief carving.
Mr. Wang determined that peacoclzs would give
him the greatest artistic freedom to use the
undulating color bars and, too, that the colors in
this area of the opal were very similar to those
found in the live birds. Also of great importance
was the ability to adjust the positioning of the
peacoclzs depending on the colors and their orientation. Figure 3 shows the design on the opal
shortly after the rough carving process had been
started.
Soon after work began, the choice was confirmed, and it also became apparent that the red
bars were clean, not sandshot. One major surprise
was the uncovering of a thin, but extremely
intense, lime-green color bar, which serves as the
background for the peacock on the other side of
this piece.
This carving illustrates the extraordinary skill
required in carving gem opal, an intertwining of
the sculptor's art and the very strong play of color
of the stone. The weight retention was nearly
72%. This carving is currently on loan to the Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History.

been exposed, but it was obvious that the original

carver had at least partially hollowed it out. Two
questions arose: (1) Would there be sufficient
thickness left when the piece was recarved to
expose the color bar? and (2) Would the bar display strong play of color? After examining the
piece, skilled carver Hing Wa Lee reported that
there was a reasonable possibility of salvaging it
and exposing the beauty of the hidden color bar.
The result of his reworking of this piece is pictured in figure 4. The color bar is now exposed
and the bottle takes on new life: strong electric
blues and greens roll across the surface, with
some reds as well. It has been estimated that the
value of the carving was increased by a factor of
seven even with a weight loss of over 25%. This
black-opal carving, weighing just over 100 ct, is
currently on loan to the Los Angeles County
Museum of Natural History.

Figure 4. Black opal snuff bottle after being

recurved, 100 c t . Photo by Tino Hammid.

BLACK-OPAL SNUFF BOTTLE

Some time ago, a friend of the author purchased
a snuff bottle of black opal that was so poorly
carved and polished that almost no play of color
was present on its face. There was, however, a
strong, reasonably thiclz color bar of blue, green,
and some red on the sides running under the face
of the bottle. It did not appear that the bar had

98

Notes and New Techniques

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 5. Although the actual workmanship on

this piece is good, the carver has eliminated
the play of color and thus destroyed the in~pact
of the opal. Photo by Tino Hammid.

Figure 6. In this opal carving, the carver has

fully utilized the play of color in the stone to
highlight the subject matter; 34 x 31 x 14
mm, 130 ct. Photo by Tino Hamlnid.

THE "DISASTER"
The play of color in opal is the primary source of
its value as a gem material; this factor is further
refined into intensity of color, number of colors,
which colors, color patterns, percentage of coverage in color, trueness of color, whether or not
the color is directional, and so on, but in the end
it all boils down to color.
In the previous two examples, Messrs. Wang
and Lee optimized the value of the opal entrusted
to them by using their highly refined skills to
work with the opal. This last example shows how
a person, though skilled in the art of gem carving,
proved inept in dealing with the play of color in
fine opal and caused irreparable harm to a collector's piece.
The anonymous carver was given a fine piece
of Olympic material (Olympic field, Coober Pedy,
South Australia) to work with. The rough opal
weighed approximately 800 ct and was a solid
chunky piece with numerous strong color bars in
it. It was anticipated that a magnificent carving
would emerge, displaying strong and uniform play
of color. The result was, literally, a disaster: the

collector who owned the piece received a very

fine carving, from the point of cleanliness and
detail, but the stone had virtually no play of color.
Indeed, it appeared that the carver had set out to
destroy color wherever it surfaced and left it buried
under potch wherever he was unable to drill it
out. The weight loss of over 65% was greater than
would have occurred if the stone had been cut
into cabochons. The result (shown in figure 5) is
a nicely carved piece of opal that shows very little
play of color and is worth a fraction of what it
could have been. Figure 6 illustrates the results
in similar material when the carver (in this case,
Mr. Wang) makes full utilization of the play of
color.

Notes and New Techniques

CONCLUSION
The carving of gem-quality opal requires a highly
skilled artisan who knows how to utilize the play
of color in his art. In the final analysis, it is the
play of color in opal that determines its value, and
one who is skilled in bringing this color out and
properly orienting it in his carving will greatly
enhance the value of the finished piece.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

99

TWO NOTABLE COLOR-CHANGE GARNETS

By Carol M . Stoclzton
T w o garnets exhibiting unusually strong changes of
color are discussed. Changes in color appearance are
observed to occur not only between different light
sources but also between reflected and transmitted
illumination from the same light source. The
gemological properties and chemical compositions
of these t w o stones are noted and compared.

I n the course of the study on garnets currently

being pursued by the GIA Department of Research, we have had the opportunity to examine
many color-change garnets. Recently we were
shown two exceptionally fine examples from East
Africa that are worthy of special note. Both of
these stones were in the form of water-worn pebbles; stone A weighs 5.72 ct and stone B weighs
3.50 ct and is one of the finest examples of alexandrite-like garnet we have seen. Both stones show
change in color from diffuse daylight or fluorescent light to diffuse incandescent light. In addition, both stones change color depending on
whether the light is transmitted through the specimen or reflected from its interior surface, an observation first made by D. V. Manson. Stone A
changes from greenish-yellowish brown in transmitted fluorescent light (figure la, left) to purplish red in reflected fluorescent light (lb, left). In
incandescent light, it changes from reddish orange
in transmitted (Ic, left] to red in reflected (Id, left]
light. Stone B, with fluorescent illumination, is
light bluish green in transmitted light (la, right)
and purple in reflected light (lb, right); in incandescent light, it changes from light red in transmitted (lc, right) to purplish red in reflected (Id,
right) light.
It must be noted that the combination of the
sensitivity of these stones to subtle changes in
the wavelengths of lighting and the difficulty of

Figure 1. Color-change garnets A (left) and B

(right) i n transmitted fluorescent light (a),
reflected fluorescent light (b), transmitted
incandescent light (c), and reflected
incandescent light (d).

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ms. Stockton is research gemologist at the Gemolog~cal
Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank Tino Hammid
of GIA Gem Media for the fine photography. Special thanks
are extended to Gene and Steven Dente and to Campbell
Bridges for the loan of their garnets.
"1 982 Gemological Institute of America

100

Notes and New Techniques

accurately reproducing color on photographic film

resulted in some anomalies between the appearance of these stones in this article and their natural appearance to the eye.
The other properties of these stones are shown
in table 1, and reveal some very interesting difGEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

- -

TABLE 1. Data for the two color-change garnets.

Properties

Stone A

Gemological
Refractive index
Specific gravity
Spectra (nm)
Absorption bands

1.773
3.98

Maximum transmission
Maximum absorption
Oxide composition (%)
Mgo
CaO
MnO
FeO
Alz03
v203

crz03

Stone B

504.5
692.5
526.0
676.0
450,O
563,O
2.25
7.83
25.59
5.12
21.33
0.15
0.23
38.04
0.20

SiO,
TiO,
End-member composition (%)
Schorlomite
0
Andradite
0
Mn3V2Si30,,
0.55
Uvarovite
0.71
Pyrope
7.51 ,
Spessartite
59.02
Grossular
20.33
Almandite
11.83
ferences and similarities. Both stones have significant amounts of VzO:land Crz03,which translate to Mn.iV2Si30,z*and Ca3Cr2Si30i2
[uvarovite),
but stone B contains considerably more of these
two components. Both garnets contain more spessartite than any other end member. Both also
have unusually high amounts of grossular for
stones that would otherwise be considered members of the subgroup pyralspite. However, the two
garnets differ markedly in pyrope and almandite
content. Stone A has more almandite than pyrope, but stone B has considerably more of the latter. The lower refractive index and specific gravity obtained for stone B undoubtedly result from
the high pyrope and lower spessartite and almandite contents of this sample.
With the use of the hand spectroscope, we observed complete absorption at the short wavelength end of the spectrum up to about 445 nm,
'Technically speaking, MnJ,Si:Q,, is not an end
member, as it has never been observed to comprise
more than 50% of any naturally occurring garnet, but
for convenience of description w e use it as though it
were a garnet end-member composition.

Notes and New Techniques

Wavelength (nm)
Figure 2 . Graphs of the absorption spectra of
garnets A and B .

as well as a definite thin band of absorption a t

about 690 nm, probably associated with the presence of chromium. Stone A, but not stone B, also
shows a strong absorption band at 500 nm. Use
of the spectrophotometer enabled us to locate
these bands more accurately (figure 2). The general shape of both spectral curves resembles those
observed elsewhere (Schmetzer et al., 1980). Maximum absorption occurs in two areas: (1)extending from about 450 n m to the short wavelength
end of the visible spectrum; and (2)at around 560
to 575 n m between two major regions of transmission, one centered around 500 to 530 n m and
the other increasing in transmission from about
670 nm to the long wavelength end of the visible
spectrum. This pattern has been observed in the
past with color-change garnets that were primarily pyropes in composition, whereas these two
stones contain more spessartite than any other
component.
These unusual two stones will also be included in a thorough study of color-change garnets to be presented at a later date.

REFERENCE
Schmetzer K . , Bank H . , Gubelin E. (1980)The alexandrite e f fect in minerals: chrysoberyl, garnet, corundum, fluorite.
Neues lahrbuch flir ~WineralogieAbhundlangen,Vol. 138,
p p . 147-164.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

101

EDITOR

Chuck Fryer
G I A , Santa Monica

LAB NOTES

CONTRIBUTING EDITORS

Robert Crowningshield
Gem Trade Laboratory. New York

Karin N . Hurwit
G e m Trade Laboratory, Santa Monica

Robert E. Kane
Gem Trade Laboratory, Los Angeles

ALEXANDRITE
An unusual feature was noted during the examination of an 8.12-ct
natural alexandrite in our Los Angeles lab. When this stone was
viewed with the microscope, the
number 15 was seen, scratched on
a pavilion facet (figure 1).This questionable method of marking is employed by some private collectors,
institutions, and even museums to
catalogue their collections of gemstones and carvings. Fortunately, it
is rare that we in the laboratory see
stones n~arlzedthis way. Surely an
accurate description, together with
three measurements to the nearest
hundredth of a millimeter and the
weight to the nearest point, would
serve to positively identify a stone.
There is no need to damage it by
such inscriptions.

DIAMOND
Gem testers must remember to look
for evidence of cyclotron treatment
in fancy-shaped stones, especially if
the color of the stone does not appear to be treated. For example, the
yellow-green of the pear-shaped diamond seen i n figure 2 is a color
not normally expected of cyclotron
treatment. All fancy orange-brown
diamonds should routinely be examined for evidence of top-only cyclotron treatment since this color is
frequently encountered in stones
treated by this method. When the
"'1 982 Gemological Institute 01 America

102

Lab Notes

I
Figure 1 . Identifying numbers
scratched on a pavilion facet
of an alexandrite. Magnified
25 x.

Figure 2. A cyclotron-treated
diamond of unusual color.
Magnified 10 X.
stone is viewed through the pavilion, this type of treatment shows up
as a line of color just in from the
table and star facet edges. In most
cases, no spectroscopic evidence is
present in these top-treated stones.
If such a stone is mounted, particularly in a gypsy setting, it is entirely possible to overlook the telltale evidence and pronounce the
stone naturally colored in the absence of an identifying absorption
spectrum.

It should come as no surprise to

gemologists who have been keeping
up with advances in diamond irradiation and annealing to occasionally see treated brown or yellow
stones that lack the 592 n m * absorption line in the spectrum a t ordinary room temperature.

EMERALD FAKES
Some time ago a small lot of emeralds was submitted to the Los Angeles laboratory for identification.
Subsequent testing showed all but
one of the stones to be natural emeralds with minor amounts of oil
present. The exception proved to be
a natural beryl that was coated with
a green substance that imparted
most, if not all, of the color to the
stone.
This treatment was seen very
easily under magnification when the
gemologist looked through the stone
and examined the opposite surface,
as shown in figure 3. The areas where
the coating has worn off reveal the
near-colorless nature of the original
stone, whereas the green areas indicate where the treatment still
remains.

'In accordance with standard

international practice, GIA has
adopted the use of nanometers
(nm) in place of angstrom units
(A) for the measurement of
wavelengths in the visible light
region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Note that the
conversion is 1 nm = 10 A.

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 3 . Green coating on

near-colorless beryl, imitating
emerald. Magnified 36 x .
I*

The green coating flaked off very

easily with the pin end of the brush
probe, and it melted when checked
with a thermal reaction tester. When
the stone was then tested with a
cotton swab saturated with acetone,
a very noticeable green stain appeared on the cotton swab. The indications are that the coating is some
type of paint (like that used on glass)
although similar results have been obtained with green cement or plastic.
Several months after this cut
stone was tested, we had the opportunity to examine two rough beryl
crystals (weighing 15.1 and 10.91 ct,
respectively) that had been treated
in a very similar manner (figure 4).
O n these crystals the green coating
had been partially removed from the
flat surfaces and was present mostly
in surface fractures, cavities, and
depressions. As with the cut stone
described above, the coating flaked
off with the brush probe, stained the
acetone-soaked swab, and melted in
response to a thermal reaction tester.

&

GROSSULARITE GARNET

Figure 5. Strand of pink and green grossularite beads, each

approximately 9 m m i n diameter.

LU

m. &
Figure 4. Beryl crystals treated in a manner similar to the stone
illustrated in figure 3.

We had nearly forgotten that translucent grossularite garnet occurs in

pink as well as green until a beautiful strand of the material, with alternating green and pink beads approximately 9 m m in diameter, was
submitted to the New York laboratory for testing (figure5).It had been
offered to the client as "rare jade."

Lab Notes

JADEITE, Dangers of Heating

during Jewelry Repair

The Los Angeles laboratory received

for identification a lady's ring set
with a 14.95 x 10.85 x 2.80 m m
mottled white-and-green oval cabo-

..

-.~

chon center stone and several diamond side stones (see figure 6). The
client explained that the center stone
had changed color, in this case from
a relatively even medium green to
predominantly white with splotches
of green, while the ring was being

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

103

that looked very similar to the apatites often found as inclusions in almandite garnet. One of the larger
crystals came to the surface of the
gem's pavilion; it was possible to
scrape this inclusion and obtain
enough powder to make a spindle
for X-ray powder diffraction. The
diffraction pattern showed that the
inclusions were in fact apatite.
Figure 7. Apatite crystals in
kornerupine. Magnified 40 x.
Figure 6. Loss of color in heatdamaged jadeite ring. Stone
measures 14,95 x 10.85 x 2.80
m m thick.
repaired with a torch. Subsequent
testing proved the stone to be natural-colored jadeite. This accident
could have been prevented if the
jeweler had possessed a fuller understanding of the effects of heat on
jadeite.
T o circumvent unnecessary accidents such as these, a good rule of
thumb to follow is never to heat any
gemstone other than diamond and
then only when the proper precautions have been taken, such as
cleaning the diamond thoroughly
and giving it a protective coating.
Most diamonds that are in frequently worn jewelry accumulate
foreign substances, such as oils and
soaps, particularly on pavilion surfaces. When they are subjected to
high temperatures, such as would be
encountered in retipping a prong, the
foreign substances often become
charred. These charred surfaces usually have to be boiled in a sulfuric
acid bath to be removed; in more
severe cases, where the surface of
the stone is oxidized, the diamond
must be repolished.

OPAL
Flow Structure in Opal
A large, natural, transparent to semitransparent, brownish-orange opal
double cabochon brought to the
Santa Monica laboratory for identification proved to be quite interesting. The central portion of the opal
contained a large, seinitranslucent,
white subspherical inclusion, which
occupied approximately 50% of the
entire volume of the opal. Trailing
down the sides of the white inclusion were numerous smoke-like
dark brown to black steamers, as
shown in figure 8. The central white
inclusion could possibly be cristobalite, another form of silica, but no
tests could be carried out to prove
its nature. The smoky veiling could
possibly be explained as remaining
traces of the original flowing in the
once-fluid silica.
Oolitic Opal
The Santa Monica laboratory recently tested a seinitranslucent-to-

Figure 8. Dark streamers in

opal. Transmitted light,
magnified 50 X .
opaque polished slab that showed a
play of color and proved to be a rare
variety of natural opal called oolitic
opal. This type of opal shows an unusual circular structural appearance
under magnification, as illustrated
in figure 9. Some people have put
forth the hypothesis that i t might be
the result of opalization of a calcar-

Figure 9. Oolitic oval structure. Magnified 25 X.

KORNERUPINE with
Apatite Inclusions
The Santa Monica laboratory examined a 1.68-ct grayish-green, oval,
rnixed-cut lzomerupine. The gem contained numerous slightly rounded,
transparent, near colorless-appearing hexagonal prisms (see figure 7)

104

Lab Notes

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

eous ooze or an oolitic limestone. At

first glance, oolitic opal can easily
be mistaken for sugar-treated opal,
but under magnification the distinctive circular structure will serve to
identify it. Also observed in this gem
were what appeared to be a number
of opaque, white to brownish white,
rhoinbohedral-shaped included crystals that appeared to have the external morphology of calcite or some
similar carbonate.
Opal Doublet
A 6.12-ct baroque-shaped opal cabochon was submitted to the Los
Angeles laboratory for identification. When the stone was viewed
with the unaided eye, a very attractive play of color was seen on the
top of the stone and the typical ironstone matrix was observed on the
back, leading one to believe that it
might be a boulder opal.
Closer examination with the
microscope revealed an assembled
stone that had a thin brown layer
with several very small patches
showing play of color in the layer
between the opal top and the matrix
back. This layer was very soft and
had several hemispherical cavities,
probably formed by air bubbles (see
figure 10). T o minimize damage to
the area, we scraped off a very small
amount with a razor blade for testing with the thermal reaction tester.
The substance melted easily when
the hot point was applied, thus
proving it to be some type of ce-

Figure 10. Hemispherical

cavities in ihe cement layer of
an opal doublet. Magnified
12 X.

Lab Notes

H
1
,

Figure 11. Shells approximately 38 to 52 m m long that contain

pearls.

ment, formulated to resemble the

-ironstone backing.
Although somewhat infrequently,
we have seen this type of assembled
opal before. One interesting feature
of this imitation ironstone cement
is that it usually contains small
patches showing play of color. This
is apparently accomplished by adding very small pieces of crushed opal
to the cement.
--

PEARLS
Mysterious Pearls in Shells
The New York laboratory received
for testing several small (38 to 52
m m long) nacreous shells, of an unknown species, in which a pearl or
blister pearl appeared near the adductor musclescar (figure 11). The
lab was unable to determine whether
the "pearls" occurred naturally or
were induced by man. X-ray photographs indicated natural pearls. Many
of the "pearls" i n the shells were not
completely attached to the shell, and
one appeared to be cemented to the
shell, The client could not provide
any information about these mysterious objects.

Unusual Natural Pearl

A large (26 mm), undrilled, baroque-

shaped pearl was brought into the

Santa Monica laboratory for X-ray
identification. For its size, the pearl
was extremely light in weight and
had a distinct, rather strong, disagreeable odor. X-radiography revealed that the pearl was natural
and completely hollow, with only a
very thin surface shell, approximately 1-3 mm thick. The pearl appeared extremely delicate and would
probably be difficult to set. The odor
suggests that the irritant that caused
the pearl was perhaps an organic
fleshy material that did not appear
on the X-ray but was in the process
of decaying.

RUBY, Synthetic Star

CIA'S faceting instructor, Bill Kerr,

had in his possession a boule of German-produced synthetic corundum.
After rounding the larger end and
polishing same, he noticed how the
three rays crossed each other to form
the expected 6-ray star and then extended down the sides of the rough
boule still attached. This inspired

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

105

the attempt to cut a cat's-eye stone

oriented 90' to the c-axis of the boule
that created the 6.23-ct synthetic
cat's-eye ruby shown on the left in
figure 12. O n the right of this double-exposure photograph is the same
stone viewed on the end and parallel
to the c-axis. One-half of the star is
now visible.
Another section of the same
boule (toward the bottom] that was
later worked into a stone contained
part of the transparent seed crystal
with a shallow overgrowth of the
asteriated material. This material
when cut produced a weak star with
an open center caused by the nonasteriated seed-crystal section, a
very unusual stone indeed (see figure 13).

SAPPHIRE
Dangers of Heating Sapphires
during Jewelry Repair
Several months ago a client sent to
the Los Angeles laboratory a man's
ring set with an 11.20 x 9.10 x 7.08
rnm light yellow, oval, mixed-cut
center stone and numerous diamond
side stones. The client explained that
during the resizing process the stone
had changed color from a beautiful
intense yellow to a light greenish
yellow (see figure 14).The client was
very puzzled by this change of color
due to heating and questioned whether
the stone was in fact a natural vellow sapphire. Testing, however, did
prove it to be a natural sapphire.
Unfortunately, we hear of cases
like this quite often (see "Jadeite"
above for another example).The fact
that sapphires and many other gemstones may lose or change color if
heated, or even worse may fracture
or break, is not fully understood by
some jewelers and repairpeople.
Occasionally, we see rubies or
sapphires that have etched surfaces.
These damaged surfaces occur when
repair work is done on an article of
jewelry without removing the corundum from the setting. Damage
results from the stone coming into
contact with the usual fluxes con-

106

Lab Notes

Figure 12. Unusual cat's-eye synthetic ruby, 6.23 ct. V i e w on left

shows the sharp eye on the lop of the stone; view on right shows
the end of this cabochon and half of the would-be star.

Figure 13. Synthetic star ruby

(4.22 ct) cut from a piece near
the bottom o f the boule from
which the stone in figure 12
was cut. Note that the rays of
the star do not meet in the
center of the stone.

taining boron, in which corundum

is soluble. Under high temperatures
these fluxes, whether they are used
as protective coatings or in pickling
acids, become more active and may
seriously attack and partly dissolve
the surface of the stone. To prevent
etched surfaces, the safest precaution is to remove the corundum before the mounting is repaired or
pickled.

Figure 14. Heat alteration t o

greenish yellow i n a natural
yellow sapphire, 11.20 x 9.10
x 7.08 m m .

Natural Sapphire
with Heat-Induced Star
Figure 15 shows the first inducedstar sapphire submitted to the New
York lab since the Linde Air Products Co. last submitted stones in
1968. This stone was evidently a
product of the Linde patent no.
2,690,630 issued in 1954. Now that
this patent and others are owned by
a Hong Kong consortium, the induced-star sapphires are evidently
going to become commercially available once again. In May of 1981,
three such heat-induced star sap-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Figure 15. Heat-induced star

in a 4-ct natural sapphire.
phires were submitted to the Los
Angeles lab. In addition to the induced star, these three stones had
evidence of surface-induced color as
well.

asmuch as the two sides of the

pavilion were blue and the two ends
were essentially colorless by comparison (figure 16).The entire crown
of the stone appeared near colorless
as well. Why someone would take
the time to diffusion treat a synthetic sapphire is difficult to understand. Perhaps it was in with a group
of stones that were being routinely
treated and its synthetic nature was
not known. Possibly, it was lznowingly treated to hide its very elusive
curved color zoning in a n attempt to
represent i t as a treated natural
sapphire.

SPINEL, Inclusions

Treated Synthetic Sapphire

Recently encountered in the Santa
Monica laboratory was a very well
cut 14+-ct flame-fusion synthetic
sapphire that had been heat treated
by the diffusion process. The gem
had the refractive index and optic
character of corundum and showed
a chalky yellowish-white short-wave
ultraviolet fluorescence typical of
synthetic sapphire. Under magnification, a few tiny gas bubbles could
be resolved, and only by very careful
manipulation of the stone could any
of the curved color zoning typical
of flame-fusion blue synthetic sapphires be observed. Because the color
zoning was s o difficult to detect, the
decision was made to immerse the
stone in methylene iodide. lmmersion showed that the stone had obviously been diffusion treated, in-

Pink spinels and red spinels have

become much better known to the
consumer and are being seen much
more frequently in the trade both
here and in the Orient. The New
York lab has had the opportunity to
examine several lots of stones totaling hundreds of carats. Among the
collections were two stones that had
unique inclusions. Figure 1 7 illustrates some root-like inclusions resembling those we have seen in another cubic mineral-diamond (see
Gems o) Gemology, Fall 1974, p.
332, and Fall 1979, p. 199). Figure 18
shows a series of frosted-appearing
"tennis balls," which in reality are
negative "crystals" that resemble the
gas bubbles seen in slag glass. Figure
19 illustrates some of the more normal spinel inclusions, including octahedrons, seen in a handsome red
spinel.

Figure 16. Color zoning in a

diffusion-treated synthetic
sapphire. Magnified 6 X.

TOURMALINE, Cat's-Eye

d
Lab Notes

Figure 17. Unusual root-like

inclusions in natural spinel,
Dark-field illumination,
magnified 2 0 x .

Among the many gemstones sent to

the Los Angeles laboratory for identification, cat's-eye tourmalines are
sometimes seen. The most common
colors are various shades of pink,
red, green, and blue. In the majority
of these stones, tubes or needle-like
inclusions throuehout
the entire
*.:\stone give rise to chatoyancy when
;-' 'the stone is cut en cabochon. Figure

Figure 18. Negative "crystals"

in natural spinel. Dark-field
illumination, magnified 30 X ,

Figure 19. Common inclusions

i n natural spinel. Dark-field
illumination, magnified 3 0 x .

20 shows an exceptional 258.08-ct

green tourmaline with a sharp eye.
Occasionally, w e see cat's-eye
tourmalines in which the inclusions
are concentrated at the bottom of
the cabochon, thus imparting a
greater clarity and transparency to
the stone than is seen in stones with
inclusions throughout.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

107

examined with the unaided eye under a single light source and moved
slightly, a strong chatoyant band was
observed to move within the restricted width of its zone of inclusions. The areas on both sides of the
band of needle-like inclusions were
relatively free of inclusions. One of
these stones, weighing 17.45 ct, is
shown in figure 21.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Figure 20. Exceptional green

cat's-eye tourmaline,
258.08 ct.

Figure 21. Band of inclusions

that does not completely cross
the width of this 17.45-ct
cat's-eye t o u r m a h e .

Recently submitted to the Los

Angeles laboratory were two cat'seye tourmalines that were slightly
different from those that we usually

encounter. Each of these stones had

a band of needle-like inclusions that
was positioned down the center of
the stone. When these stones were

Photos from the Los Angeles laboratory

were supplied by Bob Kane (figures 1, 3,
and 1O), Mike Havstad (figure 20), Tino
Hammid (figures 4, 12 and 13), and
Shane McClure (figures 6, 14, and 21).
Ren6 Moore in New York look the photos
in figures 2 and 11, and Andrew Quinlan
from the same lab gave us figures 5, 15,
17, 18, and 19). John Koivula of Santa
Monica was responsible for the photos in
figures 7, 8, 9, and 16, as well as being
a special guest writer for some of the
contributions from the Santa Monica lab.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY NOW AVAILABLE IN JAPANESE

Translations of Gems & Gemology in Japanese may now be obtained from the Association of Japan Gem Trust. The translations may be purchased as a one-year subscription or per issue, the latter either with the English version and full-color
photographs or as the translation alone. The rate schedule is as follows, in Japanese yen:
1981 volume year
Y 9,600
One year (4 full-color issues with translation)
Single issue (full-color version with translation)
Y 2,500
Translation only
Y 1,800
1982 volume year
Y 13,000
One year (4 full-color issues with translation)
Single issue (full-color version with translation)
# 3,500
Translation only
# 2,200
For further information, please contact: Association of Japan Gem Trust
3-19-4. Ueno
Taito-ku, Tokyo, Japan
telephone: (03) 835-7046

108

Lab Notes

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Editorial Forum
MORE O N JADE NOMENCLATURE
I think that Jill Hobbs's article on "The Jade Enigma"
is perhaps the best of its kind yet written. Unfortunately, a common n~isconceptionwas perpetuated in
the piece on jade nomenclature on page 5.1 quote: "The
color of the material, however, indicates the amount
of iron present." This is simply not true. The color indicates that some iron is present, but the depth of color
is more a function of the oxidation state of the iron
than the total amount. There are tremolites with a deep
green, but they contain only small amounts of iron.

John Sampson White

Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC

Actually both you and Hobbs have valid stances. From

a strictly academic viewpoint, Hobbs is correct in stating that the amount of ferrous iron present is most responsible for the green color of nephrite. As you know,
tremolite and actinolite are amphiboles belonging to
the tremolite-ferroactinolite series, with the general
formula Caflg,Fe+2)5[SisOJ [OH,F ] > This series
varies in color from colorless-to-grey tremolite, to paleto-dark green actinolite, to dark green to black ferroactinolite with increasing ferrous iron replacing
magnesium. However, other factors may also influence the green color of nephrite, but are generally considered of less importance than the total ferrous iron
content. The iron-poor tremolite that you noted i s one
such example. It could be pigmented by an interaction
between trace amounts of ferric iron with the ferrous
iron present. Another alternative is that trace amounts
of chromium are responsible for the green color. According to George Rossman of Cal Tech, this is fairly
common in nephrite.-Editor

1981, pp. 528-541). Unfortunately, by the time it appeared in print (Gems e) Gemology, Vol. 17, 1981, pp.
121-131), it had been inadvertently changed to "reported by Tombs," erroneously implying that I thought
that Tombs had accepted this statement. I regret this
error and apologize to Mr. Tombs.
Other matters raised by Tombs deserve brief comment. The reversal of his a and p alumina now makes
much more sense, although i t would be desirable for
him to publish this evidence; if the needles are indeed
5-corundum, then the very small quantities present
would probably be impossible to detect by conventional X-ray powder diffraction, and the much more
complex electron microscope results deserve public
scrutiny.
The differences in impurity content shown by Tombs
are indeed interesting and probably significant. As stated
in my Gems d Gemology article, considerable variability in the heat-treatment behavior of sapphire must
be expected "depending on the exact composition of
the stone as well as on its previous treatment history,
both in nature and by man."
I have prepared an additional drawing to compliment my Gems t
9 Gemology article which summarizes the various results produced by titanium andlor
iron in sapphire, including clear material and stars.

K. Nassau
Bernardsville, NJ 07924
ADDITIVE

PRESENT

AND PROCESSES USED

EFFECT PRODUCED
SINGLE

COMBINATION

PRECIPITATE
(PnacEss I )

BLUE .ST./?
NONE

COMMENT O N
"HEAT TREATING CORUNDUM"
LETTER BY G. A. TOMBS
Mr. Tombs is indeed justified in complaining about my
misquoting him. In the original manuscript, I had written "the 4000 reported to Tombs" (the citation also
appeared in this form in a related article by R. Crowningshield and myself in Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17,
Editorial Forum

.,
,

BLUE
GREEN STAR
GREEN
OXIDIZE
(PROCESS41

DEDUCE
(PDOCESS 31

YELLOW STAR

IN SOLUTION

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

109

GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
D o n a M . Dirlam, Editor
REVIEW BOARD
Stephanie L. Dillon
GIA, Santa Monica
Dianne M. Eash
GIA, Santa Monica
Joseph 0. Gill
Gill & Shorten Ltd., San Francisco
Caroline K. Goldberg
GIA, Santa Monica
Joseph P . Graf
Gem Trade Lab, Inc.,
Los Angeles
Fred L. Gray
GIA, Santa Monica
Gary S. Hill
GIA, Santa Monica
Jill M. Hobbs
GIA, Santa Monica
Steven C. Hofer
GIA, Santa Monica

Karin N. Hurwit
Gem Trade Lab, Inc.,
Santa Monica
John I. Koivula
GIA, Santa Monica
Noel P. Krieger
GIA, Santa Monica
Ernest R. Lalonde
GIA, Santa Monica
Joyce C.Law
GIA, Santa Monica
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Los Angeles
Elise B. Misiorowski
GIA, Santa Monica
Michael P . Roach
Andin International, New York
Gary A. Roskin
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Los Angeles

COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
African star coral, a new precious stylasterine coral
from the Agulhas Bank, South Africa. H. S.
Pienaar, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 8,
1981, pp. 589-601.
"Akori" coral was the local name given to the red, blue,

This section is designed to provide as complete a record

as possible of the recent literature on gems and
gemology. Articles are selected for abstracting solely at
the discretion of the section editor and her reviewers,
and space limitations may require that we include only
those articles thatwill be of greatest interest to our
readership.
.Inquiries for reprints of articles abstracted must be
addressed to the author or publisher of the original
material.
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her
initials at the end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are
identified by their full names.
"1982 Gemologicat Institute of America

110

Gemological Abstracts

Michael L. Ross
GIA, Santa Monica
Richard J. Saindon
GIA, New York
Andrea L. Saito
GIA, Santa Monica
Peter C.Schneirla
GIA, New York
Frances Smith
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Los Angeles
R. Stephen Smith
GIA, Santa Monica
Carol M. Stockton
GIA, Santa Monica
Barbara J. Taylor
Asian Institute of Gemmologjcal
Sciences, Los Angeles
Evelyn Tucker
GIA, Santa Monica

and violet stylasterine coral, Allopaia su bviolacea, that

was highly prized in Cameroon before the 18th century. In 1978 another stylasterine coral, Allopora nobills, appeared on the world market as African Star
Coral. It is found on the Agulhas Bank, along the coastline of South Africa, in red, pink, violet, and yelloworange hues. The author focuses on the zoological
description, taxonomic classification, methods of recovery and treatment, and chemical and physical properties of this material. He also discusses a gemological
classification of corals.
After harvesting, the coral trees are cleaned, dried,
and sawed before they are "stabilized"; that is, a mixture of methyl and butyl methacrylate monomers is
infused into the open pores of the coral under vacuum
impregnation and polymerized by benzoyl peroxide into
a tough co-polymer plastic. The pink coral is sometimes bleached with peroxide to a whitish-pink product
that resembles "angel's skin." In some cases, red dye
is incorporated into the plastic monomer of the yelloworange coral during the stabilizing process, which results in a deep red product that duplicates "moro"
coral.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

Allopara rlobilis is a calcium carbonate that crystallizes as platelets of orthorhombic aragonite with a
small percentage of organic material. It ranges in hardness from 3 to 4 on the Mohs scale with an excellent
toughness. Its natural fragility is eliminated by the
methacrylate impregnation. There is no fluorescence
to long-wave or short-wave ultraviolet radiation unless
the material has been dyed to imitate "moro," or "oxblood," coral, in which case the-long-wave fluorescence
is a brilliant scarlet. The refractive index is difficult to
determine, with at best a vague spot reading at 1.65. A
twinkling effect seen through a rotating polarizing filter confirms the strong double refraction expected from
aragonite. After impregnation, the specific gravity is
2.41 0.08. The material reacts to acids. Thermal tests
do not produce "sweating" on the surface, but a fruity
aroma characteristic of plastic is apparent. Continued
heat chars the surface. Microscopic examination of the
surface reveals three diagnostic features: (a) parallel
concentric growth banding; (b) white, star-like spots;
and (c)white "comet-tails" that usually cut across the
concentric growth banding. Pienaar concludes with a
summary of the taxonomy of coral in an effort to eliminate some of the existing confusion.
ERL
The Biwa pearl. G. Brown, Australian Gemmologisi,
Vol. 14, NO. 7, 1981, pp. 153-157.
This article presents ;i succinct history of the Biwa
pearl, emphasizing the Japanese contribution to its development. The author reminds us that although these
freshwater cultured pearls of differing shapes and colors
were named for their first commercial production at
Lake Biwa, Japan, Biwa pearl is a trade name used "to
describe all fresh-water cultured pearls-irrespective of
their country of origin."
In the 1930s, Fugita and Yoshida discovered the
mantle-tissue implantation method of initiating pearl
growth in mussels, which proved to be more efficient
and less dangerous than the then-popular bead-nuclei
method. Seiichiro Uda, the"fatherl' of the Biwa pearl
industry, subsequently capitalized on their discovery
and made freshwater pearl cultivation commercially
viable. However, success in marketing the Biwa pearl
did not occur until 1961, when an American market
established the "respectability" of the freshwater cultured pearl after the true nature of the Biwa pearl had
been disclosed.
Brown then describes current production in a stepby-step format that is a composite of how the Biwas are
actually produced, since these facts are not readily
revealed by Japanese sources. In addition to the author's
speculation as to the exact process of Biwa pearl
production, the reader is told how to judge the ultimate quality of any Biwa pearl. Size, shape, color, and
orient-the
important factors-are
explained and
illustrated.
1CL

Gemological Abstracts

Domestic cultured pearls on the way. H. Huffer, 1ewelers' Circular Keyslone, Vol. 152, No. 10, 1981,
pp. 100-103.
Japan may soon be faced with some con~petitionfrom
the U.S. in the freshwater cultured pearl market. John
Latendresse is cultivating pearls in Tennessee, where
the climate is much the same as the Lake Biwa area in
Japan. Latendresse has gained experience in the field by
supplying the Japanese with raw materials for the saltwater pearl-growing business for 27 years. He believes
that he can compete with Japan because of the rising
labor costs there versus relatively cheap labor in Tennessee. Also, Tennessee has an abundance of clean
water while Japan is troubled by water pollution. His
first harvest will be a "token" one to assess how these
pearls, which have been growing now for two years, are
doing. He anticipates a broad range of colors, some
round cultured pearls up to 20 mm, and some baroques
that are even larger.
RSS

Geochimie et typomorphisme des aigues-marines

zonees (Geochemistry and typomorphism of zoned
aquamarines). V. F. Barbanov, Bulletin de M i n k alogie, Vol. 103, 1980, pp. 79-87.
Zoned aquamarine and other beryl crystals from Cherlovaya Cora, an area in the mountains north of Mongolia, were studied using different physical and chemical techniques. Zoning is shown to be related to
tectonic variations (that is, geological structural features, especially folding and faulting) during crystal
growth; it is also useful as a typomorphic criterion for
eeochemical conditions of rare-metal vein formation.
The resulting evidence reveals that vein crystals
that formed under deep, more-or-less calm tectonic
conditions have a brilliant vellow color and a homogeneous structure. Vein crystals that formed under
shallow, intense tectonic conditions were seen to have
zonal properties and to vary in the quantity of impurities-such as iron, magnesium, calcium, lithium, sodium, potassium, cesium, water, and scandium-they
contained.
There was evidence that the presence of iron oxide
increased the refractive index of the aquamarine as well
as caused the blue color. The presence of water, on the
other hand, decreased both the R.1. and the intensity
of the blue color. The author did not discuss\ the effect
of water on the composition of the other colors of beryl.
Barbanov further states that all the variations in
properties and structure of the microimpurities in zoned
beryl crystals are due to changes in the tectonic environment, crystallization conditions, and the alkalinity
of the solution and its oxidizing properties. A bibliography containing 19 references is included, as well as
numerous charts and graphs.
Michel Roussel-D~lpre

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

111

A mineralogical study of the Fengtien nephrite deposits

of Hualien, Taiwan. L. P. Tan, C. W. Lee, C. C.
Chen, P. L. Tien, P. C. Tsui, T. F. Yui, National
Science Council Special Publication 1, Parts 1-4,
1978.
During a 1973 prospecting project in the Central Range
of Taiwan, geologists located deposits of nephrite.
Sponsored by the National Science Council of Taiwan,
the authors wrote this special publication, which consists of four parts: (1) mineralogy of the nephrite, (2)
trace elements and color, (3) minerals associated with
the nephrite, and (4)related carbonate minerals.
Part 1 (by L. P. Tan, C. W. Lee, and P. L. Tien) begins
with a brief historical note and then follows with a description of the geology of the region. Nephrite occurs
along the hanging walls and footwalls of serpentinite
sills, which are intercalcated in black schists or graphitic muscovite-quartz schists of the greenschist facies. Two geologic maps locate the deposits.
The authors emphasize the economic importance of
the nephrite and associated minerals such as asbestos,
bowenite, serpentinite, and talc. Approximately 1000
metric tons of nephrite were produced annually from
1973 to 1977. Useful information about the lapidary
costs of nephrite and its role as a gem material are presented in this section. It is refreshing to have geologists
include such information.
The authors then differentiate three varieties of Taiwan nephrite into common, cat's-eye, and waxy before
beginning an extensive section on the chemistry and
physical properties of each. While common nephrite is
the most abundant, cat's-eye nephrite-which occurs
in greenish yellow, brown, or black-is the most interesting. The information on chemical composition,
hardness, density, unit-cell constants, cleavage, fracture, and optical properties is presented in seven charts
and graphs in this section. One interesting fact is that
although nephrite is generally reported to have a hardness of 5 to 6.5 on the Mohs scale, the cat's-eye
nephrite of Taiwan may produce a Vicker's hardness of
1166, which is approximately 7+ on the Mohs scale.
Tan et al. then reoort on the inclusions observed.
Chromite is the most abundant, but grossular, serpentine, picotite, and chalcopyrite are also seen. The authors conclude this section with a discussion of the
occurrence and possible genesis of the three varieties,
stating that Taiwan nephrite formed after the ultramafic rock had been metasomatized into serpentinite.
The 20 plates at the end of Part 1 include four photographs of nephrite carvings and 16 photomicrographs
of specimens referred to in the text.
Part 2 (by L. P. Tan and P. C. Tsui) focuses on the
trace elements and their role as coloring agents in nephrite. After analyzing the eight transition elements
with a spectrograph, the authors measured 53 samples
of nephrite with a spectrophotometer. Seven elements
were present in amounts less than 0.2% of the total

112

Gemological Abstracts

composition (listed here in decreasing order): Co, Cr,

Cu, Mn, Ni, Ti, and V; Fe averaged 3.0%.
The authors then attempted to describe the color in
numerical terms, first using the rock color chart of the
Geological Society of America, and then presenting a
green-yellow index developed by Tan based on the
transmission peaks of nephrite in the spectrophotometer. These figures are accompanied by charts of the
transmission spectra of the common nephrite and cat'seye nephrite from this locality. The author also investigated the effect of heat on color.
The authors conclude that the color of tremolitic
nephrite may be related to Fez+, NiZi-, Cr3+, Ti, and
structural water, and to oxidation of Few to Fe3+.The
brilliant green color is due mainly to Cr and partly to
Ni in Taiwan nephrite. Ni may cause a bluish-green
tint, and Ti a brownish tint.
Part 3 (by C. W. Lee, P. L. Tien, and T. F. Yui) reports on the microscopic, X-ray, thermogravimetric,
cathodo-luminescent, and chemical investigation into
the associated mineralogy of the Fengtien area. This
study gives the occurrence and chemical composition
for serpentine, pycnochlorite, and magnetite as found
in serpentinite; diopside, garnet, vesuvianite, zoisite,
and epidote as found in diopsidefels; and clinozoisite,
sanidine, vein quartz, and tremolite as they occur in
metasediments. X-ray diffraction data are provided in
10 charts. Sixteen photographs and photomicrographs
illustrate the specimens discussed.
Last, in order to further our understanding of the
emplacement conditions of the Fengtien area, part 4
(by C. C. Chen) examines the occurrences of calcite,
dolomite, aragonite, and magnesite in relation to
nephrite. Chen proposes that the sources for the calcium carbonate were liquids existing in a cognate relation with preserpentinite ultrabasic magma, and further that stress played an important role in the
formation and localization of the nephrite bodies. This
is based on the fact that calcite veinlets are often associated with asbestos, crystallizing in fractures (tension caused), and that at least some calcites were found
to be contemporaneous with tremolite development.
Part 4 concludes with an extensive bibliography of 56
citations and an index to the four parts and the illustrations included.
/pG
Origine hydrothermale des olivines gemmes de l'ile de
Zabargad (St. John's) Mer Rouge, par l'etude
de leurs inclusions (Hydrothermal origin of gemquality olivine from Zabargad (St. John's) Island,
Red Sea, by the study of its inclusions). R. Clocchiatti, D. Massare, and C. Jehanno, Bulletin de
Mineralogie, Vol. 104, 1981, pp. 354-360.
On the basis of their examination of inclusions in gemquality olivine from this locality, the authors state that
these inclusions are characteristic of olivines that
formed in peridotites and indicate the conditions of

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

their "
growth. From the chemical analysis of olivine
from Assab, Eritrea, the authors hypothesize that they
formed by processes other than hydrothermal because
of the presence of carbonic fluids with high filling density. These fluids, while present in the Zabargad olivines, had a much lower partial pressure of carbon
dioxide; thus, the olivines are interpreted as being of
hydrothermal origin. Hydrothermal processes are said
to be associated with the tectonic and magmatic events
that occurred in the first stages of the opening of the
Red S e a In addition to a detailed chemical analysis.
,
Clocchiatti et al. include n h o t o-e r a ~ h sof inclusions and
an extensive bibliography.
Michel Roussel-Duprk
r

Turquoise crystals at Narooma, N.S.W. C . Price, Australian Gem &> Treasure Hunter, No, 59, 1981,
p. 43,
Turquoise veins located on the southern coast of New
South Wales have yielded something of a rarity in the
mineral world: turquoise crystals. For the most part,
the 10-mm- to 40-mm-thick veins, which resulted from
the mobilization of sedimentary phosphates, contain
an inferior blue-green turquoise closely associated with
wavelite. When Price examined some of the material
closely, however, he discovered the triclinic crystals,
ranging from pale blue to pale green. The crystal groups,
along with crystalline druses, stalagtite-like groups,
and small bundles of parallel-growth crystals, are found
in small cavities within the vein material and are best
RSS
seen with magnification.
What's the most spectacular gold and jewelled devotional crown on earth? N. Letson, Connoisseur,
Vol. 209, No. 839, 1982, pp. 17-21.
What happened to the Crown of the,Andes? Last seen
publicly i n 1963, this gold diadem weighing almost 13
pounds (about 6 kg) and containing 1521 ct of emeralds,
was reported to have been melted down and the emeralds sold. After reviewing the history of this remarliable crown, Letson brings the story up to date. The
crown was made in Popayan, a town high in the Colombian Andes that was settled in 1536 bv Francisco
Pizarro. There was a violent epidemic of smallpox in
1590 in Colombia; the townspeople prepared to leave,
but the priest convinced them to stay and pray to the
Virgin Mary. When the pox missed this isolated mountain village, the people produced this magnificent crown
in thanks. Work began in 1593 and the crown was completed in 1599. In 1723 the crown was spared from an
earthquake by being in the only church that was not
destroyed.
In 1933, after many legal problems, the crown was
sold to Warren J. Piper, a Chicago gem dealer. Sotheby's
attempted to sell it in 1963, but the reserve price was
not reached. The crown is now owned by a private collector in New York City who recognizes his responsi-

Gemological Abstracts

bility of ownership and is committed to keeping the

JOG
crown intact.

DIAMONDS
Big stones offset low grade at Lesotho's diamond mine.
J. R. Chadwick, Indiaqua, Vol. 29, No. 2, 1981, pp.
27-33.
Although the recovery rate at Letseng-la-Terai is the
lowest of all DeBeers's mines (3.09 ct per 100 tons of
ore in 1979))this mine has remained profitable because
of the high ratio of large gem-quality stones it has produced. The eleventh largest diamond ever found, the
Lesotho Brown, was discovered at Letseng-la-Terai in
1967. In 1971, over 90% of the value of the production
came from less than 10% of the material recovered.
Located 111 the northeast part of Lesotho, a small
n~ountainouscountry surrounded by the Republic of
South Africa, this mine has had an unusual history of
development. The Basotho people of Lesotho, certain
that diamonds would be found, began active prospccting in the 1950s, but the Letseng pipe was not discovered until 1957. It has produced diamonds sporadically
ever since. The harsh weather, with all four seasons
possible in one day, and extreme isolation (the mine is
located at 10,500 ft.) make this operation unique.
Chadwick describes in detail the history of the mine
and the mining operation.
RSS
Diamond beauty: the cutter's magic. M. Ross, Jeweler's
Circular Keystone, Vol. 152, No. 9 (part 111, 1981,
pp. 76-83.
Michael Ross traces the evolution of diamond cutting
and its effect on the attractiveness of diamond in this
article. Using a historical approach, Ross summarizes
the predominant cutting philosophies, including the
crude techniques employed in the Middle Ages, the
more sophisticated theories of diamond cutting that
appeared in the 18th century, and the "rapid sight"
technique to evaluate cutting developed by GIA in the
20th century. Ross then explains how two stones that
are cut from the same quality rough can differ marliedly in price and beauty. The article provides a succinct, well-researched account of how a diamond's proJMH
portions influence its beauty and salability.
Famous diamonds of the world (X): the Lesotho Brown.
I. Balfour, Indiaqua, Vol. 29, No. 2, 1981, pp. 123125.
The Lesotho Brown, at 601.25 ct, is the 11th largest
gem-quality diamond in the world. It was discovered
in 1967 in the country of Lesotho, in southern Africa,
by independent miner Ernestine Ramaboa, who quietly
slipped the gem into her pocket and departed shortly
thereafter on a journey that eventually took her and her
husband to New York for the ceremonious cleaving of
the stone. They were paid the equivalent of US$216,360

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

113

for the gem by a Belgian stone dealer who subsequently

sold it to Harry Winston for more than twice that
amount.
In addition to being a remarkable stone, the Lesotho
Brown has had a major impact on mining in Lesotho.
When the Basotho people returned to Lesotho after
working in the lcimberley mines of South Africa, they
began prospecting. This eventually led to the discovery
of a huge kimberlite pipe in the Kao Valley. More pipes
were located to the east a t a point called Letseng-laTerai. Mrs. Ramaboa's discovery prompted the government to request that DeBeers do a systematic evaluation of this mountainous and isolated region. After
years of intermittent mining because of the variable
quality of the material, in 1977 DeBeers opened a modern mine employing 900 people. Diamond mining in
Lesotho, though still erratic, continues to be spurred
by the occasional discovery of large, fine-quality stones,
epitomized by the Lesotho Brown.
RSS
The platelet story. R. J. Caveney, Indiaqua, Vol. 30,
NO. 3, 1981, pp. 115-117.
Following a review of early work on diamond types and
classification, Caveney reports on current research into
platelet defects in diamonds. Platelets, which are
thought to be large aggregates of nitrogen atoms, occur
only in type I,, diamonds. In the early studies, unusual
reflections (called spikes) were observed in the X-ray
patterns of some diamonds, and an absorption at 7.8
microns in the infrared region led researchers to believe
that there was some correlation between nitrogen and
the platelets. As a result, Lang proposed a structural
model for these platelets in 1964. Further study (by Sobolev et al.) found no direct correlation between X-ray
spike intensity caused by the platelets and the 7.8micron absorption caused by total nitrogen impurities.
Recent developments, possible only with today's
advanced technology, have permitted further refinements of Lang's model. Trevar Evans and coworkers
were able to produce nitrogen platelets in synthetic
diamonds. Using electron microscopy, Les Bursill and
coworkers obtained images of platelet defects. As a result of these two developments, Bursill has proposed
a modification of the model. Caveney concludes with
a drawing of the refined model in which there is a double layer of nitrogen atoms arranged in a zig-zag
configuration.
SCH
Soviet assistance for Panna diamond mines. M. P. Saxena, G e m World, Vol. 9, No. 9, 1981, pp. 23-24.
Unfortunately, only one short paragraph mentions the
subject indicated i n the title of this article. The article
actually discusses a thermochemical method of processing diamond that was developed by Soviet scientists. This interesting phenomenon involves placing a
transition metal-such as iron, cobalt, or nickel-in
contact with diamond and heating the combination to

114

Gemological Abstracts

100ooC in a hydrogen atmosphere. T h e metal then interacts with the diamond in an unexplained way, and
"sinks" into the stone.
Experiments have included etching a drawing on a
diamond and producing a square hole. One fanciful
project produced a cogwheel-shaped hole in 29 hours,
through a n undisclosed thickness. This may prove an
inexpensive means of shaping diamond, as i t involves
little more than the cost of the chemicals and heating.
This incongruous article would have been of greater
help if it had explored in detail the important news of
Soviet assistance in the ancient Panna mines. Apparently Mr. Saxena felt differently.
FLG
What the Siberian diamonds tell us. N. V. Sobolev, l n diaqua, Vol. 30, No. 3, 1981, pp. 11-13.
In an article containing 18 photographs, of which eight
are in color, Sobolev focuses on the information gained
from studying mineral inclusions in Siberian diamonds. Noting that the Siberian diamond pipes are
much older than their South African counterparts, he
begins with the commonly accepted assumption that
the diamonds did not crystallize in the kimberlite but
rather migrated into it. However, sometimes diamonds
can be found in eclogite, the rock in which they did
crystallize. Two color photographs illustrate this.
Sobolev then turns to specific examples of minerals
that are included in diamonds. He emphasizes that
these minerals, from olivine to coesite, take on the
n~orphologyof the host diamond and often occur in
some form of the cubic crystal class. H e concludes by
mentioning the 1981 find in the Mir pipe of a 342.5-ct
diamond, now part of the collection of the U.S.S.R.
Diamond Fund, which is "a lemon-yellow colour, the
size of a hen's egg and of irregular shape."
DMD

GEM INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

The Culti Color Stone Checker, a test report. P. Read,
Canadian Jeweller, Vol. 102, No. 7, 198'1, pp. 2627.
T h e Culti Color Stone Checker, made by the Culti
Company of Japan, uses three separate tests to identify
alexandrites, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. The first
is a reflectivity test, the second uses long- and shortwave ultraviolet (U.V.) radiation to test for distinctive
fluorescence, and the third uses the U.V. to test for the
transmission of ultraviolet light. Read considers this
last test the most interesting feature of the instrument.
In the past, the practical application of U.V. transmission has been restricted to either the time-consuming
method of immersion contact photography or the use
of a piece of expensive research equipment, the spectrophotometer, to examine the absorption spectrum.
The author then reports on his experience with the
instrument in the separation of natural from synthetic
alexandrites, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. He con-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

eludes that although the instrument was not 100% accurate, "it can provide valuable, corroborative evidence
particularly with its U-V transmission feature."

RSS

Earlier tests found the same impurity to be the cause

of color in the Swiss material. Most reports claim the
color to be stable, and all experimental efforts to fade
the material have failed.
SFM

GEM LOCALITIES

JEWELRY ARTS

The gems and minerals of Mexico, parts I and 11. K. M.

and D. Castro, G e m s and Minerals, No. 529, 1981,
pp. 86-90; and No. 530, 1981, pp. 26-33.
The authors present this two-part review as part of
their effort to update the invaluable, but now out of
print, book by the late Paul Willard Johnson, A Field
G ~ i i d eto the G e m s and Minerals of Mexico. For those
who have any interest in Mexican minerals, both the
book and this update are essential reading.
The first article discusses the famous Mexican "agate belt," which runs for 70 miles south of Villa Ahumada in Chihuahua. This belt includes such important
deposits as Laguna, Coyamito, Gallego, and Moctezuma. Agate deposits in Durango and Sonora are also
mentioned. The remainder of the article gives the reader
a sampling of what the authors will publish in book
form. They discuss localities, mostly in Baja, for tourmaline, turquoise, sphene, topaz, and many other important minerals.
The second article, in the December issue, includes
more information on the minerals, but also expands
into archaeology. Of greatestjnterest to the gemologist,
however, is a fairly detailed account of the Mexican
opal localities in the state of Queretaro. The authors
describe the various mines, their history, ownership,
and production. In addition to the opal discussion, the
authors provide a very informative summary of Mexico's amber deposits in the state of Chapas. These include the major mine a t Simojovel, which is now exhausted.
Peter C.Keller

A carver and a collector of jade. J. C. Zeitner, Lapidary

Journal, Vol. 35, No. 8, 1981, pp. 1602-1636.
Mr. Hing Wa Lee of Whittier, California, is one of the
few professional gem carvers in the United States. This
article features his work and his personal collection of
jade carvings, also touching on jade carving and the
motifs used in Chinese art.
Although Mr. Lee prefers jade to any other material,
he uses a wide variety of gem materials in his work.
Chinese carvers today, as in the past, use limestone,
marble, amethyst, agate, rock crystal, coral, turquoise,
carnelian, lapis-lazuli, amber, hematite, soapstone, serpentine, albite, ivory, bone, shell, and tortoise shell. In
recent years, carvers in Hong Kong and China have begun using chrysoprase, aventurine, chrysocolla, malachite, azurite, sodalite, tourmaline, and opal.
Although Mr. Lee was trained in the traditional
methods of jade carving, he now uses modern equipment and methods. In the past, jade carvers used primitive but inventive methods that rewired vears of challenging work to finish a piece. Now Mr. Lee can
complete several pieces a year.
Most of this article is devoted to a description of Mr.
Lee's personal collection of carvings. Unfortunately,
while the pieces are carefully described, the photographs are much too small to do them justice.
ET

Pink octahedral fluorite from Peru. D. 0. Belsher, Mineralogical Record, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1982, pp. 29-30,
38.
Prior to the beginning of this decade, the best source
for high-quality pink fluorite octahedrons was in the
Swiss Alps. In November of 1980, however, extremely
fine pink fluorite crystals were found at the Huanzala
mine in Huanuco Province, Peru. The mine's commercial production consists of copper, lead, and zinc
ore. Although fluorite is a very common mineral at the
mine, it usually appears in the form of crude light green
crystals. The pink fluorite crystals occur in randomly
distributed vugs in the sulphide ore body, and range
from almost colorless to what the author describes as
"hot pink," with ill-defined grass-green zones commonly found in the center. The crystals range in size
from 1 cm to 3 cm, with the largest reaching 5 cm.
Recent laboratory analysis has shown that the Peruvian pink fluorite owes its color to traces of yttrium.

Gemological Abstracts

Chinese lacquer from Yuan, Ming, and Ch'ing. J. Wirgin, Arts of Asia, Vol. 11, No. 6, 1981, pp. 106-112.
Jan Wirgin describes and dates important pieces of
Chinese lacquer in the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities in Sweden. The collection was fairlv limited until 1973, when the museum received a bequest from
King Gustaf VI Adolf.
The pieces discussed span the Yuan (1280-1368))
Ming (1368-1644), and Ch'ing (1644-1912) dynasties.
Particular emphasis is given to the Ming dynasty, which
is considered the golden age of lacquer.
Yuan dynasty specimens all show considerable age;
the relief carvings are cracked and have a tendency to
detach from the background. Guri style lacquer, in
which designs are carved in alternating layers of red
and black onto a yellow base, is mentioned as characteristic of the 13th century.
Dragons and phoenixes are typical motifs in Ming
dynasty carvings. Also common are small boxes completely covered with carved fruit or lychees. Carved
landscapes that show figures and architecture in fine
detail are frequently seen as well. These afford a good
opportunity to study the costumes, hairstyles, and at-

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

115

titudes of the era, as well as the construction and interior design of the houses. In addition to the carved
red cinnabar lacquer, a style of carving through lacquer
layers of different colors was introduced and popularized in the mid to late 16th century.
Unless inscribed, Chinese lacquer is usually difficult to date precisely. There is disagreement among
scholars about the origins of carved lacquer as well as
when various techniques, such as inlaying mother-ofpearl shell, first appeared. O n the basis of those pieces
that have been inscribed, however, the author argues
that the best examples are from the Ming and Ch'ing
dynasties, with progressively more sophisticated designs developing with time. In the mid 16th century,
a new technique of inlaying other materials along with
mother-of-pearl was invented. Coral, jade, ivory, and
other stones were used, sometimes combined with gold
and silver foil.
This article is well illustrated; each described piece
is accompanied by a photo. The color photographs are
especially effective in portraying the subtlety of colors
in the inlaid pieces.
EBM
Etonnante orfevrerie ~ t r u s ~ au epropose de la collection du Louvre nouvellement exposee (Amazing
Etruscan goldworlz in connection with a newly displayed collection at the Louvre). I. Faudet, R e v u e
Francaise des Bijou tiers Horologers, No. 473, 1981,
pp. 58-61.
This article, an interesting and detailed account of the
works of the Etruscan goldsmiths, discusses the recent
opening of a room in the Louvre dedicated to Etruscan
art. It describes specific pieces in this collection as well
as items in other collections documenting the art of
goldsmithing in the ancient Italian country of Etruria.
Several well-captioned black-and-white photographs add
to the appreciation of the text.
The collection contains pieces excavated from the
necropoli of Palestrina, Cerveteri, and Vetulonia (Italy),
as well as some from the Campana collection, which
was acquired by Napoleon I11 in 1861 and deposited in
the Louvre.
The most remarkable items i n the collection are
probably those local creations that appear to be influenced by the Greeks. The technique of the Etruscan
artisans is not well understood in spite of many attempted imitations during the 19th century. Although
their tools were simple, the workmanship is unbelievably fine. There are examples in which geometric patterns of art are formed with wires and the designs are
held together by diffusion welding. Granulation, the
technique whereby tiny regular spheres are soldered
onto plates, is accomplished with no visible trace of
solder. The lightness of many of these pieces is
impressive.
Etruscan goldwork i s usually divided into two
phases. The first, dating from the seventh to the fifth

116

Gemological Abstracts

centuries B.C., is very rich in decorative and technical

innovation and is characterized by the heavy use of
granulation, filigree work, and the introduction of
enameling under the influence of the Greeks. Subsequent works, from the fourth to third centuries B.C.,
consist primarily of large gold leaves most often worked
in repousse, the technique of producing relief decoration on metal by punching and hammering from the
reverse side.
Among typical pieces are large clasps that were
worn on the shoulder. These rectangular plaques were
adorned with animals or sirens in linear arrangement.
They were mounted on transverse rods and fashioned
from two stamped pieces soldered in the middle.
Bracelets of diverse styles were common during the
seventh century B.C. Some were simple rings terminating in animal heads, but the most striking were
made from bands of filigree openwork decorated with
raised bumps, heads, or crescents.
Necklaces with multiple pendants reflect the originality and imagination of the artisans. The earliest
were made of long rectangular plaques decorated with
medallions. From the end of the seventh century B.C.,
collars were made with half-spherical pendants representing rams' or women's heads. Later, hollow spheres
alternated in patterns with oval beads, leaves, or masks.
Collars with repousse pendants of subjects such as deities, mythological creatures and events, and vegetables
alternated with glass or amber beads. The bubble was
one of the common Etruscan ornaments. This capsuleshaped hollow pendant was originally fashioned in
bronze and probably contained some substance.
Stick pins, some very elaborate, were common up
to the fifth century B.C. The development of the brooch,
usually elongated, with an ornate "face" was noteworthy. Etruscan artists created very luxurious brooches
in gold and occasionally i n silver.
Rings did not share the same popularity. During the
seventh and sixth centuries B.C., gold or gilded bronze
rings with scroll-shaped surfaces appeared adorned with
hunting or combat scenes and occasionally with intaglios inspired by the Greeks. The fourth century B.C.
brought some rare scarab rings, and during this period
the "face of the ring" became larger and decorative floral motifs began to appear.
T h e wearing of earrings began i n the sixth century
B.C. In sharp contrast to the simple wire loop earrings
worn by some, therewere the more characteristic earrings in which the main part was a cylinder that was
attached to the ear by a wire. The sixth century B.C.
saw the tubular ring bearing the head of a woman, ram,
or lion as popular motifs. Later earrings got larger and
often had small rings or various-shaped ornaments
hanging from them. Again, these items often showed
the influence of Greek art. Later still, the cluster earring emerged, composed of a center sphere augmented
by an oval part decorated with bumps or with more
complex arrangements of stamped heads or faces.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

This article is written in narrative style and provides 110 bibliography or references.
CKG
The gold treasures of the Western church. C. Oman,
Optima, Vol. 30, No. 1, 1981, pp. 56-68.
Oman reports on the interesting history of church treasures. He emphasizes that the number of pieces remaining in museums, churches, or private collections
does not accurately reflect their earlier popularity. These
early examples of gold craftsmanship, often the finest
works of a period, were highly vulnerable to thievery
as well as to the destruction wrought by war and religious intolerance. Another reason so few exist today is
that because they were regarded as the capital of a
church, in times of financial crisis many pieces were
me1ted down.
Brief histories are given for a number of the reinaining examples of gem-encrusted chalices, book covers,
crosses, and other reliquaries as they are traced to their
present locations. As the 10 impressive photographs
indicate, colored stones, pearls, and enamels were used
frequently. Unfortunately, Oman has included little
gemological infornlation in his descriptions.
RSS
Good as gold. E. Laure, American Craft, Vol. 14, No.
6, 1981-82, pp. 8-11.
Unconventionality is a major theme in the "Good as
Gold: Alternative Materials in American Jewelry" exhibition, organized by the Smithsonian Institution
Travelling Exhibition Service. The author argues that
the restrictive price of gold and other traditional jewelry materials has necessitated the trend toward using
metals such as titanium, tantalum, and niobium. Other
alternative materials used include textiles-from cotton and silk to acetate, rayon, and nylon-as well as
bone, wire, and Plexiglass.
Further elaboration of the main theme is demonstrated in the departure of jewelry from mere accessory
to jewelry as "wearable art." The jeweler-artists combine not only alternative materials, but also alternative
approaches to what is wearable and how different techniques such as metalworliing, crocheting, and enameling can function together in the creation of a piece
of jewelry.
ICL
A short history of the art of granulation. I. J. Wolters,
Aurum, No. 6, 1981, pp. 8-14.
Granulation, the process of bonding small granules of
metal to a larger metal surface in an ornamental or figured design, is an art form that reaches back into early
antiquity. Since the concept that most people have of
the technical and artistic aspects of granulation has
been influenced almost exclusively by Greek and
Etruscan jewelry, there is a tendency to overlook the
fact that these are late expressions of a craft that was
nearly 2000 years old when the first Etruscan pieces
were produced.
Gemological Abstracts

With this in mind, Wolters takes us back those 2000

years and, through the use of maps, gives us an expanding view of the art form as i t spreads from its
origins in ancient Mesopotamia throughout the Middle
East, the greater Mediterranean area, and ultimately to
the major centers of Europe and Asia. At the same time,
with pertinent dates and locations, he carries us from
early antiquity through classical antiquity, prehistoric
Europe, and the various periods of the Middle Ages
to modern times, concluding with a brief look at the
present-day revival of the art form.
The account is straightforward and interesting, with
good illustrations (five photos and two maps). In the
following issue of Auriiiri, the author discusses the various styles and techniques used in the past and then
presents a select bibliography.
Archie V. Curtis
Touching precious metals. W. WLilchli, Gold Bulletin,
Vol. 14, No. 4, 1981, pp. 154-158.
In this inforn~ative,well-organized article on testing
metals, Walchli discusses the history, procedure, and
accuracy of the touchstone test, one of the oldest methods for determining metal content.
The assayer can perform the touchstone test to: ( 1 )
identify precious metals used in alloy, (2)identify base
metals used in alloy, (3)assay finished articles, (4) test
samples before using finer analytical methods, or ( 5 )
obtain an indication of the thickness of a precious
metal coating.
This procedure is basically a comparative test: the
object to be tested is rubbed evenly on a lightly oiled
touchstone, and then a metal touch needle of known
fineness and matching color is rubbed next to it. When
an appropriate test acid solution is applied to both, the
tester observes the rate and degree of the acid attack on
the rubbings. If the acid does not behave the same-or
virtually the same-on both rubbings, testing is continued with other touch needles.
Difficult gold alloys, as well as other metals such
as platinum and silver, can be checked by this method.
Walchli describes aspects of each. He concludes that
this simple process will continue to be popular: i t is
reasonably accurate, fast, and requires a very tiny
amount of test metal or alloy.
Marcia Hacker

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Japanese manmades. F. H. Pough, Lapidary Journal,
Vol. 35, No. 10, 1982, pp. 2004, 2006, 2008.
Pough reports on the research of Dr. Akira Kose, of the
Japanese Institute for Applied Optics, and Dr. Sei Hachisu, of Kyoiliu University. Using spheres of polystyrene
latex, they have produced a n opal simulant. With the
addition of sodium polyacrylate, the spheres flocculate
into opalescent patches that can be stabilized by filling
the voids between the spheres with polymethyl methaciylate, which has a refractive index close to that of the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

117

latex. Pough includes a chart comparing the properties

of this simulant with those of Gilson synthetic opal
and natural opal, as well as five color photographs of
the opal simulant and one of synthetic quartz made in
Japan.
Pough then briefly describes this synthetic quartz,
noting that the red-violet "amethyst" is superior in
color to the material made in the U.S.S.R. He concludes by mentioning a number of other synthetics
manufactured in Japan: emeralds, alexandrites, star corundum, and padparadscha sapphires.
RSS

MISCELLANEOUS
Contact rnetarnorphics, part 11. B. Jones, Rock &> Gem,
Vol. 11, No. 12, 1981, pp. 56-76.
Because of different temperature, pressure, or chemical
environments, each contact metamorphic deposit is
unique in the minerals it contains. However, certain
minerals, such as grossularite and vesuvianite, that are
common to many deposits almost always occur together when a limestone body is altered to a marble.
Thus, the presence of such minerals can aid in identifying the type of deposit.
Many of the gem gravels of the Far East were produced in part from metamorphosed limestone. Gems
such as ruby, sapphire, and spinel have been recovered
from these deposits for centuries. Another contactmetamorphosed limestone in Afghanistan produces the
world's finest lapis-lazuli. Jones focuses first on spinel,
lapis-lazuli, and diopside, reviewing some of their more
notable occurrences. He then turns to garnets.
The garnets usually found in this type of deposit are
grossularite and andradite. Since each contains calcium
in its chemical make-up, a limestone environment is
ideal for their formation. Other minerals the author
describes are staurolite, scapolite, and tremolite,
GSH
Crystals, cornerstones of tomorrow's technology. J.
Walker, Museum, Vol. 2, No. 5, 1981, pp. 53-57.
Electronic technology has increased tremendously since
the advent of synthetically grown crystals. They are an
essential part of transistors, one of the most important
tools of the field. Integrated circuits are printed on thin
wafers of synthetic silicon crystals. T h e size of the circuits has decreased to the point that thousands of them
can be printed on a single wafer. These wafers can then
be cut in sections, called chips, that contain a single

118

Gemological Abstracts

circuit. Chips of this kind have made possible complex

electronic instruments that are a fraction of the size of
their predecessors.
Through the use of microelectronics, i t has become
possible to put laboratories in orbit around the earth.
The author describes a number of advantages of manufacturing crystals in orbit. Several major problems involved with growing crystals on earth, such as the pull
of gravity or the minute vibrations that are always present in a terrestrial laboratory, would be eliminated.
These factors cause imperfections in the growing crystals and make the growth of crystals of particularly sensitive compounds impossible. Orbiting laboratories not
only will be able to grow more nearly perfect crystals,
but they also will undoubtedly be able to grow crystals
that have never been grown before. With the advent of
new crystal materials, electronic technology may yet
make even larger advances than i t has in the past. It
will be interesting to see what overlap these developments will have on the production of synthetic gem
materials.
SFM

The largest crystals. P. C. Riclzwood, American Mineralogist, Vol. 66, No. 9 and 10, 1981, pp. 885-907.
T h e greater part of this article consists of a listing with
accompanying explanations of the largest authenticated crystals in nine classes of minerals with 24 separate categories. These crystals, for the most part, are
not attractive or aesthetically pleasing, but they are interesting because of their size. There is theoretically no
limit to the size that crystals can grow, so the list represents the largest that have been found to date.
Crystals mentioned include a 37.5-ton garnet; a 13m-long, 65-ton spodumene; and a transparent perfect
crystal of topaz from Minas Gerais, Brazil, that weighs
300 kg and measures 80 x 60 x 60 cm. Thc topaz crys-,
tal is not the largest ever found, but it is unique because
of its clarity and crystal form. T h e largest crystal of any,
variety ever recorded is a beryl from Malagasy Republic
that is 18 m long and 3.5 m in diameter, with an estimated weight of 379,480 kg. The largest crystal of
which there is photographic evidence is a spodumene
from South Dakota that is 14.3 m (47 feet) long. The
extensive bibliography included underscores the amount
of research involved in compiling the list, which required verifying previous reports in the literature as
well as locating specimens in public and private
collections.
SFM

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

A N ILLUSTRATED
DICTIONARY OF
JEWELRY
By Harold Newman, 334 pp , illus.,
Thames ed Hudson, New Yolk, New
York, 1981. US$29.95'
Gem scholars and those with only
an embryonic interest in jewelry will
enjoy this beautifully executed book.
Containing over 2,500 "pearls of
wisdom" with 685 illustrations, it
would be a welcome addition to any
library, and would collect neither
dust nor cobwebs.
Compiling any dictionary is obviously a monumental undertaking.
Here, however, the author succeeds
in creating enjoyable, informative,
and succinct definitions. Mr. Newman has written two other illustrated dictionaries (one on glass
and the other on ceramics); h e certainly has the magic touch with this
format.
The dictionary includes data concerning famous gems, cutting techniques, trade grades, jewelry-making
materials and processes, designers,
styles, methods of decoration, and
the major gemstones used in jewelry. Also included are brief biographical notes on some outstanding firms and individuals, past and
present. The author has employed
cross-referencing extensively both to
avoid repetition and to provide ideas
for locating related subjects.
The author also provides a superb display of illustrations that are
by n o means ordinary. Of the 685
illustrations, 16 are in color and 37
are line drawings. In addition, the
craftsmanship is excellent, with wellprinted glossy pages. An Illustrated
Dictionary of Jewelry is full of information and is perfect for reference or just browsing. Mr. Newmcin
has put together a quality book.
JAVEN STEIN MORELL
Colored Stones Instructor, CIA

Book Reviews

BOOK

REVIEWS
Michael Ross, Editor

PHOTOGRAPHICAL
ATLAS OF DETRITAL
MINERALS
By Pierre Devismes, 203 pp., illus.,
Bureau de Recherches, B.P. 818, 45
Orleans, France, 1978. US$89.00.
This book is a marvelous pictorial
essay, with 641 excellent color plates
that vividly illustrate over 18 different microscopic alluvial minerals
from localities all over the world.
The minerals illustrated represent a
nearly complete listing of the various species that are likely to be encountered when examining microalluvium from virtually any locality.
The book is written in both French
and English, which will surely broaden
its audience.
After a short forward and introduction, the author briefly describes
the basic methodology of sample
preparation and concentrate separation and illustrates the apparatus
used to take the photographs contained in the book. The major part
of the book, presenting the color
mineral photographs, immediately
follows.
At first glance, there seems to be
no obvious order to the minerals described. Neither a chemical nor an
alphabetical system of classification
was used. The author chose instead
to classify and group the minerals
according to the particular rock type
with which they are commonly associated. This classification system
sometimes falls short, though; for
example, chrysoberyl, which is known

to occur in pegmatites, is found

nowhere near the other pegmatite
minerals such as tourmaline or topaz. Since certain minerals can grow
in a variety of environments, it
might have been better to use either
the well-known Dana System of
classification or a standard alphabetical method, and to add a paragraph at the beginning of each mineral section stating the various rock
types and environments in which
that particular mineral can crystallize. However, this minor drawback
is adequately handled by the inclusion of an alphabetical index of minerals in the back of the volume.
Also included in the back of the
book is a geographic index of the
various localities represented by
photographs of mineral detritus in
the main section.
This book is somewhat limited in
its gemological applications because
localities of major importance to the
gemologist, like Sri Lanka, are not
covered. However, all of the major
and many of the minor gem species
are represented, so the gemologist,
who is accustomed to working with
faceted gems, can get a good education on how these materials look in
their natural state. As stated by the
author, this book is intended primarily for mineralogists and prospectors. But this reviewer recommends it for research and prospecting
gemologists as well. Anyone who
appreciates the beauty of nature's
mineral treasures will surely enjoy
this volume.
JOHN I. KOIVULA
Senior Stuff Geniologist
G1A Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc.

'This book i s available for purchase at

the GIA Bookstore, 1735 Stewart
Street, Santa Monica, C A 90404.

GEMS &. GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

119

Stephanie Dillon, Editor

DIAMONDS
Australia. Subject to the final approval of Ashton Mining, Northern Mining, and the governments of Australia and the state of Western Australia, the Central
Selling Organisation of DeBeers will market all of the
gems and most of the industrial-quality diamonds of
the Ashton Joint Venture. Gem-quality stones will
probably comprise about 10% of the total production.
DeBeers will handle 75% of the near-gem and industrial material, with the remaining 25% to be sold on
the open market.
Botswana. With the depressed market for diamonds,
Botswana's dependence on diamond sales (over 50% of
export earnings and 30% to 35% of government revenues come from diamonds) has resulted in severe economic problen~sfor the country. Even as the government increases the emphasis on coal export and
discusses oil exploration, diamond production continues at the two pipes in Orapa. A high proportion of the
output from this area is industrial quality. Starting this
year, Jwaneng, near Gabarone, will produce diamonds
that for the most part are gem quality. Projected output
for Botswana's three mines exceeds South Africa's entire production. Because of the drop in the diamond
market, however, DeBeers has asked that Botswana
stockpile its stones. DeBeers has a 50% share in the
state mining company (Debswana) and markets the
diamonds through the Central Selling Organisation.
Ghana. Akwatia, the only producing mine i n Ghana,
continues operation through a US$15 million loan underwritten by the government. T h e mine has been operating since 1924, and its reserves are expected to be
depleted in 1983. The government is currently studying
a potentially substantial deposit i n the Biriin River Valley. A diamond cutting and polishing industry is also
under consideration; Ghanaians are to be trained by
Indian craftsmen.
India. Diamond-bearing areas in Madhua Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh will be explored as part of a three-year
government plan to increase domestic diamond supplies. New diamond deposits have been discovered in

120

Gem News

the Trivandrum district, according to the Geological

Survey of India.
Israel. The Israeli government, in an effort to strengthen
the diamond industry, has removed customs duty on
polished diamonds of 0.02 to 1.00 ct and has lifted the
import license requirement.
Lesotho. The Letseng-la-Terai mine, operated by the
Lesotho government and DeBeers Consolidated Mines,
Ltd., is being closed because of the recession in the diamond market. The mine, which opened in the 1970s,
was a major contributor to Lesotho's economy, einploying nearly 800 people. Last
production totaled 52,900 ct.
Namibia. Production for 1982 at Consolidated Diamond Mines was reduced by 20%, owing to the closure
of one of four treatment plants.
South Africa. As it copes with a depressed market,
DeBeers Consolidated Mines is closing the Koffiefontein mine and putting emphasis on Namaqualand,
where smaller diamonds are produced. Koffiefontein
produced 323,000 ct last year; DeBeersJs total output
was 15.4 million ct. In March, DeBeers laid off 498
workers (12% of its total labor force) at the Premier
mine. Last year, the Premier's output was 2 million ct.
New mining activity initiated by the Octha Diamond Company is estimated to increase the company's
present production of 100,000 ct per year to approximately 1 million ct by 1986. Company acquisitions include mines in the Kimberley area, the Barkly West
district, and the Free State. Prospecting has revealed
substantial reserves, with industrial-quality diamonds
comprising about 55% to 60% of the total.
U.S.A. T h e Diamond Club West Coast, Inc., was officially opened May 17. The previous week, the club had
been invited, by unanimous vote, to join the World
Federation of Bourses. There are 125 members in the
West Coast Club, which is located at 606 South Olive
St., Los Angeles, California 90014.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

"Diamond and Jewelry Way" is the new name for

New York City's erstwhile 47th Street. Mayor Ed Koch
presided at the renaming May 14 in sidewalk ceremonies that launched a six-day celebration, New Yorli's
third salute to the fashion and beauty industries.
Zaire. Declining production at the mines, combined
with the effects of illegal mining and trading, has caused
a substantial drop in the national production reported
from Zaire-to 5.7 million ct in 1981 from 13.5 ct in
1974. For 1982, a total of only 6 million ct is anticipated. With alluvial deposits running out, an underground mining operation will be needed to tap the estimated 150 million ct contained in kimberlite. The
government, aided by three independent companies,
intends to establish a cutting industry that will eventually employ 700 workers. Cost of the plant is estimated at US$2 million.

Australia. Emeralds from the Aga Khan mine, in Western Australia, are currently being stockpiled. Approximately 11% of the production is gem quality; the largest crystal found to date is 9.6 ct.
Brazil. In the state of Goias, an emerald deposit discovered within the last year yields stones with a color
that is reported to be superior to that of other Brazilian
emeralds. These new emeralds tend to have high refractive indices. A steady supply is anticipated.
PEARL

Figure 1 . Jewelry suite containing pink topazes,

peridots, and seed pearls in gold. Below are
two stamps that may provide clues to the
origin of these pieces. Suite photo by Tino
Hammid. Stamp photos by Michael Waitzman.

Japan. Members of the Japanese pearl industry are very

concerned about the possibility that the Chinese may
take over processing of their own freshwater product
and become rivals on the world market. To date,
Chinese freshwater pearls are imported into Japan and
processed there for export.
TOPAZ A N D PERIDOT JEWELRY SUITE
Currently on display at GIA is the suite pictured in figure 1. It contains approximately 88 ct of Brazilian topaz
and 148 ct of almost perfectly matched peridots from
the island of Zabargad in the Red Sea (see article, Gems
&> Gemology, Spring 1981). The largest cushion-cut
stone in the necklace weighs approximately 26 ct. The
topazes were originally orange to yellow-orange, but
were rendered pink through heat treatment. They are
set with 164 fully drilled natural seed pearls in 18-ct
pink gold that has been plated over with high-karat
yellow gold.

Gem News

An owl hallmark indicates French import in the

year 1893. Another stamp (impressed twice) is a ram's
head; there is also the symbol of a swan, above which
is an impression containing an umbrella shape surrounded by letters (again, see figure 1). Anyone who
might be able to furnish further information about the
suite on the basis of these stamps is invited to write to
the address given at the end of this section.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982

121

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Winner of the 1982 George A.
Schuetz Memorial Fund Jewelry Design Contest is Judith M. Evans, of
J.B. Hudson Jewelers, Minneapolis,
Minnesota. The scholarship of $500
was awarded for her original rendering of a man's ring featuring 18 diamond baguettes in a setting of 18karat gold and platinum.
The Schuetz scholarship is offered
annually for a distinguished design
in men's jewelry and may be used
for training in a jewelry-related subject at any institute of the winner's
choosing. The 1983 Schuetz Memorial Design Contest will be open
in October of this year. Contest rules
and applications will be available at
that time from the Scholarship Office, Gemological Institute of America, 1660 Stewart St., Santa Monica,
California 90404.
The Association of Women Gemologists, newly organized by Anna M.
Miller of Pearland, Texas, and Elaine
Baker of La Jolla, California, is con-

Figure 2. Schuetz Contest winner.

ducting a membership drive. The
association is open to women who
are gemologists, graduate gemologists, certified gemologists, F.G.A.'s
or the equivalent. The association
plans to publish a membership directory and monthly newsletter, At
present, no dues are being collected.
For further information, please contact: Anna M. Miller, P.O. Box 1179,
Pearland, Texas 7758 1.

Deutsches Edelstein und Mineralienmuseum Museum-6580 IdarOberstein 2, Mainzer Strasse 34.

Telephone: (0681) 4821-4822. Reopened in April 1982, the newly enlarged museum exhibits cut gemstones and gem mineral specimens
from all over the world. A recent
addition is the unique collection of
more than 200 carved pieces that
demonstrate the evolution of the
carving art over 6,000 years. A pegmatite gem pocket from Madagascar
is also on display, with beryl and
quartz crystals. Other exhibits feature gem phenomena, pleochroism,
inclusions, and discoveries of the
20th century. The museum is open
year round, except for Christmas.

Gems s) Gemology welcomes news

of exhibits and events of a gemological nature. Please contact Stephanie Dillon, Gemological Institute of America, 1660 Stewart St.,
Santa Monica, CA 90404. Telephone: (213)829-2991.

.Allbritton, Baron, Bridges, C. Chatham, T. Chatham,

Crowningshield, Ehrenwald, Gilbert, Gill, Gleim,
Gubelin, Hobbs, Hofer, Hori, Hucker, Kalokerinos,
Kane, Kaplan, Keller, Koivula, Landrigan, Latendresse,
Larson, Liddicoat, Manson, Meyer, Morrow, Nassau,
Patterson, Rossman, Roedder, Rothschild, Sauer,
Shire, Sinkankas, Stockton, Strong, Sweaney, Tiffany,
Wheeler, Wilson, Yantzer, Zucker., .
. D i a m o n d s - Origins & Sources, Colored Stones -.
Properties, Synthetics & Stimulants-Growth &
Properties, Pearls -Sources, Supplies & Properties,
Diamonds - Properties, Colored Stones - Sources &
Marketing, General Gemology, Reports on Gems &
Gem Occurrences, Diamonds - Marketing & Grading,
Colored Stones-Sources & Supplies, Inclusions ...

International Gemological Symposium Proceedings Now Available

Contact: GIA Bookstore 1735 Stewart Street PO Box 2052 -Santa Monica CA 90406
213 829 3126 or 213 829 2991

122

Gem News

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Summer 1982