A

Project Report
On

CONSTRUCTION OF EIFFEL TOWER

Under the subject of
Project Management
Submitted to
Prof.Neeta Pathak
Assistance professor
Submitted By
Kinjal Trivedi ( F 26)

S.V. Institute of Management Kadi

SEM-IV

CONSTRUCTION OF EIFFEL
TOWER

The Eiffel Tower (French: La tour Eiffel, [tu fl]) is an iron lattice tower located on the
Champ de Mars in Paris. It was named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company
designed and built the tower. Erected in 1889 as the entrance arch to the 1889 World's Fair, it
was initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, but has
become both a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognizable structures in the
world.
The tower is the tallest structure in Paris and the most-visited paid monument in the world; 6.98
million people ascended it in 2011. The tower received its 250 millionth visitor in 2010.
The tower is 324 metres (1,063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81-storey building. During
its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to assume the title of the
tallest man-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years, until the Chrysler Building in
New York City was built in 1930. Because of the addition of the aerial atop the Eiffel Tower in
1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Not including broadcast
aerials, it is the second-tallest structure in France, after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second. The third level
observatory's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground, the highest accessible to the
public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift (elevator) to
the first and second levels.
The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the walk from the first to the
second level. Although there are stairs to the third and highest level, these are usually closed to
the public and it is generally only accessible by lift.

History

First drawing of the Eiffel Tower by Maurice Koechlin

The design of the Eiffel Tower was originated by Maurice Koechlin and mile Nouguier, two
senior engineers who worked for the Compagnie des tablissements Eiffel, after discussion
about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a World's Fair which
would celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution.
In May 1884 Koechlin, working at home, made an outline drawing of their scheme, described by
him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming
together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals Initially Eiffel himself
showed little enthusiasm, but he did sanction further study of the project, and the two engineers
then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of company's architectural department, to contribute to
the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base, a glass pavilion to the first level, and
other embellishments.
This enhanced version gained Eiffel's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design
which Koechlin, Nougier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was exhibited at the
Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March
1885 Eiffel presented a paper on the project to the Socit des Inginieurs Civils; after discussing
the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by
saying that the tower would symbolise

"not only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which
we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the
eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an
expression of France's gratitude."
Little happened until the beginning of 1886, when Jules Grvy was re-elected as President and
douard Lockroy was appointed as Minister for Trade. A budget for the Exposition was passed
and on 1 May Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition which was
being held for a centerpiece for the exposition, which effectively made the choice of Eiffel's
design a foregone conclusion: all entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided
metal tower on the Champ de Mars.
On 12 May a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals and on 12 June it
presented its decision, which was that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or
insufficiently worked out.
After some debate about the exact site for the tower, a contract was finally signed on 8 January
1887. This was signed by Eiffel acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his
company, and granted him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of
the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial
exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the following twenty years. Eiffel later
established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital
himself.
The projected tower had been a subject of some controversy, attracting criticism from both those
who did not believe that it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds, whose
objections were an expression of a longstanding debate about the relationship between
architecture and engineering. This came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: A
"Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed,
led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures
of the French arts establishment, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles

Gounod and Jules Massenet: a petition was sent to Charles Alphand, the Minister of Works and
Commissioner for the Exposition, and was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887.
Some of the protestors were to change their minds when the tower was built: others remained
unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day
because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.
Today, the tower is widely considered to be a striking piece of structural art. It is often featured
in films and literature. Already before 1918 it had become a symbol for Paris and for France,
when Guillaume Apollinaire made a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to
express his feelings about the war against Germany.

Construction

Foundations of the Eiffel Tower

Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were
straightforward, each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal
girders of each leg but the other two, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated:
each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m
(20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) to support the concrete slabs, which were
6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block built of limestone each with an inclined
top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.

Each shoe was anchored into the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m
(25 ft) long. The foundations were complete by 30 June and the erection of the ironwork began.
The very visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting
preparatory work that was entailed: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and
3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the
components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of
precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 0.1 mm (0.04 in) and angles
worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into
sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from the factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of
Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, the bolts being replaced by rivets as construction
progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit it was sent back to the
factory for alteration. In all there were 18,038 pieces joined by two and a half million rivets.[

The start of the erection of the metalwork

At first the legs were constructed as cantilevers but about halfway to the first level construction
was paused in order to construct a substantial timber scaffold. This caused a renewal of the
concerns about the structural soundness of the project, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel
Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been confined in an Asylum" appeared in the
popular press.[ At this stage a small "creeper" crane was installed in each leg, designed to move
up the tower as construction progressed and making use of the guides for the lifts which were to
be fitted in each leg. The critical stage of joining the four legs at the first level was complete by
the end of March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost precision,
provision had been made to carry out small adjustments in order to precisely align the legs:
hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, each capable of exerting a force

of 800 tonnes, and in addition the legs had been intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper
angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction
involved 30[ on-site employees, only one person died thanks to Eiffel's stringent safety
precautions and use of movable stagings, guard-rails, and screens.

7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding.

20 March 1888: Completion of 1st level.

15 May 1888: Start of construction of second stage.

21 August 1888: Completion to 2nd level

26 December 1888: Construction of upper stage

15 March 1889: Construction of cupola

The Roux, Combaluzier et Lepape lifts during construction: note the drive sprockets and chain in
foreground
Equipping the Tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the
government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to
climb to the first or even the second stage, the main means of ascent clearly had to be lifts.[
Constructing lifts to reach the first platform was relatively straightforward: the legs of the lower
section were wide enough and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track, and a
contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier and Lepape for two lifts to be
fitted in the east and west legs. Roux, Combaluzier and Lepape used a pair of endless chains with
rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the chains
upper or return sections counterbalanced most of the cars weight. The car was pushed up by the
links below, not drawn by those above: to prevent the chain buckling it was enclosed in a
conduit. At the bottom of the run the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter
sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.

The Otis lifts originally fitted in the north and south legs
The lifts to the second platform presented a more complex problem, because a straight track was
not possible. No French company was willing to undertake the work. The European branch of
Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal but this was rejected: the fairs charter ruled out
the use of any foreign material in the construction of the Tower. The deadline for bids was
extended, but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was

given to Otis in July 1887.[ Otis had been confident that they would eventually be given the
contract and had already started design studies. The car was divided into two superimposed
compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform
on the lower level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram, 12.67 m (36 ft)
long 96.5 cm (38 in) diameter 10.83 m 35 ft 6 in stroke in the tower leg: this moved a carriage
carrying six sheaves.
Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block
and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force
generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir
on the second platform. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up
to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir
also provided power to the lifts to the first level.
The original lifts from the second to the third floor were supplied by Lon Edoux. A pair of 81 m
(266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the
third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up
to sheaves on the third level and then back down to a second car. Each car only travelled half the
distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts
halfway by means of a short gangway. The ten-ton cars held 65 passengers each.

Inauguration and the 1889 Exposition

General view of the Exposition Universelle

The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and on the 31st Eiffel
celebrated this by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the
press, to the top of the tower. Since the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by
foot, and took over an hour, Eiffel frequently stopping to make explanations of various features.
Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including Nouguier, Compagnon,
the President of the City Council and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustr completed
the climb.
At 2:35 Eiffel hoisted a large French flag, to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired from
the lower level. There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and the fitting out of the
facilities for visitors, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening
of the Exposition on 6 May: even then the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an
immediate success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710-step climb to the
top using the stairs before the lifts entered service on 26 May.
Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price
admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.

Design of the tower

Material

The Eiffel Tower from belo

The puddled iron (wrought iron) structure of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tonnes, while the
entire structure, including non-metal components, is approximately 10,000 tonnes. As a
demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tonnes of the metal structure were melted
down it would fill the 125-metre-square base to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.5 in), assuming the
density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic metre

Wind considerations

Looking upwards from the base of the tower at night

At the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape. Eiffel was
accused of trying to create something artistic without regard to engineering. However, Eiffel and
his engineers, as experienced bridge builders, understood the importance of wind forces and
knew that if they were going to build the tallest structure in the world they had to be certain it
would withstand them. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps (Paris) of 14 February
1887, Eiffel said:[52]
Now to what phenomenon did I give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind
resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as
mathematical calculation dictated it should be will give a great impression of strength and
beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.
Eiffel used empirical and graphical methods accounting for the effects of wind rather than a
specific mathematical formula. Careful examination of the tower shows a basically exponential
shape (actually two different exponentials, the lower section overdesigned to ensure resistance to
wind forces. Several mathematical explanations have been proposed over the years for the
success of the design; the most recent is described as a nonlinear integral equation based on
counterbalancing the wind pressure on any point on the tower with the tension between the
construction elements at that point. As proof of the tower's effectiveness in wind resistance, it
sways only 67 cm (23 in) in the wind.

Accommodation
When built, the first level contained three restaurants (one French, one Russian and one Flemish)
and an "Anglo-American Bar". After the exposition closed the Flemish restaurant was converted
to a 250 seat theatre. A 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) promenade ran around the outside.
On the third level there were laboratories for various experiments and a small apartment reserved
for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests. This is now visible to the public, complete with period
decorations and lifelike models of Gustave and some guests.

Passenger lifts
As described the arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the course of the
Tower's history.
Owing to the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to get the cars level with the landings,
each lift in normal service takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip,
spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each floor. The average journey time between
floors is just 1 minute.
The 1899 east and west hydraulic mechanism works are on display to the public in a small
museum in the base of the east and west towers, which is somewhat hidden from public view.
Because the massive mechanism requires frequent lubrication and attention, public access is
often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower is visible to visitors as they exit from the
lift.

Engraved names
Main article: List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower

A few of the names on the tower

Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower seventy-two names of French scientists, engineers, and
mathematicians in recognition of their contributions. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science"
because of his concern over the artists' protests against the tower. This engraving was painted
over at the beginning of the twentieth century but restored in 19861987 by the Socit Nouvelle
d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company contracted to operate business related to the Tower.

Maintenance
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 50 to 60 tonnes (49 to 59 long tons; 55 to 66 short
tons) of paint every seven years to protect it from rust. The height of the Eiffel Tower varies by
15 cm (5.9 in) due to temperature.
On the first floor there are interactive consoles hosting a poll for the colour to use for the next
repaint.

Visitors queuing to enter the Tower

Transport
The nearest Paris Mtro station is Bir-Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de MarsTour Eiffel.The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Ina.

Popularity
More than 250 million people have visited the tower since its construction in 1889: in 2012 there
were 6,180,000 visitors. The tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world. An average
of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day which can cause long queues. Tickets can be
purchased online to avoid long queues.