Popolo Reference Manual

BY

SA

Copyright (c) 2010 Eisuke Togashi

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the
terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no
Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included
in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

Popolo Reference Manual

Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................................5
1.1 What is Popolo...................................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Where to Download Popolo..............................................................................................................................5
1.3 Making the first simple program.......................................................................................................................5
Chapter 2 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties......................................................................................................8
2.1 Name space for calculating thermodynamic properties....................................................................................8
2.2 Calculating thermodynamic properties of moist air..........................................................................................8
2.2.1 The members of the MoistAir class..........................................................................................................8
2.2.2 How to calculate thermodynamic properties of the moist air................................................................10
2.2.3 Calculation of saturated moist air...........................................................................................................12
2.2.4 Immutable interface for MoistAir class..................................................................................................12
2.2.5 Other methods defined in MoistAIr class...............................................................................................13
1) BlendAir method....................................................................................................................................13
2) GetDynamicViscosity method...............................................................................................................13
3) GetSpecificHeat method........................................................................................................................13
4) GetThermalConductivity method..........................................................................................................13
5) GetWaterVaporPressure method............................................................................................................13
Chapter 3 Calculating Circuit Network......................................................................................................................14
3.1 Name space for calculating circuit network....................................................................................................14
3.2 General descriptions of classes in CircuitNetwork namespace......................................................................14
3.2.1 Node class...............................................................................................................................................14
3.2.2 Channel class...........................................................................................................................................15
3.2.3 Circuit class.............................................................................................................................................16
3.2.4 CircuitSolver class..................................................................................................................................16
3.3 Sample programs calculating circuit networks...............................................................................................17
3.3.1 Calculating a water pipe network...........................................................................................................17
3.3.2 Calculating heat flow through a wall......................................................................................................18
Chapter 4 Calculating Thermal Comfort....................................................................................................................20
4.1 Name space for calculating thermal comfort..................................................................................................20
4.2 General descriptions of classes in ThermalComfort name space...................................................................20
4.2.1 PMVCalculator class..............................................................................................................................20
1) Tasks.......................................................................................................................................................20
2) GetMet....................................................................................................................................................20
3) GetPMVFromPPD.................................................................................................................................21
4) GetPPDFromPMV.................................................................................................................................21
5) TryCalculateDryBulbTemperature.........................................................................................................21
6) TryCalculateHeatLossFromBody..........................................................................................................22
7) TryCalculatePMV..................................................................................................................................22
4.2.2 SETStarCalculator class.........................................................................................................................22
4.2.3 HumanBody class...................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 5 Calculating Weather State..........................................................................................................................28
5.1 Name space for calculating weather state.......................................................................................................28
5.2 Descriptions of classes....................................................................................................................................28
5.2.1 Incline class.............................................................................................................................................28
5.2.2 Sky class..................................................................................................................................................30
5.2.3 Sun class..................................................................................................................................................30
1) Constructor.............................................................................................................................................30
2) Static methods........................................................................................................................................31
3) Other properties and methods defined in Sun class...............................................................................33
5.3 Sample programs of calculating weather state................................................................................................34
Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building......................................................................................................35
6.1 Name space for calculating thermal load of building.....................................................................................35
6.2 General descriptions of classes defined in Popolo.ThermalLoad name space...............................................36
6.2.1 GlassPanes class......................................................................................................................................36
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6.2.2 Window class..........................................................................................................................................41

6.2.3 AirFlowWindow class.............................................................................................................................44
6.2.4 SunShade class........................................................................................................................................44
6.2.5 WallLayers class......................................................................................................................................47
6.2.6 Wall class.................................................................................................................................................51
1) Unsteady heat conduction of normal wall.............................................................................................51
2) Unsteady heat conduction of wall with heating and cooling tube.........................................................55
3) Unsteady heat conduction of wall with latent heat storage materials...................................................58
6.2.7 The classes related to heat gain and cooling of rooms...........................................................................61
1) Description of building..........................................................................................................................62
2) Simulate with Zone class (Simplified algorithm)..................................................................................64
3) Simulate with MultiRoom class (Detailed algorithm)...........................................................................74

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Popolo Reference Manual

Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 What is Popolo
Popolo is a collection of classes for calculating various heat transfer phenomena. The routines have been
written from scratch in C#, and present a modern Applications Programming Interface (API) for .NET Framework
programmers, allowing wrappers to be written for very high level languages. It contains classes to calculate solid
conduction, convective heat transfer near wall surfaces, air ventilation, radiative heat balance of wall surfaces,
transmitted solar radiation through a window, and so on. Users should build up these classes to simulate a whole
complex building system. A sample source code to build test cases of BESTEST are provided. Since all the source
code is distributed under the GNU General Public License, they can be freely downloaded from the Web site.
This manual describes how to use Popolo in your program. Some example codes are also provided.

1.2 Where to Download Popolo

The latest release of Popolo can be downloaded from website (http://www.hvacsimulator.net). If you
extract zipped file, you can find two dll files, Popolo.dll and GSLNET.dll. Popolo.dll is a main file and
GSLNET.dll numerical library which is used in Popolo. GSLNET.dll is a wrapper library for GSL (GNU
Scientific Library).

1.3 Making the first simple program

In order to use a Popolo.dll in your application, you must first add a reference to it. The procedure to
make reference to dll files with Visual Studio 2008 is described below.
Figure 1.1 shows the start up window of Visual Studio. Selecting File - New - Project, you can
open New project window as shown in Figure 1.2. Select Visual C# and Console Application, then click
1)
OK button.

Fig.1.1 Start up window of Visual Studio

1) You may also use some other languages which support .NET Framework such as C++.NET or Basic.NET.
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Chapter 1 Introduction

Fig.1.2 New Project Window

As shown in figure 1.3, a simple program is automatically generated by Visual Studio. In Solution
Explorer, right-click on the project node and click Add Reference. In the Add Reference dialog box (Figure 1.4),
select the Browse tab to browse for Popolo.dll in the file system (Figure 1.5). You can find that the reference
to the Popolo.dll is added in the Solution Explorer (Figure 1.6).

Fig.1.3 Console application project automatically generated by Visual Studio

Fig.1.5 Add Reference dialog box 2

Fig.1.4 Add Reference dialog box 1

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Popolo Reference Manual

Fig.1.6 Reference to Popolo.dll

Popolo.dll includes various types of classes to execute building environmental simulation. They are
divided into some name spaces. C# programs are organized using namespaces. using directives are provided to
facilitate the use of namespaces.
The following example (Figure 1.7) shows how to define a using directive. In line 3,
Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty namespace is referenced. It is the namespace that provides classes to calculate
thermo-physical property of water or moist air. In line 11, MoistAir class which belongs to
Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty is called.
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using System;
using Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty;
namespace ConsoleApplication
{
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
double cpAir = MoistAir.GetSpecificHeat(0.018);
Console.WriteLine("Specific heat of moist air at humidity ratio of 0.018 kg/kg(DA) is" + cpAir.ToString(F3) + "kJ/K");
Console.Read();
}
}
}

Fig.1.7 Sample program using Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty namespace

Either by hitting F5 key or choosing "Start Debugging" from the menu, the executable will start. Figure
1.8 is the result of the program. You can find that the specific heat of moist air is successfully calculated

Fig.1.8 The result of the first sample program

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Chapter 2 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties

Chapter 2 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties

2.1 Name space for calculating thermodynamic properties
The classes which calculate a thermodynamic properties belong to Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty
namespace. Table 2.1 shows principal members defined in Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty namespace.
Table 2.1 Principal members defined in Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty namespace
Name

Type

General function

MoistAir

class

A class which express the moist air. The functions which calculates
thermodynamic properties of the moist air is also defined in this class.

ImmutableMoistAir

interface

Read only interface for MoistAir class.

Water

static class

The functions which calculates thermodynamic properties of the water is

defined in this class.

2.2 Calculating thermodynamic properties of moist air

The MoistAir class can be used to calculate thermodynamic properties of the moist air. Most of functions
1)
2)
are transported from HVACSIM . and some of the functions are based on the Udagawa's program .
2.2.1

The members of the MoistAir class

There are 7 primary variables which characterize a moist air, Drybulb temperature, Wetbulb
temperature, Enthalpy, Relative humidity, Humidity ratio, Specific volume and Atmospheric pressure.
These variables are defined as properties of the MoistAir class as shown in the table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Properties of the MoistAir class
Name

Mean

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

DryBulbTemperature

Drybulb temperature

yes

double

WetBulbTemperature

Wetbulb temperature

yes

double

Enthalpy

yes

kJ/kg

double

Relative humidity

yes

double

Humidity ratio

yes

kg/kg(DA)

double

Enthalpy
RelativeHumidity
HumidityRatio
SpecificVolume
AtmosphericPressure

Specific volume

yes

m /kg

double

Atmospheric pressure

yes

kPa

double

Figure 2.1 is the sample code which edits the values of the properties of MoistAir object. In the line 11, an
instance of the MoistAir class is created. From line 13 to line 20, values are set to the properties. From line 22 to
line 29, the values of the MoistAir object is written to the standard output stream.

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Popolo Reference Manual

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using System;
using Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty;
namespace ConsoleApplication
{
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
//Creating instance of MoistAir class
MoistAir mAir = new MoistAir();
//Set values to property
mAir.DryBulbTemperature = 25.6;
mAir.HumidityRatio = 0.018;
mAir.RelativeHumidity = 50.0;
mAir.WetBulbTemperature = 22;
mAir.SpecificVolume = 0.86;
mAir.Enthalpy = 58.0;
mAir.AtmosphericPressure = 101.325;
//Output values of properties
Console.WriteLine("Drybulb Temperature:" + mAir.DryBulbTemperature);
Console.WriteLine("Humidity Ratio:" + mAir.HumidityRatio);
Console.WriteLine("Relative Humidity:" + mAir.RelativeHumidity);
Console.WriteLine("Wetbulb Temperature:" + mAir.WetBulbTemperature);
Console.WriteLine("Specific Volume:" + mAir.SpecificVolume);
Console.WriteLine("Enthalpy:" + mAir.Enthalpy);
Console.WriteLine("Atmospheric Pressure:" + mAir.AtmosphericPressure);

Console.Read();

Fig.2.1 The sample code to edit the values of the MoistAir property

Figure 2.2 shows the result of the sample code 2.1.

Fig.2.2 Result of the sample code 2.1

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Chapter 2 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties

2.2.2

How to calculate thermodynamic properties of the moist air

An enumeration type Property which expresses the moist air properties is defined in MoistAir class.
Table 2.3 shows a list of MoistAir.Property enumerator.
For each atmospheric pressure, two known properties allow determination of all other properties of the
moist air. To calculate thermodynamic properties from two known properties, user can use static methods shown
in table 2.4. The static methods are named as GetAirStateFromXXYY, where XX and YY represent two known
properties. DB is Dry-Bulb temperature, HR is Humidity Ratio, RH is Relative Humidity, EN is ENthalpy, WB is
Wet-Bulb temperature, SV is Specific Volume.
Table 2.3 A list of MoistAir.Property enumerator
Name

Meaning

DryBulbTemperature

Drybulb Temperature[C]

WetBulbTemperature

Wetbulb Temperature [C]

HumidityRatio

Humidity Ratio [kg/kg(DA)]

RelativeHumidity

Relative Humidity [%]

Enthalpy

Enthalpy [kJ/kg]

WaterPartialPressure

Water Partial Pressure [kPa]

SpecificVolume

Specific Volume [m3/kg]

SaturatedTemperature

Saturated Temperature [C]

Table 2.4 Static methods to calculate thermodynamic properties of the moist air
Name

General function

GetAirStateFromAHEN

Calculate thermodynamic properties from humidity ratio [kg/kg] and enthalpy [kJ/kg]

GetAirStateFromAHRH

Calculate thermodynamic properties from humidity ratio [kg/kg] and relative humidity [%]

GetAirStateFromAHSV

Calculate thermodynamic properties from humidity ratio [kg/kg] and specific volume [m3/kg]

GetAirStateFromDBAH

Calculate thermodynamic properties from dry bulb temperature [C] and humidity ratio [kg/kg]

GetAirStateFromDBEN

Calculate thermodynamic properties from dry bulb temperature [C] and enthalpy [kJ/kg]

GetAirStateFromDBRH

Calculate thermodynamic properties from dry bulb temperature [C] and relative humidity [%]

GetAirStateFromDBSV

Calculate thermodynamic properties from dry bulb temperature [C] and specific volume [m3/kg]

GetAirStateFromDBWB

Calculate thermodynamic properties from dry bulb temperature [C] and wet bulb temperature [C]

GetAirStateFromRHEN

Calculate thermodynamic properties from relative humidity [%] and enthalpy [kJ/kg]

GetAirStateFromRHSV

Calculate thermodynamic properties from relative humidity [%] and specific volume [m3/kg]

GetAirStateFromWBAH

Calculate thermodynamic properties from wet bulb temperature [C] and humidity ratio [kg/kg]

GetAirStateFromWBEN

Calculate thermodynamic properties from wet bulb temperature [C] and enthalpy [kJ/kg]

GetAirStateFromWBRH

Calculate thermodynamic properties from wet bulb temperature [C] and relative humidity [%]

GetAirStateFromWBSV

Calculate thermodynamic properties from wet bulb temperature [C] and specific volume [m3/kg]

Each method is over loaded and have 4 combinations of parameters. Table 2.5 shows return value and 4
combinations of parameters.
The first and the second method calculates all the thermodynamic properties of the moist air from given
two state. It returns MoistAir object whose Properties are correctly set upped. The second method request a value
of atmospheric pressure as third parameter. By contrast, the first method suppose the value of the atmospheric
pressure as 101.325 kPa.
The third and the fourth method calculates value of only one specific property of the moist air. They need
shorter calculating time than the first and the second method.

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 2.5 Return value and 4 combinations of parameters
No.

Return value

param 1

param 2

param 3

param 4

MoistAir object

value of specific
property 1

value of specific
property 2

N/A

N/A

MoistAir object

value of specific
property 1

value of specific
property 2

atmospheric pressure
[kPa]

N/A

value of specific property (double)

value of specific
property 1

value of specific
property 2

MoistAir.Property

N/A

value of specific property (double)

value of specific
property 1

value of specific
property 2

MoistAir.Property

atmospheric pressure
[kPa]

Figure 2.3 shows the sample code which calculates the values of the properties of MoistAir. In the line 14,
using GetAirStateFromDBHR method, state of the moist air is calculated from the value of dry bulb temperature
and humidity ratio. The value of the moist air are written to the standard output stream. In the line 27,
MoistAir.Property enumerator is given as third parameter of the GetAirStateFromDBEN method. Therefore,
only the value of humidity ratio is calculated.
Figure 2.4 shows the result.
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using System;
using Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty;
namespace ConsoleApplication
{
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
//Create an instance of the MoistAIr class
MoistAir mAir;
//Calculate state of the moist air from given two properties (DB 25 C, AH 0.012 kg/kg)
mAir = MoistAir.GetAirStateFromDBAH(25, 0.012);
//Write value of the moist air to standard output stream.
Console.WriteLine("Dry bulb temperature:" + mAir.DryBulbTemperature.ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine("Humidity ratio:" + mAir.HumidityRatio.ToString("F3"));
Console.WriteLine("Relative humidity:" + mAir.RelativeHumidity.ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine("Wet bulb temperature:" + mAir.WetBulbTemperature.ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine("Specific volume:" + mAir.SpecificVolume.ToString("F3"));
Console.WriteLine("Enthalpy:" + mAir.Enthalpy.ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine("Atmospheric pressure:" + mAir.AtmosphericPressure.ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine();
//Calculate relative humidity from dry bulb temperature and enthalpy.
double rHumid = MoistAir.GetAirStateFromDBEN(25, 58, MoistAir.Property.RelativeHumidity);
Console.WriteLine("Relative Humidity:" + rHumid.ToString("F1"));

Console.Read();

Fig.2.3 The sample code calculating the values of the properties of moist air

Fig.2.4 Result of the sample code

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Chapter 2 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties

2.2.3

Calculation of saturated moist air

Table 2.6 shows the lists of static method to calculate saturated moist air state. They take two or three
arguments. The first argument is value of a specific property of the moist air (ex. dry-bulb temperature, humidity
ratio). The second argument is MoistAir.Property, the enumerating object. The third object is value of
atmospheric pressure.
Table 2.6 The lists of static method to calculate saturated moist air state
Name

General function

GetSaturatedDrybulbTemperature

Calculate saturated dry-bulb temperature from one of value of moist air property.

GetSaturatedHumidityRatio

Calculate saturated humidity ratio from one of value of moist air property.

GetSaturatedEnthalpy

Calculate saturated enthalpy from one of value of moist air property.

GetSaturatedVaporPressure

Calculate saturated vapor pressure from one of value of moist air property.

2.2.4

Immutable interface for MoistAir class

As described above, MoistAir object has double type properties which contains values of the moist air
states (ex. dry-bulb temperature, humidity ratio). Therefore, MoistAir object could be an argument or return value
of some other method. For example, when we calculate an air handling unit, a cooling coil need state of inlet
moist air which is outlet state of a fan. In this case, a MoistAir object will be given from a Fan object to a
CoolingCoil object. Since the cooling coil has no ability to alter the value of inlet moist air state, the access for
properties of MoistAir objects should be denied from the CoolingCoil object.
To enable this access control, ImmutableMoistAir interface is provided. ImmutableMoistAir interface has
exactly same properties as MoistAir class, but only get accessors are defined. Therefore, we can't set values to
ImmutableMoistAir properties. They are read-only properties. MoistAir object can be treated as
ImmutableMoistAir object, since it implements ImmutableMoistAir interface. Figure 2.5 is the UML diagrams.
ImmutableMoistAir

MoistAir

+Get State of moist air

+Set State of moist air

+Get State of moist air

Fig.2.5 UML diagram of MoistAir class and ImmutableMoistAir interface

Figure 2.6 is a sample code which uses ImmutableMoistAir interface.

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using System;
using Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty;
namespace ConsoleApplication
{
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
//Create an instance of ImmutableMoistAir
ImmutableMoistAir mAir;
//Create MoistAir object and set it to ImmutableMoistAir object
mAir = MoistAir.GetAirStateFromDBAH(25, 0.012);
//Compile error occurs since ImmutableMoistAir interface doesn't have set accessors
//mAir.DryBulbTemperature = 27;
//mAir.Enthalpy = 56;

Fig. 2.6 Sample code which uses ImmutableMoistAir interface.

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Popolo Reference Manual

2.2.5
1)

Other methods defined in MoistAIr class

BlendAir method

To calculate blended moist air state, BlendAir method is defined. Table 2.7 shows arguments of BlendAir
method. Figure 2.7 is a sample code which uses BlendAir method. It creates two ImmutableMoistAir objects and
blend them (mixing ratio is 3:7).
Table 2.7 Arguments of BlendAir method
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Argument 3

Blended moist air 1

(ImmutableMoistAir)

Blended moist air 2

(ImmutableMoistAir)

List of blended moist air

(ImmutableMoistAir[ ])

Blend rate of moist air

(double[ ])

Dry-bulb temperature list of

blended moist air
(double[ ])

Humidity raiot list of blended

moist air
(double[ ])

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Blend rate of moist air 1

(double)

Argument 4
Blend rate of moist air 2
(double)

using System;
using Popolo.ThermophysicalProperty;
namespace ConsoleApplication
{
class Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
//Create an instance of MoistAir class
ImmutableMoistAir mAir1, mAir2, blendAir;
//Calculate moist air state (DB 25C, AH 0.012kg/kgDA)
mAir1 = MoistAir.GetAirStateFromDBAH(25, 0.012);
//Calculate moist air state (DB 30C, AH 0.014kg/kgDA)
mAir2 = MoistAir.GetAirStateFromDBAH(30, 0.014);
//Blend moist air. (Blend rate is 3:7)
blendAir = MoistAir.BlendAir(mAir1, mAir2, 0.3, 0.7);

Console.WriteLine("Dry bulb temperature:" + blendAir.DryBulbTemperature);

Console.WriteLine("Humidty ratio:" + blendAir.HumidityRatio);
Console.WriteLine("Relative humidity:" + blendAir.RelativeHumidity);
Console.WriteLine("Wet bulb temperature:" + blendAir.WetBulbTemperature);
Console.WriteLine("Specific volume:" + blendAir.SpecificVolume);
Console.WriteLine("Enthalpy:" + blendAir.Enthalpy);

Fig. 2.7 Sample code which uses BlendAir method

2)

GetDynamicViscosity method
Method to calculate dynamic viscosity [m2/s] of moist air. An argument is dry bulb temperature.

3)

GetSpecificHeat method
Method to calculate specific heat [kJ/(kg K)] of moist air. An argument is humidity ratio.

4)

GetThermalConductivity method
Method to calculate thermal conductivity [W/(m K)] of moist air. An argument is dry bulb temperature.

5)

GetWaterVaporPressure method

Method to calculate water vapor pressure [kPa] of moist air. An argument is humidity ratio (and
atmospheric pressure).
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Chapter 3 Calculating Circuit Network

Chapter 3 Calculating Circuit Network

3.1 Name space for calculating circuit network
The classes which calculate a circuit network belong to Popolo.CircuitNetwork namespace. Table 3.1
shows principal members defined in Popolo.CircuitNetwork namespace.
Table 3.1 Principal members defined in Popolo.CircuitNetwork namespace
Name

Type

General function

Channel

class

A class which expresses a channel.

Circuit

class

A class which expresses a circuit. It consists of Channel and Node object.

CircuitSolver

class

A class which solve a Circuit object.

ImmutableChannel

interface

Read only interface for Channel class.

ImmutableCircuit

interface

Read only interface for Circuit class.

ImmutableNode

interface

Read only interface for Node class.

Node

class

A class which expresses a node.

3)

A potential at each node in circuit network can be expressed in equation 3.1 . To solve a circuit network,
user should make a Circuit object with a Channel and a Node object, which expresses equation 3.1. Then, solve
the Circuit object with a CircuitSolver object.
N

dp
1
m = p i p G
dt i=0 Ri

(3.1)

m : Capacity of node p : Potential of node N : Number of nodes which are connected to target node
Ri : Resistance between nodes G : Energy flow from the outside to node : resistive index (1 2)

3.2 General descriptions of classes in CircuitNetwork namespace

3.2.1

Node class

Node is a class which expresses a node. A principal parameters of node are potential and capacity. A
variable p and m in equation 3.1 represent potential and capacity. If the capacity is very small, value of the
potential changes rapidly with the energy flow. User can initialize these value in constructor. For example, to
make Node object whose capacity and potential are 5 and 10, user should write code like below. The first
argument is a name of the node, the second is value of the capacity, and the third is value of the potential.
Node sampleNode = new Node("SampleNode", 5, 10)
To get the list of the channels which are connected to the node, use GetChannels method. To get the total
energy flow to node, use GetTotalFlow method. If the returned value of GetTotalFlow method is less than 0,
energy flows to outside of the node.
If the node is the boundary node (the node whose potential should be kept constant value), set value of the
IsBoundaryNode property to true. To make constant energy flow to the node, set the energy flow to the
ExternalFlow property. If the ExternalFlow is positive value, it means that energy flows from node to outside. If
negative, energy flows from outside to node. A variable G in equation 3.1 represent the ExternalFlow.
These properties are used when user make boundary condition. Fig.3.1 shows how to set the boundary
conditions.

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Popolo Reference Manual

-G

p1

g1
p2

P
g2

To fix value of the potential, set true to the

IsBoundaryNode property

To make constant energy flow, use

ExternalFlow property

Figure 3.1 How to set the boundary conditions

As same as the MoistAir class, an immutable interface (ImmutableNode) for the Node class is defined.
The Node class implements the ImmutableNode interface.
3.2.2

Channel class

Channel is a class which expresses a channel. It connects two node objects and represent their connection
weight with resistance and resistive index. A variable R and in equation 3.1 represent resistance and resistive
index. User can initialize these value in constructor. For example, to make Channel object whose resistance and
resistive index are 3 and 1.2, user should write code like below. The first argument is a name of the channel, the
second is value of the resistance, and the third is value of the resistive index.
Channel sampleChannel = new Channel("SampleChannel", 3, 1.2);
To connect two nodes with Channel object, use Connect method.
sampleChannel.Connect(node1, node2);
The first and the second arguments are Node objects to connect.
To get the energy flow in the channel, use GetFlow method. Figure 3.2 is a sample program which
calculate energy flow between two nodes. The potential of the first and the second node are 10 and 0. The
(1/1.2)
resistance and resistive index of channel are 2 and 1.2. Energy flow of this channel is 1 / 2 (10 0)
= 3.4.
As same as the Node class, an immutable interface (ImmutableChannel) for the Channel class is defined.
The Channel class implements the ImmutableChannel interface.
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/// <summary>Circuit test 1</summary>

/// <remarks>Calculating energy flow between two nodes</remarks>
private static void circuitTest1()
{
//Create new instance of Node class.
Node node1 = new Node("SampleNode1", 0, 10);
Node node2 = new Node("SampleNode2", 0, 0);
//Create new instance of Channel class and connect nodes.
Channel channel = new Channel("SampleChannel", 2, 1.2);
channel.Connect(node1, node2);
//Calculate energy flow.
double flow = channel.GetFlow();

Console.WriteLine("Energy flow is : " + flow.ToString("F2"));

Console.Read();

Fig.3.2 A sample program which calculate energy flow between two nodes

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Chapter 3 Calculating Circuit Network

3.2.3

Circuit class

A circuit consists of nodes and channels. To define the circuit, Add Node objects to Circuit object and
connect them with Channel objects. To add Node objects to a Circuit object, use AddNode method.
ImmutableNode iNode = sampleCircuit.AddNode(sampleNode);
The return value of AddNode method is the ImmutableNode object which was added to the Circuit object
by AddNode method. To remove Node objects from a Circuit object, use RemoveNode method.
sampleCircuit.RemoveNode(iNode);
The first argument is the removing ImmutableNode object.
To connect nodes, use ConnectNodes method.
ImmutableChannel iChannel = sampleCircuit.ConnectNodes(iNode1, iNode2, sampleChannel);
The first and the second arguments are ImmutableNode objects, and the third argument is a Channel
object which connects two nodes. The two nodes should be added before calling ConnectNodes method. The
returned value of ConnectNodes method is the ImmutableChannel object which connects two nodes.
To disconnect nodes, use DisconnectNodes method.
sampleCircuit.DisconnectNodes(iChannel);
The first argument is the Channel object which connects nodes.
The boundary conditions described at section 3.2.1 could be also set in Circuit class. Table 3.2 shows
lists of the method to set boundary conditions which defined in Circuit class.
Table 3.2 The method to set boundary conditions
Name

Function

Argument 1

Argument 2

SetPotential

Set initial value of potential to node

Value of the potential (double)

Target node (ImmutableNode)

SetExternalFlow

Set energy flow from node to outside

Value of the energy flow (double)

Target node (ImmutableNode)

SetBoundaryNode

Set whether node is boundary node or not. Whether node is boundary node or
not (bool)

3.2.4

Target node (ImmutableNode)

CircuitSolver class

The CircuitSolver class has a function to solve a circuit network. It takes a Circuit object as an argument
of constructor.
CircuitSolver cSolver = new CircuitSolver(sampleCircuit);
To solve a circuit network, use Solve method.
cSolver.Solve();
All the value of energy flows and potentials are updated when the Solve method is called. There are two
kinds of circuit network, circuit network who has a capacity or not. The capacity is a variable m in equation 3.1. If
all the capacities in a network are equal to 0, the network is a static network. In contrast, a network whose
capacities takes positive value, is a dynamic network. If a network is a static network, the value of potentials or
energy flows will not change unless boundary conditions change. If a network is a dynamic network, the value of
potentials or energy flows depends on time. Therefore, user should set time step when a network is a dynamic
network. To set time step, use TimeStep property as below. In this case, time step is set to 10 seconds.
cSolver.TimeStep = 10;
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Popolo Reference Manual

3.3 Sample programs calculating circuit networks

In this section, two sample programs which calculate circuit networks are given. One is a static network
which represent a water pipe network. The other is a dynamic network which represent heat flow through a wall.
3.3.1

Calculating a water pipe network

1)

Figure 3.3 shows a water pipe network to solve . The network has three nodes (1, 2 and 3) and four
channels (A, B, C and D). The resistance of each channel are shown in figure (RA ~ RD).

A:RA=167
7.06

2 C:RC=840
B:
RB=192

7.06

D:RD=4950

Fig.3.3 A water pipe network to solve

Figure 3.4 is a sample program which solve this network.

New instance of Circuit class is created in the line 5. Three nodes are added in the line 8~10. Since the
capacities of these nodes are 0, this network is a static network. The node 1 and the node 2 is connected to outside
and water flow rate is 7.06. This external water flow is set in the line 12 and 13.
The channels are created in the line 16 to 19. Since this is a water network, value of the resistive index is
2. In line 22 to 25, the nodes are connected by the channels.
In the line 29, created water flow network is solved by CircuitSolver object. All the potentials and water
flow are calculated and written to the standard output stream. Figure 3.5 shows the result of the program.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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13
14
15
16
17
18
19
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26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35

/// <summary>Circuit test 2</summary>

/// <remarks>Calculating water pipe network</remarks>
private static void circuitTest2()
{
Circuit circuit = new Circuit("Circuit network of water pipe");
//Add nodes to circuit network
ImmutableNode node1 = circuit.AddNode(new Node("1", 0, 0));
ImmutableNode node2 = circuit.AddNode(new Node("2", 0, 0));
ImmutableNode node3 = circuit.AddNode(new Node("3", 0, 0));
//Set external water flow
circuit.SetExternalFlow(-7.06, node1);
circuit.SetExternalFlow(7.06, node3);
//Create channels
Channel chA = new Channel("A", 167, 2);
Channel chB = new Channel("B", 192, 2);
Channel chC = new Channel("C", 840, 2);
Channel chD = new Channel("D", 4950, 2);
//Connect nodes with channels
ImmutableChannel channelA = circuit.ConnectNodes(node1, node3, chA);
ImmutableChannel channelB = circuit.ConnectNodes(node1, node2, chB);
ImmutableChannel channelC = circuit.ConnectNodes(node2, node3, chC);
ImmutableChannel channelD = circuit.ConnectNodes(node2, node3, chD);

//Create solver
CircuitSolver cSolver = new CircuitSolver(circuit);
cSolver.Solve();
Console.WriteLine("Water flow A is " + channelA.GetFlow().ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Water flow B is " + channelB.GetFlow().ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Water flow C is " + channelC.GetFlow().ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Water flow D is " + channelD.GetFlow().ToString("F2"));
Console.Read();

Fig.3.4 A sample program which solve the water flow network

1)
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Chapter 3 Calculating Circuit Network

Fig.3.5 The result of the sample program

3.3.2

Calculating heat flow through a wall

Room 1

18
kJ/(m2 K)

174
(m2K)/kW

232
kJ/(m2 K)

109
(m2K)/kW

Rock Wool

Concrete

Air gap

Plywood

Figure 3.6 is a wall to calculate a heat transfer. The wall has four layers; plywood, concrete, air gap and
rock wool. The temperatures of Room 1 and Room 2 take constant value 20C and 10C. The temperatures of
each layer are treated as potentials of node in this case.

4.2
kJ/(m2 K)

86

638

Room 2
703

(m2K)/kW (m2K)/kW (m2K)/kW

Fig. 3.6 A wall to calculate a heat transfer

Figure 3.7 is a sample program which solve the heat transfer of this wall.
In the line 8 to 14, new instances of Node class are created. In this case, each nodes has heat capacity.
Since the room temperatures take constant value, edge nodes is set to boundary nodes in line 17 and 18.
As same as water pipe network, a CircuitSolver object is used to solve the network. In this case, time step
should be set since the network has heat capacity and is a dynamic network. In the line 32, TimeStep is set to 3600
seconds (= 1 hour). Update method is called 24 times. The temperatures (potentials) of layers are written to the
standard output stream in each iteration.
Figure 3.8 is a wall temperature distribution made from the result of the program.

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Popolo Reference Manual

/// <summary>Circuit test 3</summary>

/// <remarks>Calculating heat transfer through a wall</remarks>
private static void circuitTest3()
{
Circuit circuit = new Circuit("Heat transfer network through wall");
//Add nodes to circuit network
ImmutableNode[] nodes = new ImmutableNode[6];
nodes[0] = circuit.AddNode(new Node("Room 1", 0));
nodes[1] = circuit.AddNode(new Node("Plywood", 17.9));
nodes[2] = circuit.AddNode(new Node("Concrete", 232));
nodes[3] = circuit.AddNode(new Node("Air gap", 0));
nodes[4] = circuit.AddNode(new Node("Rock wool", 4.2));
nodes[5] = circuit.AddNode(new Node("Room 2", 0));
//Set boundary conditions (Room air temperatures).
circuit.SetBoundaryNode(true, nodes[0]);
circuit.SetBoundaryNode(true, nodes[5]);
//Set air temperatures.
circuit.SetPotential(20, nodes[0]);
circuit.SetPotential(10, nodes[5]);
for (int i = 1; i < 5; i++) circuit.SetPotential(10, nodes[i]); //Initialize wall temperatures to 10 C.
//Connect nodes.
ImmutableChannel channel01 = circuit.ConnectNodes(nodes[0], nodes[1], new Channel("Room 1-Plywood", 174, 1));
ImmutableChannel channel12 = circuit.ConnectNodes(nodes[1], nodes[2], new Channel("Plywood-Concrete", 109, 1));
ImmutableChannel channel34 = circuit.ConnectNodes(nodes[2], nodes[3], new Channel("Concrete-Air gap", 86, 1));
ImmutableChannel channel45 = circuit.ConnectNodes(nodes[3], nodes[4], new Channel("Air gap-Rock wook", 638, 1));
ImmutableChannel channel56 = circuit.ConnectNodes(nodes[4], nodes[5], new Channel("Rock wool-Room 2", 703, 1));
CircuitSolver cSolver = new CircuitSolver(circuit);
cSolver.TimeStep = 3600;

for (int i = 0; i < nodes.Length; i++) Console.Write(nodes[i].Name + " ");

Console.WriteLine();
for (int i = 0; i < 24; i++)
{
cSolver.Solve();
Console.Write((i + 1) + "H : ");
for (int j = 0; j < nodes.Length; j++) Console.Write(nodes[j].Potential.ToString("F1") + " ");
Console.WriteLine();
}
Console.Read();

Fig.3.7 A sample program which solve the heat transfer of the wall.
22
20
18

Temperature [C]

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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44

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12
10

13:00

2:00

14:00

3:00

15:00

4:00

16:00

5:00

17:00

6:00

18:00

7:00

19:00

8:00

20:00

9:00

21:00

10:00

22:00

11:00

23:00

12:00

8
Room 1

1:00

Plyw ood

Concrete

Air gap

Rock w ool

Fig.3.8 Wall temperature distribution

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Room 2

Chapter 4 Calculating Thermal Comfort

Chapter 4 Calculating Thermal Comfort

4.1 Name space for calculating thermal comfort
The classes which calculate thermal comfort of human belong to Popolo.ThermalComfort name space.
Table 4.1 shows principal members defined in Popolo.ThermalComfort namespace.
Table 4.1 Principal members defined in Popolo.ThermalComfort namespace
Name

Type

General function

PMVCalculator

static class

A static class which calculate PMV value.

SETStarCalculator

static class

A static class which calculate SET* value.

HumanBody

class

A class which expresses a body of human.

BodyPart

class

A class which expresses a part of a human body.

4.2 General descriptions of classes in ThermalComfort name space

4.2.1

PMVCalculator class

PMV represents the predicted mean vote of a large population of people exposed to a certain
environment. PPD is the predicted percent of dissatisfied people at each PMV. As PMV changes away from zero
in either the positive or negative direction, PPD increases. These indices are proposed by P. O. Fanger.
To calculate value of PMV and PPD, use PMVCalculator class. Table 4.2 shows a list of principal
members of PMVCalculator class.
Table 4.2 Principal members of PMVCalculator class
Name

Type

Description

Tasks

enumerator

An enumerator which expresses a kind of work

GetMet

method

Calculate metabolic rate for a task.

GetPMVFromPPD

method

Calculate PMV value from PPD value.

GetPPDFromPMV

method

Calculate PPD value from PMV value.

TryCalculateDryBulbTemperature

method

Calculate dry-bulb temperature from PMV and other thermal conditions.

TryCalculateHeatLossFromBody

method

Calculate heat loss from a human body.

TryCalculatePMV

method

Calculate PMV value from 6 thermal conditions.

TryCalculateRelativeHumidity

method

Calculate relative humidity from PMV and other thermal conditions.

1)

Tasks

Tasks is an enumerator which expresses a kind of work. Some typical tasks (rest, office work, sleeping,
exercise and so on) exemplified in ASHRAE Standard 55 is defined.
2)

GetMet
GetMet method calculates metabolic rate for a task. It takes Tasks object as an argument.

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Popolo Reference Manual

3)

GetPMVFromPPD

GetPMVFromPPD method calculates PMV value from PPD value. Since the curve of PPD is bilaterally
symmetric as shown in figure 4.1, 2 PMV value corresponds to 1 PPD value. This method calculate positive
value. You can get negative value by reversing a sign.
100
90
80
70

PPD [%]

60
50
40

GetPMVFromPPD
method calculates
positive value

30
20
10
0
-4

-3

-2

-1

PMV

Table 4.1 PMV-PPD curve

4)

GetPPDFromPMV
GetPPDFromPMV method calculate PPD value from PMV value. An argument is a value of PMV.

5)

TryCalculateDryBulbTemperature

TryCalculateDryBulbTemperature method calculate dry-bulb temperature from PMV value and other
thermal conditions. Table 4.3 shows a list of arguments. The arguments 1 to 7 are the inputs. Figure 4.2 shows a
sample program which calculate dry-bulb temperature from PMV and other thermal conditions.
Table 4.3 The arguments of TryCalculateDryBulbTemperature method
No.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Description

No.

Description

PMV value [-]

Clo value [clo]

Mean radiant temperature [C]

Metabolic rate [met]

Velocity [m/s]

External work [met]

Relative Humidity [%]

Dry-bulb temperature [C] (Output)

/// <summary>PMV Test</summary>

private static void pmvTest()
{
double dbt;
PMVCalculator.TryCalculateDryBulbTemperature(1.2, 25.6, 50, 0.1, 0.8, 1.2, 0, out dbt);
Console.WriteLine(dbt);
Console.Read();
}

Fig.4.2 A sample program which calculate dry-bulb temperature from PMV and other thermal conditions

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Chapter 4 Calculating Thermal Comfort

6)

TryCalculateHeatLossFromBody

TryCalculateHeatLossFromBody method calculates a heat loss from a body. Table 4.4 shows a list of
arguments. The arguments 1 to 7 are the inputs. The PMV value is calculated from heat loss from body.
Table 4.4 The arguments of TryCalculateHeatLossFromBody nethod
No.

7)

Description

No.

Description

Dry-bulb temperature [C]

Clo value [clo]

Mean radiant temperature [C]

Metabolic rate [met]

Velocity [m/s]

External work [met]

Relative Humidity [%]

Heat loss from body [W] (Output)

TryCalculatePMV

TryCalculatePMV method calculates PMV value from 6 thermal conditions. Table 4.5 shows a list of
arguments. The method is overloaded, and could be called with arguments listed in table 4.6.
Table 4.5 The arguments of TryCalculatePMV methods 1
No.

Description

No.

Description

Dry-bulb temperature [C]

Clo value [clo]

Mean radiant temperature [C]

Metabolic rate [met]

Velocity [m/s]

External work [met]

Relative Humidity [%]

PMV value [-] (Output)

Table 4.6 The arguments of TryCalculatePMV methods 2

No.

4.2.2

Description

Metabolic rate [met]

External work [met]

No.
3

Description
Heat loss from body [W]

SETStarCalculator class

The ET* and the SET* (Standard effective temperature) are the predictive index of human response to the
4)
thermal environment proposed by Gagge . To calculate the value of ET* and the value SET*, use
th
TryCalculateSET method. Table 4.7 shows a list of arguments. The arguments 1 to 10 are the inputs, and the 11
th
and 12 arguments are the outputs.
Table 4.7 The arguments of the TryCalculateSET methodz
No.

Description

No.

Description

Dry-bulb temperature [C]

External work [met]

Mean radiant temperature [C]

Atmospheric pressure [kPa]

Velocity [m/s]

Weight [kg]

Relative Humidity [%]

10

Body surface area [m2]

Clo value [clo]

11

ET* [-] (Output)

Metabolic rate [met]

12

SET* [-] (Output)

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Popolo Reference Manual

4.2.3

HumanBody class

During the past 50 years of thermal comfort research, PMV and standard new effective temperature SET*
have gained support as indoor thermal comfort indices that are still the most widely utilized indices in the field
today. Both indices modeled the human body as a uniform heating element and clothing as the uniform heat
resistance on human body surface, limiting the application of these indices to fairly uniform condition with few
distributions. However, people are often exposed to very non-uniform thermal environments, each human body
segment has physiological and geometric characteristic and clothing insulation of each segment is various.
HumanBody class and BodyPart class are developed to calculate human body model proposed by
5)
S.Tanabe . It enables detailed consideration of non-uniform conditions is required to assess such environments as
car cabins, task air-conditioned spaces and outdoors. The conceptual figure of heat exchange is illustrated in
Fig.4.3.
Next blood
pool

Artery blood pool

Last blood
pool

Bloodstream

Last blood
pool

Vein blood pool

Conduction

Next blood
pool

Vein blood pool

Next blood
pool

Superficial vein blood pool

Segment n

Convection
Radiation
Evaporation

Environment

Next blood
pool

Convection
Radiation
Evaporation

Skin
Conduction

Clothing

Conduction

Core

Clothing

Skin

Countercurrent heat
exchange

Core

Environment

Respiration
(chest)

Next blood
pool

Artery blood pool

Bloodstream

AVA
(hands and feet)

Last blood
pool

Last blood
pool
Last blood
pool

Segment n

<Except limbs>
<Limbs>
Figure.4.3 The conceptual figure of heat exchange

HumanBody class has two constructors. An instance of HumanBody is initialized to body of standard
2
adult male. The standard man represents the body surface area of 1.87 m ;the body weight of 74.43 kg; age of 25;
2
cardiac index at rest of 2.58 L/(min m ); fat percentage of 15 %. These parameters can be initialized when given
as an arguments as below.
public HumanBody(double weight, double height, double age, bool isMale,
double cardiacIndexAtRest, double fatPercentage)
To specify the part of the body, Nodes enumerator is defined in HumanBody class. Table 4.8 shows
members of the Nodes enumerator.
Table 4.8 The members of the Nodes enumerator
Name

Description

Name

Description

Head

Head

LeftLeg

Left leg

Neck

Neck

LeftFoot

Left foot

Chest

Chest

RightShoulder

Right shoulder

Back

Back

RightArm

Right arm

Pelvis

Pelvis

RightHand

Right hand

LeftShoulder

Left shoulder

RightThigh

Right thigh

LeftArm

Left arm

RightLeg

Right leg

LeftHand

Left hand

RightFoot

Right foot

LeftThigh

Left thigh

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Chapter 4 Calculating Thermal Comfort

Table 4.9 shows methods defined in HumanBody class. A temperature of whole body can be initialized
with InitializeTemperature method. However, the initialization of the body temperatures is not necessary, since
they are initialized to steady state at operative temperature of 28.8 C when the object is instantiated.
The state of the human body can be updated by the Update method. User can give the time step as an
argument.
HumanBody object consists of 17 BodyPart objects. The each BodyPart object can be obtained by calling
GetBodyPart method. BodyPart object has detailed information of the body (temperatures of the core, muscle, fat
and skin, etc.).
Table 4.9 The methods defined in HumanBody class
Name

Description
Function Update body state.

Update

Return
Arg.1

Time step [sec]

Function Initialize body temperature.

InitializeTemperature

Return
Arg.1

Temperature to initialize. [C]

Function Get part of human body.

GetBodyPart

Return

Part of the body (BodyPart object)

Arg.1

Part of the body (Nodes enum.)

Table 4.10 shows methods to set the boundary conditions. By giving Nodes enumerating object as an first
argument, different boundary condition can be given to different body part (only methods which has *).

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 4.10 Members of the HumanBody class : Methods to set boundary cnditions
Name

Description
2

Function Set cardiac index [L/(min m )]

SetCardiacIndex

Arg. 1

Cardiac index[L/(min m2)] (double)

Function Set body posture

SetPosture

Arg. 1

Body posture (BodyPosture type)

2

Function Set external work load [W/m ]

SetWorkLoad

Arg. 1

SetContactPortionRate

External work load[W/m2] (double)

Function Set contact portion rate [-]

Arg. 1

Contact portion rate [-] (double)

Function Set heat conductance to external material [W/(m2 K)]

SetHeatConductance
ToMaterial

Arg. 1

SetDrybulbTemperature

Body position to set heat

coductance (Nodes type)

Arg. 2

Heat conductance to external material [W/

(m2 K)]

Function Set dry-bulb temperature [C] of ambient

Arg. 1

Dry-bulb temperature [C] (double)

Function Set relative humidity [%] of ambient moist air

SetRelativeHumidity

Arg. 1

Relative humidity [%] (double)

Function Set mean radiant temperature [C] of ambient

SetMeanRadiant
Temperature

Arg. 1

Mean radiant temperature [C]

(double)

Function Set temperature [C] of the contacted material

SetMaterialTemperature

Arg. 1

Temperature [C] of the contacted

material (double)

Function Set clothing index [clo]

SetClothingIndex

Arg. 1

Clothing index [clo] (double)

Function Set velocity [m/s] of ambient

SetVelocity

Arg. 1

Velocity [m/s] (double)

Table 4.11 shows methods to get a state of the human body. These are the methods to get information
about whole body. To get detailed information of particular body part, get BodyPart object by GetBodyPart
method, and use methods defined in BodyPart class.
Table 4.11 Members of the HumanBody class : Methods to get state of human body
Name
GetBloodFlow

GetSensibleHeatLossFromSkin

GetLatentHeatLossFromSkin

GetMetabolicRate

Description
Function
Return
Function
Return
Function
Return
Function
Return

GetAverageSkinTemperature

Function
Return

Get blood flow rate [L/h] of whole human body

Blood flow rate [L/h] (double)
Get sensible heat loss [W] from whole human body skin surface
Sensible heat loss [W] from whole human body skin surface (double)
Get latent heat loss [W] from whole human body skin surface
Latent heat loss [W] from whole human body skin surface (double)
Get metabolic rate [W] of whole human body. It includes basic metabolic rate, external
work and shivering
Metablic rate [W] of human body (double)
Get average skin temperature [C] of whole human body.
Average skin temperature [C] (double )

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Chapter 4 Calculating Thermal Comfort

Table 4.12 shows method to get a state of body part. To specify detailed position of body part, use
Segments enumerator. Table 4.13 shows members of Segment enumerator.
Table 4.12 The methods defined in BodyPart class
Name

Description
Description Calculate sensible heat loss [W] from the skin.

GetSensibleHeatLoss

Return

Sensible heat loss [W] from the skin. (double)

Description Get segment heat capacity [Wh/K] of the body part

GetHeatCapacity

Return

Segment heat capacity [W/K] of the body part. (double)

Segment of the body part
(Segments object)

Arg.1

Description Get segment temperature [C] of the body part

GetTemperature

Return

Segment of the body part

(Segments object)

Arg.1
Description
GetHeatConductance

Segment temperature [C] of the body part (double)

Return
Arg.1

Get heat conductance [W/K] between the segments. If the segments are not contacted, 0 is
returned.
Heat conductance [W/K] between the segments.
Segment 1 (Segments object)

Arg.2

Segment 2 (Segments object)

Description Get segment metabolic rate [W] of the body part

GetMetabolicRate

Return
Arg.1

Segment metabolic rate [W] of the body part (double)

Segment (Segments object)

Description Get blood flow [L/h] at segment of the body part

GetBloodFlow

Return
Arg.1

Blood flow [L/h] segment (double)

Segment (Segments object)

Description Calculate heat transfer [W] from a segment 1 to a segment 2.

GetHeatTransfer

Return
Arg.1

Heat transfer[W] from a segment 1 to a segment 2 (double)

Segment 1 (Segments object)

Arg.2

Segment 2 (Segments object)

Table 4.13 The members of Segments enumerator

Name

Description

Name

Description

Core

Core layer

Artery

Artery

Muscle

Muscle layer

SuperficialVein

Superficial vein

Fat

Fat layer

DeepVein

Deep vein

Skin

Skin layer

AVA

AVA blood

Figure 4.4 shows a sample program which calculates thermal state of human body.
In the line 8, HumanBody object is initialized. It is the model of female and the weight, height, age and
cardiac index are 70kg, 1.6m, 35, 2.58 L/(min m2) respectively.
In the line 10 to 19, the boundary conditions are given. This is the code to set boundary conditions
simultaneously to whole body parts. To set boundary conditions individually to each body part, give BodyParts
object as a first argument as line 22. In this case, dry-bulb temperature just around right hand settled at 20 C.
The state of body is updated in the line 28. The time step is 120 seconds. The elapse of the time is 30
minutes, since the Update method is called 16 times. Of course, the boundary conditions can be changed at each
iteration.

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Popolo Reference Manual

In the line 29 and 30, the left and the right shoulder objects are taken out to get information. The
temperatures of the core layer and the skin layer is calculated. They are written to the standard output stream.
Figure 4.5 shows the result of the simulation. The body temperature became higher as the time past. Since
the dry-bulb temperature around the right hand settled at 20C, the temperature of the right shoulder was lower
than that of the left shoulder.
1
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3
4
5
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7
8
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10
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35
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40

/// <summary>Sample program calculating human body</summary>

private static void humanBodyTest()
{
//This is constructor to make standard human body.
//HumanBody body = new HumanBody();
//Make human body model : Weight 70kg, Height 1.6m, Age 35, Female, Cardiac index 2.58, Fat 20%
HumanBody body = new HumanBody(70, 1.6, 35, false, 2.58, 20);
//Set clothing index [clo]
body.SetClothingIndex(0);
//Set dry-bulb temperature [C]
body.SetDrybulbTemperature(42);
//Set mean radiant temperature [C]
body.SetMeanRadiantTemperature(42);
//Set velocity [m/s]
body.SetVelocity(1.0);
//Set relative humidity [%]
body.SetRelativeHumidity(50);
//Use Nodes enumarator to set bouncary condition to particular position
body.SetDrybulbTemperature(HumanBody.Nodes.RightHand, 20);
//Updating body state
Console.WriteLine("Time | R.Shoulder C temp | R.Shoulder S temp | L.Shoulder C temp | L.Shoulder S temp");
for (int i = 0; i < 15; i++)
{
body.Update(120);
ImmutableBodyPart rightShoulder = body.GetBodyPart(HumanBody.Nodes.RightShoulder);
ImmutableBodyPart leftShoulder = body.GetBodyPart(HumanBody.Nodes.LeftShoulder);
Console.Write(((i + 1) * 120) + "sec | ");
Console.Write(rightShoulder.GetTemperature(BodyPart.Segments.Core).ToString("F2") + " | ");
Console.Write(rightShoulder.GetTemperature(BodyPart.Segments.Skin).ToString("F2") + " | ");
Console.Write(leftShoulder.GetTemperature(BodyPart.Segments.Core).ToString("F2") + " | ");
Console.Write(leftShoulder.GetTemperature(BodyPart.Segments.Skin).ToString("F2") + " | ");
Console.WriteLine();
}
}

Console.Read();

Figure 4.4 The sample program which calculates thermal state of human body
Time | R.Shoulder C temp | R.Shoulder S temp | L.Shoulder C temp | L.Shoulder S temp
120sec | 35.89 | 35.70 | 35.89 | 35.74 |
240sec | 35.91 | 36.07 | 35.92 | 36.17 |
360sec | 35.93 | 36.20 | 35.96 | 36.35 |
480sec | 35.96 | 36.21 | 36.02 | 36.38 |
600sec | 35.99 | 36.17 | 36.07 | 36.36 |
720sec | 36.02 | 36.13 | 36.12 | 36.32 |
840sec | 36.05 | 36.10 | 36.17 | 36.28 |
960sec | 36.08 | 36.08 | 36.22 | 36.26 |
1080sec | 36.11 | 36.06 | 36.27 | 36.24 |
1200sec | 36.14 | 36.05 | 36.31 | 36.22 |
1320sec | 36.17 | 36.04 | 36.35 | 36.21 |
1440sec | 36.19 | 36.03 | 36.38 | 36.20 |
1560sec | 36.21 | 36.03 | 36.41 | 36.20 |
1680sec | 36.24 | 36.03 | 36.44 | 36.19 |
1800sec | 36.26 | 36.02 | 36.47 | 36.19 |

Figure 4.5 The result of the simulation

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Chapter 5 Calculating Weather State

Chapter 5 Calculating Weather State

5.1 Name space for calculating weather state
Classes which calculate weather state belong to Popolo.Weather name space. Table 5.1 shows principal
members defined in Popolo.Weather name space.
Table 5.1 Principal members defined in Popolo.Weather name space
Name

Description

Incline

A class which expresses an incline.

Sky

A static class which calculates various weather phenomena.

Sun

A class which expresses sun.

WeatherData

A class which contains weather data.

WeatherDataTable

A class which contains weather data. It consists of WeatherRecord objects.

WeatherRecord

A class which contains weather data. It consists of WeatherData objects.

5.2 Descriptions of classes

5.2.1

Incline class

To calculates nocturnal radiation or radiation from sun, 3 dimensional positioning between plane and
point should be clearly defined. An incline can be defined with horizontal vertical angle. The Incline class takes
these 2 value as an arguments of constructor. The constructor of Incline is overloaded, and there are 3 kinds of
arguments as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 The arguments of Incline constructors
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Horizontal angle : Unit is radian. South is 0, west is negative,

east is positive.
(double)

Vertical angle : Unit is radian. Horizontal surface is 0, Vertical

surface is 1/2
(double)

Orientation
(Orientation object)

Vertical angle : Unit is radian. Horizontal surface is 0, Vertical

surface is 1/2
(double)

Incline to copy
(ImmutableIncline object)

The first argument of the second constructor is Orientation object which is defined in Incline class. It can
express 16 orientations (N, NNW, NW, WNW, W, WSW, SW, SSW, S, SSE, SE, ESE, E, ENE, NE, NNE).
Vertical angle of incline is expressed by radian, where horizontal surface is 0 and vertical surface is 1/2.
The third constructor is a copy constructor. With calling third constructor, Incline object is initialized with
the given ImmutableIncline object.
Table 5.3 and table 5.4 shows the methods and properties defined in the Incline class.
Table 5.3 The properties defined in the Inline class
Name
ConfigurationFactorToSky
HorizontalAngle

VerticalAngle

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Configuration factor to the sky

double

Horizontal angle of the inclined plane

Radian
South is 0, west is negative,
east is positive

double

Vertical angle of the inclined plane

Radian
Horizontal surface is 0, vertical
surface is 1/2

double

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 5.4 The methods defined in the Incline class
Name

Description
Description Calculate cosine of incident angle to the normal direction of the inclined plane.

GetDirectSolarRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1
Description

Cosine of incident angle to the normal direction of the inclined plane.

Sun (ImmutableSun object)

Calculate profile angle and angle between solar azimuth and normal direction of the
inclined plane.

Return

GetTanPhiAndGamma

Arg.1

Sun (ImmutableSun object)

Arg.2

Output : Tangent of profile angle

Arg.3

Output :Tangent of angle between solar altitude and normal direction of the inclined plane

Description Reverse the Incline object

Reverse

Return

To calculate a radiation from sun, 3D positional relation between sun and incline (Figure 5.1).
is an angle between solar azimuth and normal direction of the inclined plane. is an angle between
solar altitude and normal direction of the inclined plane. is called profile angle. and can be obtained by
GetTanPhiAndGamma method. The first argument is a Sun object, which will be described later in section 5.2.3.
The 2nd and 3rd argument are the outputs, tangent and tangent .
is an angle between incident angle and the normal direction of the inclined plane. can be obtained by
GetDirectSolarRadiationRate method. The first argument is a Sun object. The returned value is cosine . This
value is used when calculate an insolation on the inclined plane from the direct normal radiation.
The inclined plane can be reversed with calling Reverse method.

Figure 5.1 3D positional relation between sun and incline

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Chapter 5 Calculating Weather State

5.2.2

Sky class

Various static methods related to sky state are defined in the Sky class. Table 5.5 shows the methods
defined in the Sky class.
Table 5.5 The methods defined in the Sky class
Name

Description
Description Convert an unit of angle from degree to radian

DegreeToRadian

Return

Angle [radian]

Arg.1

Angle [degree]

Description Calculate atmospheric radiation [W/m ]

GetAtmosphericRadiation

Return

Atmospheric radiation [W/m2]

Arg.1

Dry-bulb temperature of outdoor

moist air[C]

Arg.3

Water vapor pressure [kPa]

Arg.2

Cloud cover ratio [-] (0~1)

Arg.2

Cloud cover ratio [-] (0~1)

Description Calculate nocturnal radiation [W/m2]

GetNocturnalRadiation

Return

Calculate nocturnal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.1

Dry-bulb temperature of outdoor

moist air[C]

Arg.3

Water vapor pressure [kPa]

Description Convert an unit of angle from radian to degree.

RadianToDegree

Return

Angle [degree]

Arg.1

Angle [radian]

5.2.3 Sun class

1) Constructor
The Sun class expresses sun. Information about longitude and latitude at the location must be given as
argument in the constructor of the Sun to calculate azimuth and altitude of sun. Table 5.6 shows the constructors
of the Sun class.
Table 5.6 The arguments of the Sun class
No.

Arg.1

Arg.2
Longitude [degree] (double)

Arg.3
Longitude of the standard time meridian
[degree]

Latitude [degree] (double)

City to calculate sun position

(City object)

Copy constructor
(ImmutableSun)

An argument of the second constructor is City enumerator defined in the Sun class. More than 100 cities
in the world are defined. A Sun object is initialized with longitude and latitude where the city is located. Below is
a sample constructor call.
Sun sun = new Sun(Sun.City.Tokyo);

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Popolo Reference Manual

2)

Static methods

Some basic methods related to sun position or solar radiation are defined in Sun class. Table 5.7 and Table
5.8 shows the static methods defined in the Sun class.
Table 5.7 The static methods related to sun position
Name

Description
Description Caluculate an equation of the time.

GetEquationOfTime

Return

Equation of the time.

Arg.1

Date and time (DateTime object)

Description Calculate hour angle from the location and the equation of the time.
GetHourAngle

Return

Hour angle []

Arg.1

Equation of the time.

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Arg.3

Longitude of the standard time

meridian [degree]

Arg.4

Date and time (DateTime object)

Description Calculate an altitude of sun. [radian]

GetSunAltitude

Return

Altitude of sun. [radian]

Arg.1

Latitude [degree]

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Args3

Longitude of the standard time

meridian [degree]

Arg.4

Date and time (DateTime object)

Description Caluculate an azimth of sun [radian]

GetSunAzimuth

Return

Azimth of sun. [radian]

Arg.1

Latitude [degree]

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Arg.3

Longitude of the standard time

meridian [degree]

Arg.4

Date and time (DateTime object)

Description Caluculate declination of sun. [degree]

GetSunDeclination

Return

Declination of sun. [degree]

Arg.1

Date and time (DateTime object)

Description Calculate an altitude [radian] and a direction [radian] of sun

.GetSunPosition

Return

Arg.1

Latitude [degree]

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Arg.3

Longitude of the standard time

meridian [degree]

Arg.4

Date and time (DateTime object)

Arg.5

Output : Altitude of sun [radian]

Arg.6

Output : Direction of sun [radian]

Description Calculate time of sun rise.

GetSunRiseTime

Return

Time of sun rise (DateTime object)

Arg.1

Latitude [degree]

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Arg.3

Longitude of the standard time

meridian [degree]

Arg.4

Date and time (DateTime object)

Description Calculate time of sun set.

GetSunSetTime

Return

Time of sun set (DateTime object)

Arg.1

Latitude [degree]

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Arg.3

Longitude of the standard time

meridian [degree]

Arg.4

Date and time (DateTime object)

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Chapter 5 Calculating Weather State

Table 5.8 The static methods related to solar radiation
Name

Description
Description Calculate extraterrestrial radiation [W/m2]

GetExtraterrestrial
Radiation

Return
Arg.1
Description

GetDirectNormalRadiation

Return

Direct normal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.3

Altitude of sun [radian]

Return

Calculate diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m ] from diract normal radiation [W/m2] and global
horizontal radiation [W/m2].
Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]
Direct normal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.3

Altitude of sun [radian]

Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.2
-

Calculate global horizontal radiation from diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2] and direct
normal radiation [W/m2]

Return

Global horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.1

Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.3

Altitude of sun [radian]

Direct normal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.2
-

Estimate diffuse horizontal radiation and direct normal radiation from global horizontal
radiation.

Return
EstimateDiffuseAnd
DirectNormalRadiation

Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.2
-

Arg.1

Description

Calculate direct normal radiation from global horizontal radiation [W/m2] and diffuse
horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Global horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Description
GetGlobalHorizontal
Radiation

Days of the year (int object)

Arg.1

Description
GetDiffuseHorizontal
Radiation

Extraterrestrial radiation [W/m2]

Arg.1

Global horizontal radiation [W/m ]

Arg.2

Longitude [degree]

Arg.3

Latitude [degree]

Arg.4

Longitude of the standard time meridian

[degree]

Arg.5

Date and time (DateTime object)

Arg.6

Estimating Method

Arg.7

Output :
Direct normal radiation [W/m2]

Arg.8

Output : Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]

The value of latitude and longitude are given by degree unit (not radian). East longitude is positive value
and west longitude is negative. North latitude is positive value and south latitude is negative. For example, the
arguments for Tokyo city (lies at 139.45 east in longitude and 35.4 north in latitude) are 139 + 45/60 = 139.75
and 35 + 4 / 60 = 35.07. The arguments for Rio de Janeiro (lies at 22.57 west in longitude and 43.12 south in
latitude) are -22 - 57/60 = -22.95 and -43 - 12/60 = -43.2.
In most cases, a climate observatory measures only the global horizontal radiation, and the direct normal
radiation and the diffuse horizontal radiation are not measured. Therefore, many people proposed methods to
estimate the direct normal radiation and the diffuse horizontal radiation from the global horizontal radiation 6) 7) 8) 9).
In the Sun class, EstimateDiffuseAndDirectNormalRadiation method is defined. User can select estimating
method by setting DiffuseAndDirectNormalRadiationEstimatingMethod enumerator for the 6th argument. 6
methods, the method of Berlage 10), Matsuo11), Nagata12), Liu & Jordan13), Udagawa & Kimura14), Watanabe15),
Akasaka16) and Miki17), can be selected.

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Popolo Reference Manual

3)

Other properties and methods defined in Sun class

Table 5.9 shows the properties defined in the Sun class. Value of the properties except radiations
(DiffuseHorizontalRadiation, DirectNormalRadiation and GlobalHorizontalRadiation) can be determined when
the location and the date and time information is given. The location is given as an argument of the constructor.
The date and time information can be given by Update method. The DateTime object is given as an argument.
sun.Update(dateTime);
Table 5.9 The properties defined in Sun class
Name
Altitude
CurrentDateTime
DiffuseHorizontalRadiation
DirectNormalRadiation
GlobalHorizontalRadiation
Latitude
Longitude
Orientation

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Altitude of sun

TRUE

radian

double
DateTime

Current date and time

Diffuse horizontal radiation

TRUE

W/m2

double

TRUE

double

Direct normal radiation

W/m

Global horizontal radiation

TRUE

W/m

double

Latitude of sun

degree

double

Longitude of sun

degree

double

Orientation of sun

radian

double

Revision of Sun instance. Revision number is

updated whenever Update method is called.

uint

Longitude of the standard time meridian

degree

double

SunRiseTime

Time of sun rise

DateTime

SunSetTime

Time of sun set

DateTime

Revision
StandardLongitude

Three values of radiation, the global horizontal radiation, the diffuse horizontal radiation and the direct
normal radiation are related to each other. The value of one can be estimated when the rest of two value are given
(Figure 5.2). Table 5.10 shows static methods to calculate these radiations.
Table 5.10 The methods to calculate a value of radiations
Name

Arg.1

Arg.2

Global horizontal radiation

Diffuse horizontal radiation

SetDiffuseHorizontalRadiation

Direct normal radiation

Global horizontal radiation

SetGlobalHorizontalRadiation

Diffuse horizontal radiation

Direct normal radiation

SetDirectNormalRadiation

Ihol=Isky+IDN sin

Direct normal
radiation IDN

Diffuse horizontal
radiation Isky
Global horizontal radiation Ihol

Figure 5.2 Relations among three radiations

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Chapter 5 Calculating Weather State

5.3 Sample programs of calculating weather state

Figure 5.3 shows a sample program which calculate radiation of sun. It estimates the diffuse horizontal
radiation and the direct normal radiation from the global horizontal radiation. The insolations on the inclined
planes are also calculated. Figure 5.4 shows the result of the program.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

/// <summary>Sample program calculating weather state</summary>

private static void weatherTest()
{
//Create an instance of the Sun class. (Location is Tokyo)
Sun sun = new Sun(Sun.City.Tokyo);
//Set date and time information(1983/12/21 12:00)
DateTime dTime = new DateTime(1983, 12, 21, 12, 0, 0);
sun.Update(dTime);
//Create instances of the Incline class. Vertical south east surface and 45 degree west surface.
Incline seInc = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.SE, 0.5 * Math.PI);
Incline wInc = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.W, 0.25 * Math.PI);
//Estimate direct normal and diffuse horizontal radiation from global horizontal radiation (467 W/m2)
sun.EstimateDiffuseAndDirectNormalRadiation(467);
//Calculate insolation rate on the inclined plane.
double cosThetaSE, cosThetaW;
cosThetaSE = seInc.GetDirectSolarRadiationRate(sun);
cosThetaW = wInc.GetDirectSolarRadiationRate(sun);
Console.WriteLine("Location:Tokyo, Date and time:12/21 12:00");
Console.WriteLine("Altitude of sun=" + Sky.RadianToDegree(sun.Altitude).ToString("F1") + " degree");
Console.WriteLine("Orientation of sun=" + Sky.RadianToDegree(sun.Orientation).ToString("F1") + " degree");
Console.WriteLine("Direct normal radiation=" + sun.DirectNormalRadiation.ToString("F1") + " W/m2");
Console.WriteLine("Diffuse horizontal radiation=" + sun.GlobalHorizontalRadiation.ToString("F1") + " W/m2");
Console.WriteLine("Direct normal radiation to SE surface=" + (sun.DirectNormalRadiation * cosThetaSE).ToString("F1") + " W/m2");
Console.WriteLine("Direct normal radiation to W surface=" + (sun.DirectNormalRadiation * cosThetaW).ToString("F1") + " W/m2");
}

Console.Read();

Figure 5.3 The sample program which calculate radiation of sun

Location:Tokyo, Date and time:12/21 12:00
Altitude of sun=30.7 degree
Orientation of sun=5.4 degree
Direct normal radiation=650.2 W/m2
Diffuse horizontal radiation=467.0 W/m2
Direct normal radiation to SE surface=356.1 W/m2
Direct normal radiation to W surface=272.1 W/m2

Figure 5.4 The result of the program

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Popolo Reference Manual

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

6.1 Name space for calculating thermal load of building
Classes which calculate building thermal load belong to the Popolo.ThermalLoad name space. Table
6.1 shows principal members defined in the Popolo.ThermalLoad name space. Some classes described at the
previous chapters are also used to calculate thermal load (Sun class, Incline class, MoistAir class and so on).
Figure 6.1 shows a UML diagram which shows the relations among classes used to calculate building thermal
load. Most of the classes belongs to the Popolo.ThermalLoad name space.
Table 6.1 The principal members defined in Popolo.ThemalLoad name space
Name

Description

GlassPanes

The GlassPanes class is a model of one or more glass layers.

IHeatGain

The interface which shows a heat gain in the room.

MultiRoom

The MultiRoom class is a model of a multi-room. A multi-room consists of more than two rooms that are
sepalated by a wall.

Outdoor

The Outdoor class is a model of an outdoor (It includes an information about sun position, moist air
state, etc.).

Room

The Room class is a model of a single room. A room consists of more than two zones, that are not
sepalated by a wall (ex. Interior zone and perimetor zone).

SunShade

The SunShade class is a model of a sun shade. Only simple shaped sun shade (Horizontal, vertical or
gird) could be modeled with this class.

Wall

The Wall class is a model of a multi layered wall.

WallLayers

The WallLayers class is a model of a composition of the multi layered wall.

WallMaterial

The WallMaterial class is a model of a material used for wall.

WallSurface

The WallSurface class is a model of a wall surface. It contains information about emissivity and inclined
degree of wall surface.

Window

The Window class is a model of a window.

WindowSurface

The WindowSurface class is a model of window surface. It contains information about emissivity and
inclined degree of window surface.

Zone

The Zone class is a model of a single zone. A zone consists of wall surfaces and window surfaces.
<<interface>>
ImmutableZone

<<interface>>
ImmutableWallLayers

WallLayers

<<interface>>
IHeatGain
1

Wall

Zone

Window

WallSurface

*
*

Outdoor
1

<<interface>>
ImmutableWall
*

Layer

<<interface>>
ImmutableWindow

WallMaterial
<<interface>>
ImmutableWallMaterial

<<interface>>
ImmutableWallSurface
2

<<interface>>
ImmutableSun

Sun
<<interface>>
ImmutableMoistAir

Incline
<<interface>>
ImmutableIncline

MoistAir

Figure 6.1 The UML diagram of classes relating to Popolo.ThermalLoad name space

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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

6.2 General descriptions of classes defined in Popolo.ThermalLoad name space

6.2.1

GlassPanes class

GlassPanes class expresses one or more glass layers. It calculates a characteristics of a window.
Two kinds of the constructor is defined in GlassPanes class. Table 6.2 shows the constructors of the
GlassPanes class. The first constructor is the simplified one, which directly set the information about window
characteristics (Overall transmissivity, overall absorptivity and heat transfer coefficient). The resistances at
surfaces are not involved in heat transfer coefficient (arg. 3).
The second constructor is the detailed option, which calculates inter-reflection of glass panes. In this case,
the lists of the GlassPanes.Pane class is given as an argument.
Table 6.2 The constructors of the GlassPanes class
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Overall transmissivity [-]

(double type)

Lists of the glass panes

(Array of the GlassPanes.Pane objects)

Argument 3

Overall absorptivity [-]

(double type)

Thermal transmittance of the glass

[W/(m2 K)] (double type)

There are three types of heat gains through the window of a building. The first is the transmission heat
gain, the second is the absorption heat gain, and the last is the transfer heat gain (Figure 6.2). The solar incident
falling on the window is partly reflected, partly absorbed and partly transmitted by the window glass. The
absorbed heat partly go back to outdoor, and the rest infiltrate into the building. We call this infiltration rate to the
solar incident as overall absorptivity.

Transmittance
Reflectance
Absorptance

Heat transfer

Figure 6.2 Heat gains through a window

If a window consists of a single glass pane, overall transmissivity and overall absorptivity is equal to the
transmissivity and the absorptivity of the single glass pane. If a window consists of more than one glass pane,
detailed calculation is needed, since there occurs inter reflections among the glass panes. To calculate this
phenomenon, use the second constructor of the GlassPanes class. The GlassPanes.Pane class is a model of a
single glass pane which is the inner class of the GlassPanes class. Table 6.3 shows constructors of the
GlassPanes.Pane class.
Table 6.3 The constructors of the GlassPanes.Pane
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Argument 3

Argument 4

Argument 5

Heat transfer coefficient

[W/m2] (double type)

Transmissivity [-]
(double type)

Absorptivity [-]
(double type)

Transmissivity of outer side

[-]
(double type)

Absorptivity of outer
Transmissivity of inner
side [-] (double
side [-] (double type)
type)

Predefined glass type.

(PredifinedGlassPane type)

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Absorptivity of inner
side [-] (double type)
-

Heat transfer coefficient

[W/m2] (double type)
-

Popolo Reference Manual

In some glass panes, transmissivity and absorptivity of a surface is different from that of the opposite side
surface. In this case, the second constructor should be used.
Some commonly-used glass panes are already defined in GlassPanes.Pane class. To make these glass
panes, use the third constructor. The PredifinedGlassPane enumerator type is given as an argument.
By giving a GlassPanes.Pane array (The number of elements is M) to GlassPanes constructor, Overall
transmissivity and overall reflectivity of the M layered glass panes are calculated according to equation 6.1 to 6.5.
th
Where T(M) is overall transmissivity, T(M) is overall reflectivity and T(M)n is absorptivity of n layer. The first
element of array is the inside glass pane and the last element of array is the outside glass pane.

T m =T m 1 X r

(6.1)

T m = Lm Rm T m1 X r

(6.2)

T m n=T m1 n X r

(6.3)

T m n= LmLm Rm T m1 X r

(6.4)

X r=

Lm
=
=
T 1 1=1 L 1 L1
1Rm T m 1 , T 1 L 1 , T 1 L1 ,

(6.5)

T : transmissivity [-], T : reflectivity [-], T(m)n : absorptivity

M : number of layers, L : outer side of glass pane, R : inner side of glass pane

The thermal transmittance and the overall absorptivity of the glass panes can be calculated by equation
6.6 to 6.8.

M 1

1
1
K GS=1 /
{ Ra m Rg m }
i m=0
o

(6.6)

B= f m T m

(6.7)

m=1

f m=1K GS

m1

1
{ R a n R g n }
i
n=0

(6.8)

KGS : Thermal transmittance of the glass panes [W/(m2 K)], Ra : resistance of the air gap [(m2 K)/W]
Rh : resistance of the glass pane [(m2 K)/W], fm : infiltration rate of absorbed heat gain at mth layer into a room
o : film coefficient at outside glass surface [W/(m2 K)], i : film coefficient at inside glass surface [W/(m2 K)]
B : overall heat absorptivity of glass panes [-]

Table 6.4 shows properties of GlassPanes class.

Table 6.4 The properties of the GlassPanes class
Name

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

double[]

AngularDependenceCoefficients

Angular dependence of the solar heat gain

coefficient

TRUE

ConvectiveRate

Convective rate of heat gain

TRUE

double

ThermalTransmittanceOfGlass

Thermal transmittance of the glass (The film

coefficient at surfaces are not involved).

W/(m2K)

double

LongWaveEmissivity

Long wave emissivity of outer surface

TRUE

double

OverallAbsorptivity

Overall absorptivity

ThermalTransmittance

Thermal transmittance of the glass

OverallTransmissivity

Overall transmissivity

RadiativeRate

Rdiative rate of heat gain

-37-

double
2

W/(m K)

double

double

TRUE

double

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

AngularDependenceCoefficients is coefficients to calculate angular dependence of the solar heat gain.

The angular dependence can be calculated by equation 6.9. Default value of coefficients are Ai = {3.4167, -4.389,
2.4948, -0.5224}. Figure 6.3 shows angular dependence with default value. These coefficients give reasonable
result in the most cases.

D N
= Ai cos i
N
i=1

(6.9)

N : transmissivity when the solar incident angle is 90 degree [-], D : transmissivity when the solar incident angle is degree [-]
Ai : coefficients to calculate angular dependence of the solar heat gain [-]

Incident angle charactaristic [-]

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle [degree]

Figure 6.3 Angular dependence

ConvectiveRate and RadiativeRate properties shows the convective and the radiative rate of a heat gain.
These properties takes value between 0 to 1.
LongWaveEmissivity is used to calculate a heat loss by a nocturnal radiation.
Film coefficients at surfaces are not involved in HeatTransferCoefficientOfGlass.
Table 6.5 shows methods defined in GlassPanes class.
Table 6.5 The methods defined in the GlassPanes class
Name

Description
Description Copy other GlassPanes object

Copy

Return
Arg.1

Target GlassPanes object to copy

(ImmutableGlassPanes type)

Description Calculate incident angle characteristic

GetIncidentAngle
Characteristic

Return
Arg.1

Incident angle characteristic of the glass panes.

Cosine of incident angle (cos)

2-

Description Set heat transfer coefficients [W/(m K)] of air gaps

SetHeatTransfer
CoefficientsOfAirGaps

Return
Arg.1

Index of air gap :0 is room side

heat transfer coefficients [W/(m2-K)] of air gap

Arg.2
2-

Description Set inside film coefficient [W/(m K)].

SetInsideFilmCoefficient

Return
Arg.1

2-

inside film coefficient [W/(m K)]

2-

Description Set outside film coefficient [W/(m K)].

SetOutsideFilmCoefficient

Return
Arg.1

2-

outside film coefficient [W/(m K)]

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Popolo Reference Manual

If glass panes consist of more than one pane, heat transfer coefficients of air gaps must be given by
SetHeatTransferCoefficientsOfAirGaps method.
Figure 6.4 shows a sample program which calculates the characteristics of a glass panes. Triple layered
glass panes are created and some characteristics are written to the standard output stream. .
Three transparent glasses are created in the line 4 to 10. A instance of the GlassPanes class is created in
the line 13 with these transparent glasses. The heat transfer coefficients of air gap and the film coefficients at the
glass surface are initialized in the line 16 to 21. In the line 24 to 28, the characteristics of the glass panes are
written to the standard output stream.
The outside glass pane is replaced by heat reflecting glass in the line 32 for comparison of characteristics.
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/// <summary>Sample program calculating the charateristics of a glass panes</summary>

private static void glassPanesTest()
{
//Create an array of the GlassPanes.Glass class
GlassPanes.Pane[] panes = new GlassPanes.Pane[3];
//Create a transparent glass (3mm).
panes[0] = new GlassPanes.Pane(0.79, 0.07, 0.85, 0.07, 131); //Inside of the window
panes[1] = new GlassPanes.Pane(0.79, 0.07, 0.85, 0.07, 131);
panes[2] = new GlassPanes.Pane(0.79, 0.07, 0.85, 0.07, 131); //Outside of the window
//Create an instance of GlassPanes class
GlassPanes glass = new GlassPanes(panes);
//Set heat transfer coefficients[W/(m2-K)] of air gap
glass.SetHeatTransferCoefficientsOfGaps(0, 1 / 0.12);
glass.SetHeatTransferCoefficientsOfGaps(1, 1 / 0.12);
//Set film coefficients[W/(m2-K)] at the surface of glass.
glass.SetInsideFilmCoefficient(9.26);
//Inside of the window
glass.SetOutsideFilmCoefficient(23.26); //Outside of the window
//Check the characteristics of the glass panes.
Console.WriteLine("Transparent glass(3mm) * 3");
Console.WriteLine("Overall transmissivity[-] = " + glass.OverallTransmissivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Overall absorptivity[-] = " + glass.OverallAbsorptivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Heat transmission coefficient of glass[-] = " + glass.ThermalTransmittanceOfGlass.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Heat transmission coefficient[-] = " + glass.ThermalTransmittance.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine();
//Change the outside glass pane to heat reflecting glass(6mm)
panes[0] = new GlassPanes.Pane(GlassPanes.Pane.PredifinedGlassPane.HeatReflectingGlass06mm);
//Check the characteristics of a single glass pane.
Console.WriteLine("Heat reflecting glass(6mm)");
Console.WriteLine("Transmissivity[-] = " + panes[0].OuterSideTransmissivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("absorptivity[-] = " + panes[0].OuterSideAbsorptivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Reflectivity[-] = " + panes[0].OuterSideReflectivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine();
//Create an instance of GlassPanes class. Other properties are same as above
glass = new GlassPanes(panes);
glass.SetHeatTransferCoefficientsOfGaps(0, 1 / 0.12);
glass.SetHeatTransferCoefficientsOfGaps(1, 1 / 0.12);
glass.SetInsideFilmCoefficient(9.26);
//Inside of the window
glass.SetOutsideFilmCoefficient(23.26); //Outside of the window
//Check the characteristics of the glass panes.
Console.WriteLine("Heat reflecting glass(6mm) + Transparent glass(3mm) * 2");
Console.WriteLine("Overall transmissivity[-] = " + glass.OverallTransmissivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Overall absorptivity[-] = " + glass.OverallAbsorptivity.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Heat transmission coefficient of glass[-] = " + glass.ThermalTransmittanceOfGlass.ToString("F2"));
Console.WriteLine("Heat transmission coefficient[-] = " + glass.ThermalTransmittance.ToString("F2"));
}

Console.Read();

Figure 6.4 The sample program which calculates the characteristics of a glass panes

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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Figure 6.5 shows the result of the simulation. The transmissivity of the second glass panes is smaller than
that of the first glass panes, since the reflectivity of the heat reflecting glass is bigger than the normal transparent
glass.
Transparent glass(3mm) * 3
Overall transmissivity[-] = 0.50
Overall absorptivity[-] = 0.13
Heat transmission coefficient of glass[-] = 3.80
Heat transmission coefficient[-] = 2.42
Heat reflecting glass(6mm)
Transmissivity[-] = 0.60
absorptivity[-] = 0.10
Reflectivity[-] = 0.30
Heat reflecting glass(6mm) + Transparent glass(3mm) * 2
Overall transmissivity[-] = 0.39
Overall absorptivity[-] = 0.11
Heat transmission coefficient of glass[-] = 3.70
Heat transmission coefficient[-] = 2.37

Figure 6.5 The result of the simulation

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Popolo Reference Manual

6.2.2

Window class

The Window class is a model of a window. It is initialized by GlassPanes object described in the section
6.2.1. Table 6.6 shows the constructors of the Window class.
Table6.6 The constructors of the Window class
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Argument 3

Multi-layered glass panes

(ImmutableGlassPanes object)

Multi-layered glass panes

(ImmutableGlassPanes object )

Inclined plane of outside surface

(ImmutableIncline object)

Multi-layered glass panes

(ImmutableGlassPanes object)

Inclined plane of outside surface

(ImmutableIncline object)

Sun shade for the window

(ImmutableSunShade object)

The second argument of the constructor is a Incline object described in the section 5.2.1. The third
argument is a SunShade object which calculates a shading rate of the window. The SunShade class will be
described later in the section 6.2.4.
Table 6.7 shows the properties defined in the Window class.
Table 6.7 The properties defined in the Window class.
Name

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Heat gain by absorption

double

Albedo

TRUE

double

ConvectiveHeatGain

Radiative heat gain

double

Glass

Multi-layered glass

ImmutableGlassPanes

IndoorDrybulbTemperature

Indoor drybulb temperature

TRUE

double

IndoorSurfaceTemperature

Indoor surface temperature

AbsorbedHeatGain
Albedo

NocturnalRadiation
OutdoorDrybulbTemperature
OutdoorSideIncline
OutdoorSurfaceTemperature
RadiativeHeatGain
Shade
ShadowRate
Sun

Description

double
2

Nocturnal radiation

TRUE

W/m

double

Outdoor drybulg temperature

TRUE

double

Incline of outside surface

ImmutableIncline

Outdoor surface temperature

double

Radiative heat gain

double

Sun shade of the window

TRUE

ImmutableSunShade

Shadow rate

TRUE

double

Sun

TRUE

ImmutableSun

SurfaceArea

Surface are of the window

TRUE

m2

double

TransferHeatGain

Heat gain by heat transfer

double

TransmissionHeatGain

Heat gain by transmission

double

Some boundary conditions (Albedo, OutdoorDrybulbTemperature, IndoorDrybulbTemperature and

NocturnalRadiation properties ) must be given to calculate a heat transfer through the window. An information
about sun shade of the window is given as Shade property to calculate shadow rate, otherwise user should specify
shadow rate directly by ShadowRate property. The information about solar radiations (direct normal radiation,
diffuse horizontal radiation and global horizontal radiation) are given by Sun property. It is Sun object described at
section 5.2.3.
When the boundary conditions are fixed, heat transfer (absorbed, transfer and transmission heat gain)
through the window is determined. These heat gains are separated into two kinds of heat gains, convective heat
gain and radiative heat gain. The convective heat gain is the heat gain that directly raise the temperature of a
room. The radiative heat gain is the heat gain that first raise the temperature of room wall surfaces or other
window surfaces. Therefore, the radiative heat gain has a time delay to the room temperature. Sum of the
AbsorbedHeatGain, TransferHeatGain and TransmissionHeatGain is equal to ConvectiveHeatGain and
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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

RadiativeHeatGain.
Figure 6.6 shows a sample program which calculates the heat gain from a window.
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/// <summary>Sample program calculating the heat gain from the window</summary>
private static void windowTest()
{
//A sample weather data
//direct normal radiation [W/m2]
double[] wdIdn = new double[] { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 244, 517, 679, 774, 829, 856, 862, 847, 809, 739, 619, 415, 97, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 };
//diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]
double[] wdIsky = new double[] { 0, 0, 0, 0, 21, 85, 109, 116, 116, 113, 110, 109, 111, 114, 116, 114, 102, 63, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 };
//drybulb temperature [C]
double[] wdDbt = new double[] { 27, 27, 27, 27, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 32, 33, 33, 33, 34, 33, 32, 32, 31, 30, 29, 29, 28, 28 };
//nocturnal radiation [W/m2]
double[] wdRN = new double[] { 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 24, 25, 25, 25, 25, 26, 26, 26, 26, 26, 26, 26, 25, 25, 25, 25, 24, 24, 24 };
//Create a window with a single 3mm transparent glass pane
GlassPanes.Pane pane = new GlassPanes.Pane(GlassPanes.Pane.PredifinedGlassPane.TransparentGlass03mm);
GlassPanes glassPane = new GlassPanes(pane);
Window window = new Window(glassPane);
//Set wall surface information
WindowSurface outsideWindowSurface = window.GetSurface(true);
outsideWindowSurface.FilmCoefficient = 23d;
outsideWindowSurface.Albedo = 0.2;
WindowSurface insideWindowSurface = window.GetSurface(false);
insideWindowSurface. FilmCoefficient = 9.3;
//Set incline of an outdoor surface : South, vertical incline
window.OutSideIncline = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.S, 0.5 * Math.PI);
//There is no sun shade
window.Shade = SunShade.EmptySunShade;
//Initialize sun. Tokyo : 7/21 0:00
Sun sun = new Sun(Sun.City.Tokyo);
DateTime dTime = new DateTime(2001, 7, 21, 0, 0, 0);
sun.Update(dTime);
window.Sun = sun;
//Indoor drybulb temperature is constant (25C)
window.IndoorDrybulbTemperature = 25;
//Result : Title line
Console.WriteLine(" Time |Transmission[W]|Absorption[W]|Transfer[W]|Convective[W]|Radiative[W]");
//execute simulation
for (int i = 0; i < 24; i++)
{
//Set radiations (calculate global horizontal radiation from direct normal and diffuse horizontal radiation)
sun.SetGlobalHorizontalRadiation(wdIsky[i], wdIdn[i]);
//Set nocturnal radiation
window.NocturnalRadiation = wdRN[i];
//Set outdoor temperature
window.OutdoorDrybulbTemperature = wdDbt[i];
//Output result
Console.WriteLine(dTime.ToShortTimeString().PadLeft(5) + " | " + window.TransmissionHeatGain.ToString("F1").PadLeft(13) + " | " +
window.AbsorbedHeatGain.ToString("F1").PadLeft(11) + " | " + window.TransferHeatGain.ToString("F1").PadLeft(9) + " | " +
window.ConvectiveHeatGain.ToString("F1").PadLeft(11) + " | " + window.RadiativeHeatGain.ToString("F1").PadLeft(11));

}
}

//Update time
dTime = dTime.AddHours(1);
sun.Update(dTime);

Console.Read();

Figure 6.6 The sample program which calculates the heat gain from the window

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Popolo Reference Manual

The arrays declared in the line 4~12 is a sample weather data. These are the value of direct normal
radiation, diffuse horizontal radiation, drybulb temperature and nocturnal radiation of one day.
An instance of the GlassPanes class is created in the line 15 and 16. The transparent 3mm glass pane is
created. A Window object is initialized with this GlassPanes object in the line 17.
A WindowSurface object is used to set surface state in the line 20~24. Overall heat transfer coefficients
and albedo are set to WindowSurface object. Albedo is solar radiation reflectivity of ground surface. In urban
areas, value of albedo is around 0.2.
Outdoor surface incline is set in the line 27. It is the south vertical window.
The sun shade is set in the line 30. In this sample, the window has no sun shade. The SunShade class will
be described late in the section 6.2.4.
A instance of Sun class is created in the line 33~36. The location is Tokyo and the date is 7/21. It is 0:00
at the beginning of the simulation. The line from 45 to 62 is the iteration. It iterates 24 times to simulate 24 hours.
The three boundary conditions, solar radiation, nocturnal radiation and drybulb temperature is set in the
line 47~52. The heat gains from the window is calculated since boundary conditions are fixed. All the heat gains
are written to the standard output stream in the line 55~57. Finally, in the line 60 and 61, 1 hour is added to update
the position of the sun.
Figure 6.7 shows the result of the simulation.
Time | Transmission[W] | Absorption[W] | Transfer[W] | Convective[W] | Radiative[W]
0:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
12.9 |
5.8 |
7.1
1:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
12.9 |
5.8 |
7.1
2:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
12.9 |
5.8 |
7.1
3:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
12.9 |
5.8 |
7.1
4:00 |
9.7 |
0.3 |
13.2 |
6.0 |
7.4
5:00 |
40.3 |
1.1 |
20.4 |
9.7 |
11.8
6:00 |
60.4 |
1.6 |
27.4 |
13.0 |
15.9
7:00 |
77.0 |
2.0 |
34.3 |
16.3 |
20.0
8:00 |
91.7 |
2.4 |
41.2 |
19.6 |
24.0
9:00 |
134.4 |
3.5 |
48.7 |
23.5 |
28.7
10:00 |
190.5 |
5.0 |
50.2 |
24.8 |
30.4
11:00 |
229.5 |
6.0 |
57.7 |
28.7 |
35.0
12:00 |
236.3 |
6.2 |
57.9 |
28.8 |
35.2
13:00 |
208.2 |
5.4 |
57.1 |
28.2 |
34.4
14:00 |
154.5 |
4.0 |
62.2 |
29.8 |
36.4
15:00 |
97.9 |
2.6 |
54.2 |
25.6 |
31.2
16:00 |
64.8 |
1.7 |
46.9 |
21.9 |
26.7
17:00 |
31.9 |
0.8 |
46.1 |
21.1 |
25.8
18:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
38.8 |
17.4 |
21.3
19:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
32.3 |
14.5 |
17.8
20:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
25.8 |
11.6 |
14.2
21:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
25.8 |
11.6 |
14.2
22:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
19.4 |
8.7 |
10.7
23:00 |
0.0 |
0.0 |
19.4 |
8.7 |
10.7

Figure 6.7 The result of the simulation

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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

6.2.3

AirFlowWindow class
************

6.2.4

SunShade class

The SunShade class is a model of a sun shade. Figure 6.8 shows the shapes of the sun shade that can be
treated by SunShade class. To create these shaped sun shades, some static methods are defined in the SunShade
class. These static methods must be used to create an instance of the SunShade class, since SunShade class doesn't
have constructor. There is special static member, EmptySunShade property, to express empty sun shade.
Table 6.8 shows the properties defined in the SunShade class. Most of the properties are read only
property.
Incline is described in the section 5.2.1. SunShade class can calculate a shadow rate at inclined plane like
roof skylight.
An opening area can be reversed with IsReverse property. If the IsReverse property is true, the opening
area is treated as the sun shade and the sun shade is treated as opening area. For example, we can calculate shadow
rate of a dry area by reversing the horizontal sun shade (Figure 6.9).

Horizontal sunshade

leftMargin

topMargin

Side wall
topMargin
rightMargin
left
Margin

windowHeight

right
Margin

windowWidth
bottomMargin

Grid

Pendent
pendent
topMargin

left
Margin

right
Margin

bottomMargin

Figure 6.8 Three types of the sun shade

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Popolo Reference Manual

Sun shade

Opening area

Figure 6.9 Reverse the sun shade

Table 6.8 The properties defined in the SunShade class
Name

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Bottom margin

double

Incline

TRUE

ImmutableIncline

IsReverse

Whether sun shade is

reversed or not

TRUE

bool

LeftMargin

Length of left margin

double

Name

Name of sun shade

TRUE

string

OverHang

Length of overhang

double

Length of right margin

double

Shape type

SunShade.Shape

TopMargin

Length of top margin

double

WindowHeight

Height of the window

double

WindowWidth

Width of the window

double

BottomMargin
Incline

RightMargin
SunShadeShape

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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Table 6.9 The static methods defined in the SunShade class
Name

Description
Function
Return

MakeGridSunShade

Window width [m]

Arg.2

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of left margin [m]

Arg.5

Length of right margin [m]

Arg.6

Length of top margin [m]

Arg.7

Length of bottom margin [m]

Arg.8

Incline

Function

Create horizontal sun shade.

Window width [m]

Arg.2

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of left margin [m]

Arg.5

Length of right margin [m]

Arg.6

Length of top margin [m]

Arg.7

Incline

Return

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of top margin [m]

Arg.5

Incline

Create left or right side wall sun shade

left or right side wall sun shade

Arg.1

Window width [m]

Arg.2

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of side [m]

Arg.5

Set true if left side wall

Arg.6

Length of top margin[m]

Arg.7

Length of bottom margin [m]

Arg.8

Incline

Return

Create left or right side wall (infinite length) sun shade

eft or right side wall (infinite length) sun shade

Arg.1

Window width [m]

Arg.2

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of side margin [m]

Arg.5

Set true if left side wall

Arg.6

Incline

Function
Return

Create both side wall sun shade

both side wall sun shade

Arg.1

Window width [m]

Arg.2

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of side margin [m]

Arg.5

Length of top margin [m]

Arg.6

Length of bottom margin [m]

Arg.7

Incline

Function
Return
MakeVerticalSunShade

horizontal (infinite length) sun shade.

Arg.2

Function

MakeVerticalSunShade

Window width [m]

Return

MakeVerticalSunShade

Create horizontal (infinite length) sun shade.

Arg.1

Function

MakeVerticalSunShade

horizontal sun shade.

Arg.1

Function

MakeHorizontalSunShade

grid sun shade.

Arg.1

Return
MakeHorizontalSunShade

Create grid sun shade.

Create both side wall (infinite length) sun shade

both side wall (infinite length) sun shade

Arg.1

Window width [m]

Arg.2

Window height [m]

Arg.3

Length of overhang [m]

Arg.4

Length of side margin [m]

Arg.5

Incline

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Popolo Reference Manual

6.2.5

WallLayers class

The most of the building walls consist of more than one materials (structure, insulation and covering
material). The WallLayers class is a model of a multi layered wall. Table 6.10 and 6.11 shows the properties and
methods defined in the WallLayers class.
Each layer can be added or removed by AddLayer method and RemoveLayer method. After the
composition of the wall layer is fixed, thermal transmission of the wall layer can be calculated by
GetThermalTransmission method.
WallLayers.Layer class is defined in the WallLayers class to make a single wall layer. Figure 6.12 shows
the constructors of the WallLayers.Layer class. The wall layer should be split when the layer is very thick.
Table 6.10 The properties defined in the WallLayers class
Name
LayerNumber
Name

Description

Has set accessors

Unit

Type

Number of layers

uint

Name

TRUE

string

Table 6.11 The methods defined in the WallLayers

Name

Description
Function

GetThermalTransmission

Return
Arg.1
Function

GetThermalTransmission

Return

Get thermal transmission [W/(m K)] of wall layers

ThermalTransmission[W/(m2K)]
Film coefficient at surface 1 [W/(m2K)]

Get thermal transmission [W/(m2K)] of wall layers

ThermalTransmission[W/(m2K)]

Arg.1
Function
UsingMaterial

Return
Arg.1
Function

AddLayer

Function
GetLayer

Material (ImmutableWallMaterial type)

Function

The wall layer (Layer type)

Arg.2

Arg.2

Arg.2

Get the lists of the wall layers

Get the wall layer

The wall layer (Layer type)
Index number of the wall layer
Remove the layer from the wall layers
Index number of the wall layer

Arg.2

Replace a wall layer

Return
Arg.1

Return
Arg.1

Add a wall layer to the wall layers

Function

ReplaceLayer

Whether wall material is used in this wall layer or not

Array list of the wall layers (Layer array)

Return

Return whether wall material is used in this wall layer or not

Arg.1

Arg.1

RemoveLayer

Arg.2

Return

Function
GetLayer

Return
Arg.1

Film coefficient at surface 2 [W/(m2K)]

Arg.2

Index number of the wall layer

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Arg.2

The wall layer (Layer type)

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Table 6.12 The constructors of the WallLayers.Layer class
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Argument 3

Material (ImmutableWallMaterial type)

Thickness of the layer (double type)

Material (ImmutableWallMaterial type)

Thickness of the layer (double type)

split numbers (uint type)

The WallMaterial class is a model of wall material.

Table 6.13 shows the constructors of the WallMaterial class. The principal information about wall
3
material is name, thermal conductivity [W/(m K)] and volumetric specific heat [kJ/(m K)]. These are the
arguments of the first constructor. When a material has no heat capacity (like air), set 0 to the first argument and
2
set a heat conductance [W/(m K)] to the third argument.
An instance of the WallMaterial class can be also initialized with predefined commonly used materials
(the second constructor). Table 6.15 shows the materials predefined in the WallMaterial class.
Table 6.14 shows the properties of the WallMaterial class.
Table 6.13 The constructors of the WallMaterial class
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Argument 3
volumetric specific heat [kJ/(m3 K)]
(double type)

thermal conductivity [W/(m K)]

(double type)

Name of the material (string type)

Predefined wall material

(WallMaterial.PredifinedMaterials enumerator)

Wall material (ImmutableWallMaterial type)

Table 6.14 The properties of the WallMaterial class

Name
Material
Name
ThermalConductivity
VolumetricSpecificHeat

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

predefined material

WallMaterial.PredifinedMaterials

Name

TRUE

string

TRUE

W/(m K)

thermal conductivity
volumetric specific heat

TRUE

kJ/(m K)

double
double

The thermal transmission [W/(m K)] of a wall can be calculated from thermal conductivity [W/(m K)]
and thickness [m] of each wall layer according to equation 6.10.

K =1/

1
l
1
1

1 C air 2

K : thermal transmittance of a wall [W/(m2 K)], 1 : film coefficient at wall surface 1 [W/(m2 K)]
2 : film coefficient at wall surface 2 [W/(m2 K)], : thermal conductivity [W/(m K)], l : thickness [m]
Cair : heat conductance of air layer [W/(m2 K)]

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.15 Members of the PredifinedMaterials enumerator
Name
Mortar
ReinforcedConcrete
LightweightAggregateConcrete1
LightweightAggregateConcrete2
AutomaticLevelControl
Brick
FireBrick
Copper
Aluminum
Steel
Lead
StainlessSteel
FloatGlass
PolyvinylChloride
Wood1
Wood2
Wood3
Plywood
WoodWoolCement
WoodChipCement
HardBoard
ParticleBoard
PlasterBoard
GypsumPlaster
WhiteWash
SoilWall
FiberCoating
Tatami
Tile
PlasticTile
GlassWoolInsulation_10K
GlassWoolInsulation_16K
GlassWoolInsulation_24K
GlassWoolInsulation_34K
HighGradeGlassWoolInsulation_16K
HighGradeGlassWoolInsulation_24K
BlowingGlassWoolInsulation_13K
BlowingGlassWoolInsulation_18K
BlowingGlassWoolInsulation_30K
BlowingGlassWoolInsulation_35K
RockWoolInsulationMat
RockWoolInsulationFelt
RockWoolInsulationBoard
BlowingRockWoolInsulation_25K
BlowingRockWoolInsulation_35K
RockWoolAcousticBoard

thermal
conductivity
1.512
1.6
0.81
0.58
0.17
0.62
0.99
370.1
200
53.01
35.01
15
1
0.17
0.12
0.15
0.19
0.19
0.1
0.17
0.17
0.15
0.17
0.6
0.7
0.69
0.12
0.11
1.3
0.19
0.05
0.045
0.038
0.036
0.038
0.036
0.052
0.052
0.04
0.04
0.038
0.038
0.036
0.047
0.051
0.058

volumetric
specific heat
1591
1896
1900
1599
661.4
1386
1553
3144
2428
3759
1469
3479
1914
1023
519.1
648.8
845.6
716
841.4
1679
1233
715.8
1030
1637
1093
1126
4.2
527.4
2018
4.2
8.4
13.4
20.1
26.8
13.4
20.1
10.9
16.7
29.3
37.7
33.5
41.9
58.6
20.9
29.3
293.9

Name
SprayedRockWool
BeadMethodPolystyreneFoam_S
BeadMethodPolystyreneFoam_1
BeadMethodPolystyreneFoam_2
BeadMethodPolystyreneFoam_3
BeadMethodPolystyreneFoam_4
ExtrudedPolystyreneFoam_1
ExtrudedPolystyreneFoam_2
ExtrudedPolystyreneFoam_3
RigidUrethaneFoam_1_1
RigidUrethaneFoam_1_2
RigidUrethaneFoam_1_3
RigidUrethaneFoam_2_1
RigidUrethaneFoam_2_2
RigidUrethaneFoam_2_3
RigidUrethaneFoam_InSite
PolyethyleneFoam_A
PolyethyleneFoam_B
PhenolicFoam_1_1
PhenolicFoam_1_2
PhenolicFoam_2_1
PhenolicFoam_2_2
InsulationBoard_A
TatamiBoard
SheathingInsulationBoard
CelluloseFiberInsulation_1
CelluloseFiberInsulation_2
Soil
ExpandedPolystyrene
CoveringMaterial
Linoleum
Carpet
AsbestosPlate
SealedAirGap
AirGap
PolystyreneFoam
StyreneFoam
RubberTile
Kawara
LightweightConcrete
Asphalt
FrexibleBoard
CalciumSilicateBoard
PhenolicFoam
GNT
AcrylicResin

thermal
conductivity
0.047
0.034
0.036
0.037
0.04
0.043
0.04
0.034
0.028
0.024
0.024
0.026
0.023
0.023
0.024
0.026
0.038
0.042
0.033
0.03
0.036
0.034
0.049
0.045
0.052
0.04
0.04
1.047
0.035
0.14
0.19
0.08
1.2
5.8
11.6
0.035
0.035
0.4
1
0.78
0.11
0.35
0.13
0.02
4.3
0.21

volumetric
specific heat
167.9
33.9
37.7
31.4
25.1
18.8
25.1
25.1
25.1
56.1
44
31.4
56.1
44
31.4
49.8
62.8
62.8
37.7
37.7
56.5
56.5
324.8
15.1
390.1
37.7
62.8
3340
300
1680
1470
318
1820
0
0
80
10
784
1506
1607
920
1600
680
37.7
2.9
1666

Figure 6.9 shows a sample program which calculates the thermal transmission of a multi-layered wall.
The wall layers consists of plywood, air gap, reinforced concrete and white wash. These materials are
created in the line 7~16. The first three materials are created with using PredefinedMaterials enumerator. The last
material (white wash) is created by giving thermal conductivity and volumetric specific heat directly to the
constructor (line 16).
A instance of the WallLayers.Layer class is created in the line 18~26. The thickness of each layer is
20mm, 10mm, 150mm and 10mm. Although heat conductance of the air gap doesn't depends on the thickness.
The name and thickness of each layer and the thermal transmission of the wall layers are written to
standard output stream in the line 28~36.
The reinforced concrete layer is replaced by lightweight concrete in the line 39 for comparison.
Figure 6.11 shows the result of the simulation.
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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52

/// <summary>Sample program calculating the thermal transimission of the wall layers</summary>
private static void wallLayersTest()
{
//Create an instance of WallLayers
WallLayers wLayers = new WallLayers("Sample wall layer");
//Make an array of materials
WallMaterial[] materials = new WallMaterial[4];
//The first layer : plywood
materials[0] = new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.Plywood);
//The second layer : air gap
materials[1] = new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.AirGap);
//The thirg layer : concrete
materials[2] = new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.ReinforcedConcrete);
//The fourth layer : white Wash
materials[3] = new WallMaterial("White Wash", 0.7, 1000);
//Add a layer to WallLayers object
//plywood : 20mm
wLayers.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(materials[0], 0.02));
//air gap : heat conductance doesn't depend on thickness
wLayers.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(materials[1], 0.01));
//concrete : 150mm
wLayers.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(materials[2], 0.15));
//white Wash : 10mm
wLayers.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(materials[3], 0.01));
//output result
Console.WriteLine("Wall composition");
for (uint i = 0; i < wLayers.LayerNumber; i++)
{
WallLayers.Layer layer = wLayers.GetLayer(i);
Console.WriteLine("Layer " + (i + 1) + "" + layer.Material.Name + "(" + layer.Thickness + "m)");
}
Console.WriteLine("Thermal transmission = " + wLayers.GetThermalTransmission().ToString("F1") + " W/(m2-K)");
Console.WriteLine();
//Replace concrete to light weight concrete
wLayers.ReplaceLayer(2, new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.LightweightConcrete), 0.15));
//output result
Console.WriteLine("Wall composition");
for (uint i = 0; i < wLayers.LayerNumber; i++)
{
WallLayers.Layer layer = wLayers.GetLayer(i);
Console.WriteLine("Layer " + (i + 1) + "" + layer.Material.Name + "(" + layer.Thickness + "m)");
}
Console.WriteLine("Thermal transmission = " + wLayers.GetThermalTransmission().ToString("F1") + " W/(m2-K)");
Console.WriteLine();
}

Console.Read();

Figure 6.10 The sample program which calculates thermal transmission of the wall layers
Wall composition
Layer 1Plywood(0.02m)
Layer 2Air Gap(999m)
Layer 3Reinforced Concrete(0.15m)
Layer 4White Wash(0.01m)
Thermal transmission = 3.3 W/(m2-K)
Wall composition
Layer 1Plywood(0.02m)
Layer 2Air Gap(999m)
Layer 3Lightweight Concrete(0.15m)
Layer 4White Wash(0.01m)
Thermal transmission = 2.5 W/(m2-K)

Figure 6.11 The result of the simulation

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Popolo Reference Manual

6.2.6

Wall class

The Wall class is a model of a wall. It can calculate unsteady state heat conduction. Table 6.16 shows the
constructors of the Wall class. A Wall object is initialized with a WallLayer object described in the section 6.2.5.
Table 6.17 and 6.18 shows the properties and the methods defined in the Wall class.
Table 6.16 The constructors of the Wall class
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

Wall compostion (ImmutableWallLayers type)

Wall compostion (ImmutableWallLayers type)

Name of the wall (string type)

-

table 6.17 The properties defined in the Wall class

Name
TimeStep
SurfaceArea

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Calculating time step

TRUE

sec

double

Surface area of wall

Layers

TRUE

double

WallLayers object

AirTemperature1

Air temperature at wall surface 1

TRUE

double

AirTemperature2

Air temperature at wall surface 2

TRUE

double
2

Radiation1

Radiation at wall surface 1

TRUE

W/m

double

Radiation2

Radiation at wall surface 2

TRUE

W/m2

double

Incline1

Incline at wall surface 1

Incline2

Incline at wall surface 2

1)

Unsteady heat conduction of normal wall

Two principal boundary conditions are air temperature and radiation at wall surface. These conditions can
be set by AirTemperature and Radiation property of the Wall class. If the boundary conditions are fixed, the state
of the wall can be calculated with Update method. Once the Update methods is called, time given by TimeStep
property passes.
The temperature of each wall layer is determined by solving equation 6.11 2). As shown in figure 6.12,
heat capacities are concentrated into the boundary of wall layers.
Figure 6.13 shows a sample program which calculates unsteady heat conduction with Wall class. Table
6.19 shows the compositions of the wall. It is as same as wall described in the section 3.3.2, which was solved by
the circuit networks.
Figure 6.14 and 6.15 shows the results of the simulation. It seems that the results is as same as that of the
simulation solved by the circuit networks.

T
1
1
1
=
T m1T m T mT m1
t m 0.5CAP mCAP m1 Rm1
Rm
T : temperature of wall [C], t : time [sec], M : number of the layer,
CAP : heat capacity per surface area [J/(m2K)], R : thermal resistance [(m2K)/W]

Ta(0)

T0

T1

Tm

TM-2

TM-1

TM

Figure 6.12 The concentrated heat capacities

-51-

Ta(M)

(6.11)

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Table 6.18 The methods defined in the Wall class
Name

Description
Function

Update

Update the state of the wall

Return

Arg.1
Function
SetIncline

Function
Return
Arg.1
Function
InitializeTemperature

Arg.1

Function
SetFilmCoefficient

Function
Return
Arg.1
Function
SetConvectiveRate

Function

Arg.1

Return
Arg.1
Function

GetRadiativeRate

Wall suraface object

Is target wall suraface 1 or not (bool type)

Arg.2

Return
Arg.1

Initialize inside temperature of the wall

Temperature of wall (double type)

Arg.2

Set film coefficient of wall surface [W/(m2 K)]

film coefficient (double type)

Arg.2 Is target wall suraface 1 or not (bool type)

2

Set film coefficient of wall surface [W/(m K)]

film coefficient of surface 1 (double type)

Arg.2 film coefficient of surface 2 (double type)

Get film coefficient of wall surface [W/(m2 K)]

Film coefficient of wall surface
Is target wall suraface 1 or not (bool type)

Arg.2

Set convective rate of film coefficient [-]

convective rate of film coefficient [-]

Arg.2

Set radiative rate of film coefficient [-]

Return

Function
GetConvectiveRate

Arg.2 Is target wall suraface 1 or not (bool type)

Get wall suraface object

Return
Arg.1

SetRadiativeRate

Incline (ImmutableIncline type)

Return
Arg.1

GetFilmCoefficient

Return
Arg.1

Set incline to wall surface. Incline of opsite side surface is automatically set.

Return

Function
SetFilmCoefficient

Arg.2

Return
Arg.1

GetSurface

radiative rate of film coefficient [-]

Arg.2

Arg.2

Arg.2

Get convective rate of film coefficient [-]

convective rate of film coefficient [-]
Get radiative rate of film coefficient [-]
radiative rate of film coefficient [-]
-

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.19 Wall composition
Number

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46

Material

Thermal conductivity
[W/(m K)]

Volumetric specific heat

[kJ/(m3 K)]

Thickness [mm]
25

Plywood

0.19

716

Concrete

1.4

1934

Air gap

Rock wool

120
2

Thermal resistance = 0.086 (m K)/W

0.042

84

/// <summary>Sample program calculating the unsteady heat conduction of wall</summary>

private static void wallTest1()
{
WallLayers layers = new WallLayers();
WallLayers.Layer layer;
layer = new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("Plywood", 0.19, 716), 0.025);
layers.AddLayer(layer);
layer = new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("Concrete", 1.4, 1934), 0.120);
layers.AddLayer(layer);
layer = new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("Air gap", 1d / 0.086, 0), 0.020);
layers.AddLayer(layer);
layer = new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("Rock wool", 0.042, 84), 0.050);
layers.AddLayer(layer);
Wall wall = new Wall(layers);
wall.TimeStep = 3600;
wall.AirTemperature1 = 20;
wall.AirTemperature2 = 10;
wall.InitializeTemperature(10); //Initial temperature is 10 C
wall.SurfaceArea = 1;
Console.WriteLine("Plywood, Concrete, Air gap, Rock wool");
double[] temps;
for (int i = 0; i < 24; i++)
{
wall.Update();
temps = wall.GetTemperatures();
Console.Write((i + 1).ToString("F0").PadLeft(2) + "Hour | ");
for (int j = 0; j < temps.Length - 1; j++) Console.Write(((temps[j] + temps[j + 1]) / 2d).ToString("F1") + " | ");
Console.WriteLine();
}
//Iterate until wall become steady state
for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) wall.Update();
Console.WriteLine();
Console.WriteLine("Steady state");
temps = wall.GetTemperatures();
for (int j = 0; j < temps.Length - 1; j++) Console.Write(((temps[j] + temps[j + 1]) / 2d).ToString("F1") + " | ");
Console.WriteLine();
Console.WriteLine("Heat transfer at steady state 1: " + wall.GetHeatTransfer(true).ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine("Heat transfer at steady state 2: " + wall.GetHeatTransfer(false).ToString("F1"));
Console.WriteLine("Heat transfer at steady state 3: " + wall.GetStaticHeatTransfer().ToString("F1"));
}

Console.Read();

Figure 6.13 The sample program which calculates unsteady heat conduction of normal wall

-53-

50

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Plywood, Concrete, Air gap, Rock wool
1Hour | 12.9 | 10.5 | 10.2 | 10.1 |
2Hour | 13.7 | 11.0 | 10.5 | 10.3 |
3Hour | 14.2 | 11.5 | 10.9 | 10.4 |
4Hour | 14.6 | 11.9 | 11.2 | 10.6 |
5Hour | 14.9 | 12.3 | 11.6 | 10.9 |
6Hour | 15.1 | 12.7 | 12.0 | 11.1 |
7Hour | 15.4 | 13.1 | 12.4 | 11.2 |
8Hour | 15.6 | 13.4 | 12.7 | 11.4 |
9Hour | 15.9 | 13.7 | 13.1 | 11.6 |
10Hour | 16.1 | 14.0 | 13.4 | 11.8 |
11Hour | 16.2 | 14.3 | 13.6 | 11.9 |
12Hour | 16.4 | 14.6 | 13.9 | 12.0 |
13Hour | 16.6 | 14.8 | 14.2 | 12.2 |
14Hour | 16.7 | 15.0 | 14.4 | 12.3 |
15Hour | 16.9 | 15.2 | 14.6 | 12.4 |
16Hour | 17.0 | 15.4 | 14.8 | 12.5 |
17Hour | 17.2 | 15.6 | 15.0 | 12.6 |
18Hour | 17.3 | 15.8 | 15.2 | 12.7 |
19Hour | 17.4 | 16.0 | 15.4 | 12.8 |
20Hour | 17.5 | 16.1 | 15.5 | 12.9 |
21Hour | 17.6 | 16.3 | 15.7 | 13.0 |
22Hour | 17.7 | 16.4 | 15.8 | 13.1 |
23Hour | 17.8 | 16.5 | 16.0 | 13.1 |
24Hour | 17.8 | 16.6 | 16.1 | 13.2 |
Steady state
19.0 | 18.3 | 17.8 | 14.1 |
Heat transfer at steady state 1: 5.9
Heat transfer at steady state 2: -5.9
Heat transfer at steady state 3: 5.9

Figure 6.14 The result of the simulation

22
1:00
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00
8:00
9:00
10:00
11:00
12:00

20

Temperature [C]

18
16
14
12
10
8
Room 1

Plywood

Concrete

Air gap

Rock wool

Room 2

Figure 6.15 Distribution of wall temperatures

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13:00
14:00
15:00
16:00
17:00
18:00
19:00
20:00
21:00
22:00
23:00

Popolo Reference Manual

2)

Unsteady heat conduction of wall with heating and cooling tube

Cooling tubes and heating tubes are installed in the floor or ceiling in radiant heating and cooling
systems. The Tube class is a model to calculate this phenomenon.
Below is the constructor of the Tube class.
Tube tube = new Tube(epsilon, finEfficiency, fluidSpecificHeat);
The first argument (epsilon) is heat exchanger effectiveness[-] between temperature of fluid and
temperature of wall layer where tube is installed. The second argument is fin efficiency[-]. The third argument is
specific heat[J/(kg K)] of fluid. These value are obtained from equation 6.12~6.17.

H P PNL c w G w
=
T wi T m
AF
AF
PNL=

(6.12)

PX
1 PX c w Gw / AC f 1/ P1

PX =1exp
P=

K P AF
c w Gw

(6.13)

(6.14)

1
tanh Z
DwD
w
Z
wD C f
Z=
2
D

(6.15)

K p=1 / { AF / L 1/ D w Rb }
0.8

(6.16)

a w =1057 1.3520.0198 T m v / D

0.2

(6.17)

HP : heat generation from floor [W], AF : surface area of floor [m3], cw : specific heat of fluid [J/kg], Gw : fluid flow rate [kg/s]
Twi : inlet temperature of the fluid [C], Tm : average temperature of wall layer where the tube is installed [C]
PNL : heat exchanger effectiveness between Tm and Twi [-], PX : heat exchanger effectiveness between surface temperature and Twi [-]
Cf : thermal conductance from wall layer where the tube is installed and to the next layer[W/(m2 K)]
P : fin efficiency [-], KP : thermal transmission from surface temperature to fluid [W/(m2 K)], w : installing span of tube [m]
D : diameter of the tube [m], : heat conductance of the floor [W/(m K)], L : length of the tube [m]
w : convective heat transfer coefficient at inner tube surface [W/(m2 K)], Rb : thermal resistance between tube and floor panel [m K/W]
Tm : average temperature of the fluid [C], v : fluid flow speed [m/s]

Table 6.20 The methods defined in the Tube class

Name

Description
Function Set flow rate [kg/s] of the fluid

SetFlowRate

Return
Arg.1

flow rate [kg/s] of the fluid

Arg.2

Function Calculate outlet fluid temperature [C] from the heat transfer [W] to the tube.
GetOutletFluidTemperature

Return

Outlet fluid temperature [C]

Arg.1

heat transfer [W] to the tube

Arg.2

Arg.2

Function Calculate outlet fluid temperature [C]

GetOutletFluidTemperature

Return

Outlet fluid temperature [C]

Arg.1

-55-

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Figure 6.21 shows the methods related to Tube class defined in the Wall class. A Tube object can be
installed to wall with AddTube method. The heat transfer from the wall to the tube [W] can be obtained by
GetHeatTransferToTube method.
Table 6.21 The methods defined in the Wall class (related to Tube class)
Name

Description
Function

AddTube

Return
Arg.1
Function

RemoveTube

Tube (Tube type)

Arg.2

Function
Return
Arg.1

Index of the wall layer

Remove the tube from the wall layer

Return
Arg.1

GetHeatTransferToTube

Install the tube to the wall layer.

Index of the wall layer

Arg.2

Arg.2

Calculate heat transfer [W] to the tube

heat transfer [W] to the tube
Index of the wall layer where the tube
is installed

Figure 6.17 shows a sample program which calculates unsteady heat conduction of wall with heating and
cooling tube. Figure 6.16 shows the compositions of the floor. A packed water is installed to raise the heat
capacity of the floor.

Flexible board

Volumetric
specific heat
[kJ/(m3K)]
1600

Thermal
conductivity
[W/(mK)]
0.35

Packed water

4186

0.59

4186

0.59

80

0.035

716

0.19

20
20

Polystyrene foam
Plywood
Air gap

Packed water

Water tube

15

20

16.5

Top surface of floor

Heat transfer coef.= 11.6 W/(m2K)

Plywood
Bottom surface of floor

716

0.19

Figure 6.16 Compositions of the floor to calculate

The material of the tube is cross-linked polyethylene (Heat conductance is 0.47 W/(m K)). The span,
external diameter and internal diameter is 267mm, 3.4mm and 2.3mm respectively. The flow rate of the fluid is
2
0.1 L/min/tube. The surface area of floor is 6.48 m . The fin efficiency can be calculated as below.
Cf = 1 / (0.02 / 0.59) + 1 / (0.02 / 0.59) = 59 W/(m2 K)
Z = (0.0267 - 0.0034) (59 / (0.59 0.0034))0.5 = 3.99
p = 1 / 0.0267 (0.0034 + (0.0267-0.0037)) tanh(3.99) / 3.99 = 0.346
heat exchanger effectiveness[-] between temperature of fluid and temperature of wall layer can be
calculated as below.
v = (0.01 / 60 / 1000) / (3.14 (0.0034 / 2)2) = 0.0184 m/s
w = 10.57 (1.352 + 0.0198 25) 0.01840.8 0.00340.2 =235.2
Rb = (0.0034 0.0023) / (3.14 0.47 0.0034) = 0.22 m K / W
Kp = 1 / (6.48 / 194.4 (1 / (3.14 0.0034 235.2) + 0.22)) = 48.6 W/(m2 K)
px = 1 exp(-48.6 6.48 / 4186 / (0.01 54 / 60)) = 0.999
PNL = 0.999 / (1 + 0.999 4186 (0.01 54 / 60) / 6.48 / 59) 1 / 0.34 1) = 0.84

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Popolo Reference Manual

A instance of Wall class is created in the line 4~16. To see detailed temperature change, time step is set to
300 seconds. A instance of the Tube class is created in the line 18. The fin efficiency and the heat exchanger
effectiveness is calculated as above. The Tube object is installed in the line 20. The flow rate of the fluid is set to 0
at first. After 50 times iteration, the flow rate is set to 0.54 L/min. Inlet temperature is set to 30 C constant.
Figure 6.18 shows the result of the simulation. It seems that the wall temperature approaches to outdoor
temperature in first 4 hours, since there are no heating by tube. After the supply of 30 C hot water, wall
temperatures rise. Temperature of the neighboring wall layer 2 and 3 rises quickly, and then temperatures of other
layers rise slowly.
1 /// <summary>Sample program calculating the unsteady heat conduction of wall with heating tube</summary>
2
private static void wallTest2()
3
{
4
WallLayers wl = new WallLayers();
5
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.FrexibleBoard), 0.0165));
6
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("Water", 0.59, 4186), 0.02));
7
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("Water", 0.59, 4186), 0.02));
8
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.ExtrudedPolystyreneFoam_3), 0.02));
9
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.Plywood), 0.009));
10
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.AirGap), 0.015));
11
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.Plywood), 0.009));
12
Wall wall = new Wall(wl);
13
wall.TimeStep = 300;
14
wall.AirTemperature1 = 20;
15
wall.AirTemperature2 = 10;
16
wall.SurfaceArea = 6.48;
17
18
Tube tube = new Tube(0.84, 0.346, 4186);
19
//installing tube to wall
20
wall.AddTube(tube, 1);
21
tube.SetFlowRate(0); //initial flow rate is 0 kg/s
22
tube.FluidTemperature = 30;
23
24
wall.InitializeTemperature(20); //initialize temperature of the wall
25
26
for (int i = 0; i < wall.Layers.LayerNumber; i++) Console.Write("temperature" + i + ", ");
27
Console.WriteLine("heat transfer to the tube[W], outlet temperature of fluid[C]");
28
for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++)
29
{
30
if (i == 50) tube.SetFlowRate(0.54); //start heating
31
wall.Update();
32
double[] tmp = wall.GetTemperatures();
33
for (int j = 0; j < tmp.Length - 1; j++) Console.Write(((tmp[j] + tmp[j + 1]) / 2d).ToString("F1") + ", ");
34
Console.Write(wall.GetHeatTransferToTube(1).ToString("F0") + ", " + tube.GetOutletFluidTemperature().ToString("F1"));
35
Console.WriteLine();
36
}
37
Console.Read();
38
}

Figure 6.17 The sample program which calculates the unsteady heat conduction of wall with heating tube
Wall Temp.1

Wall Temp.2

Wall Temp.3

Wall Temp.4

Wall Temp.5

Wall Temp.6

Wall Temp.7

Heat transfer[W]

Outlet temp. of fluid[C]

30

0
-200
-400
-600

22

-800
-1000

18

-1200
-1400

14

-1600
-1800

10

-2000

0:00 0:30 1:00 1:30 2:00 2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30 5:00 5:30 6:00 6:30 7:00 7:30 8:00

Figure 6.18 Temperature distribution of inner wall (Heating is started at 4:00)

-57-

Heat transfer[W]

Temperature [C]

26

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

3)

Unsteady heat conduction of wall with latent heat storage materials

A phase change material (PCM) is a material with a high heat of fusion. It can store and release large
amounts of energy by melting and solidifying. Special setting is needed to treat PCM in Wall class, since the heat
3
conductance [W/(m K)] and volumetric specific heat [J/(m K)] is changed when the phase changed.
The LatentHeatStorageMaterial class is a model of a PCM. A PCM can be considered as a number of
3
normal materials, since it has different heat conductance [W/(m K)] and volumetric specific heat [J/(m K)] at
different state (Figure 6.19).
UpperTemperature
of liquid state
Liquid state

Upper Temperature
of two phase state

Two phase state

Volumetric specific heat C1 Volumetric specific heat C2

Thermal conductivity 1
Thermal conductivity 2

Solid state
Volumetric specific heat C3
Thermal conductivity 3

WallMaterial 1
WallMaterial 2
WallMaterial 3
Figure 6.19 Setting normal WallMaterial objects to different state of PCM

Below is the constructor of the LatentHeatStorageMaterial class. The second argument is a WallMaterial
object. The thermodynamic property of the object is applied if the temperature of the latent heat storage material is
smaller than the upper temperature limit which is specified by the first argument.
LatentHeatStorageMaterial lmat = new LatentHeatStorageMaterial(upperTemperature, material);
Table 6.22 shows methods defined in the LatentHeatStorageMaterial class. User should set a
WallMaterial objects to different state of a LatentHeatStorageMaterial object with AddMaterial method.
Table 6.22 The methods defined in the LatentHeatStorageMaterial class
Name

Description
Function

AddMaterial

Arg.1
Function
GetMaterial

Return
Arg.1
Function

Initialize

Add wall material

Return

upper limit of temperature [C]

Arg.2 wall material

Get thermodynamic property of material at given temperature

Thermodynamic property of material at given temperature (ImmutableWallMaterial type)
Temperature [C]

Arg.2

Return
Arg.1
Function

GetHeatStorage

Return
Arg.1

Initialize material temperature

Temperature [C]

Arg.2

Calculate the heat storage [kJ/m ] from temperature 1 to temperature 2

heat storage [kJ/m3] from temperature 1 to temperature 2
Temperature 1 [C]

Arg.2 Temperature 2 [C]

Table 6.23 shows the methods related to LatentHeatStorageMaterial class defined in Wall class.

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.23 The methods defined in Wall class (related to LatentHeatStorageMaterial class)
Name

Description
Function

SetLatentHeat
StorageMaterial

Set latent heat storage material to wall layer.

Return
Arg.1
Function

RemoveLatentHeat
StorageMaterial

Index number of the wall layer.

Remove latent heat storage material from wall layer.

Return
Arg.1

latent heat storage material

(LatentHeatStorageMaterial type)

Arg.2

Index number of the wall layer.

Arg.2

Figure 6.21 shows a sample program which calculates the unsteady heat conduction of wall with latent
heat storage material. The composition of the wall is almost same as the wall described at figure 6.16, but in this
case, packed water is replaced by latent heat storage material. Table 6.24 shows the thermodynamic properties of
the latent heat storage materials.
Table 6.24 Thermodynamic properties of the latent heat storage materials
Layer number

Temperature [C]

State

Volumetric Specific Heat

[kJ/(m3-K)]

Thermal conductivity
[W/(m K)]

~19

solid

5040

0.19

19~23

two phase

21140

0.205

23~

liquid

5040

0.22

Second layer
(PCM 1)

Third layer
(PCM 2)

~30

solid

5004

0.19

30~32

two phase

88550

0.205

32~

liquid

4935

0.22

Wall temp. 1

Wall temp. 2

Wall temp. 3

Wall temp. 4

Wall temp. 5

Wall temp. 6

Wall temp. 7

Heat storage

38

5000

36

34

-5000
-10000

32

-15000

30

-20000

28

-25000

26

-30000

24

-35000

22

-40000

20
0:00

-45000
6:00

12:00

18:00

0:00

6:00

12:00

18:00

0:00

6:00

Figure 6.20 The result of the simulation

-59-

12:00

18:00

Heat storage [kJ]

Wall temperature [C]]

An instance of LatentHeatStorageMaterial class is created and set to Wall object in the line 24~40. The
wall is cooled at first 100 time step. Then, it is heated at next 100 time step. At each time step, wall temperatures
and heat storage is written to standard output stream.
Figure 6.20 shows the result of the simulation. The dashed line is temperature of the PCM. The doubledashed line is heat storage of wall. It seems that temperature changes non linearly around 30~32 C, since the
latent heat storage material (PCM 2) has changed it phase from liquid to solid.

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

1 /// <summary>Sample program calculating the unsteady heat conduction of wall with latent heat storage material</summary>
2
private static void wallTest3()
3
{
4
//Initial temperature
5
const double INIT_TEMP = 35;
6
7
//Create an instance of WallLayers class
8
WallLayers wl = new WallLayers();
9
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.FrexibleBoard), 0.0165));
10
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("dummy", 1, 1), 0.02));
11
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial("dummy", 1, 1), 0.02));
12
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.ExtrudedPolystyreneFoam_3), 0.02));
13
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.Plywood), 0.009));
14
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.AirGap), 0.015));
15
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.Plywood), 0.009));
16
17
//Create an instance of Wall class
18
Wall wall = new Wall(wl);
19
wall.TimeStep = 1200;
20
wall.AirTemperature1 = 20;
21
wall.AirTemperature2 = 20;
22
wall.SurfaceArea = 6.48;
23
24
//Create an instance of LatentHeatStorageMaterial class
25
LatentHeatStorageMaterial pmc1;
26
pmc1 = new LatentHeatStorageMaterial(19, new WallMaterial("PCM1 (Solid)", 0.19, 3.6 * 1400));
27
pmc1.AddMaterial(23, new WallMaterial("PCM1 (Two phase)", (0.19 + 0.22) / 2d, 15.1 * 1400));
28
pmc1.AddMaterial(100, new WallMaterial("PCM1 (Liquid)", 0.22, 3.6 * 1400));
29
pmc1.Initialize(INIT_TEMP);
30
//Set PCM to second wall layer
31
wall.SetLatentHeatStorageMaterial(1, pmc1);
32
33
//Create an instance of LatentHeatStorageMaterial class
34
LatentHeatStorageMaterial pcm2;
35
pcm2 = new LatentHeatStorageMaterial(30, new WallMaterial("PCM2 (Solid)", 0.19, 3.6 * 1390));
36
pcm2.AddMaterial(32, new WallMaterial("PCM2 (Two phase)", (0.19 + 0.22) / 2d, 63.25 * 1400));
37
pcm2.AddMaterial(100, new WallMaterial("PCM2 (Liquid)", 0.22, 3.5 * 1410));
38
pcm2.Initialize(INIT_TEMP);
39
//Set PCM to third wall layer
40
wall.SetLatentHeatStorageMaterial(2, pcm2);
41
42
//Install heating tube between PMCs
43
Tube tube = new Tube(0.84, 0.346, 4186);
44
wall.AddTube(tube, 1);
45
tube.SetFlowRate(0);
46
tube.FluidTemperature = 40;
47
48
//Initialize wall temperature
49
wall.InitializeTemperature(INIT_TEMP);
50
51
for (int i = 0; i < wall.Layers.LayerNumber; i++) Console.Write("Temperature" + i + ", ");
52
Console.WriteLine("Heat storage[kJ]");
53
for (int i = 0; i < 200; i++)
54
{
55
if (i == 100)
56
{
57
tube.SetFlowRate(0.54); //Start heating
58
wall.AirTemperature1 = 30;
59
wall.AirTemperature2 = 30;
60
}
61
wall.Update();
62
double[] tmp = wall.GetTemperatures();
63
for (int j = 0; j < tmp.Length - 1; j++) Console.Write(((tmp[j] + tmp[j + 1]) / 2d).ToString("F1") + ", ");
64
Console.Write(wall.GetHeatStorage(INIT_TEMP).ToString("F0"));
65
Console.WriteLine();
66
}
67
Console.Read();
68
}

Figure 6.21 The sample program calculating the unsteady heat conduction of wall with latent heat storage material

-60-

Popolo Reference Manual

6.2.7

The classes calculating thermal load of a building

Some classes (Zone, Room, MultiRoom and Outdoor class) and interfaces (IHeatGain and ISurface
interface) are defined in this library to calculate the thermal load of a building. Figure 6.22 shows a concept of
these classes and interfaces.
The Room class is a model of a room which is surrounded by wall and window surfaces. A room can be
separated into some smaller zones which have different characteristics from the other zone. These zones can be
modeled by the Zone class. The air state of a zone is expressed by a single MoistAir object and the vertical or
horizontal distribution of the air is not considered. The heat production in a zone is modeled by the IHeatGain
interface. User can make their original heat gain class by implementing the IHeatGain interface. ISurface interface
is a model of a wall surface or window surface. The opposite side of a surface is either outdoor or other rooms.
The outdoor weather state is modeled by the Outdoor class.
The state of the room temperature and the humidity can be updated by the Update methods defined in the
Zone class and the MultiRoom class. The Update method defined in the Zone class uses simpler solution method
than that defined in the MultiRoom class. The temperature of the room is affected by temperature of surrounding
wall surfaces. These surface temperatures are affected by the temperature of opposite side room. If there is room
to room ventilation, the temperature of the room mutually affect each other directly. Therefore, the temperature of
the rooms should be solved simultaneously to be exact. The Update methods defined in the Zone class uses simple
model which assume that the temperatures of the neighboring rooms are same as last time step. The Update
method defined in the MultiRoom class uses detailed model which solves all the temperatures of the rooms
simultaneously. Although this model needs relatively long calculation time than the previous one. Usage of the
Update methods are explained later with concrete example of a building.

IHeatGain[]
ISurface[]

Outdoor

Zone

Sun
WallSurface[]

IHeatGain[]

Window[]

ISurface[]

MoistAir

Zone
Room
MultiRoom
Figure 6.22 classes and interfaces calculating thermal load of a building

-61-

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

1)

Description of a sample building to be modeled

Figure 6.23 shows the plan and the section of the sample building. The building has east and west room
which has a south-facing window. The window of the east room has a sun shade whose width and overhang is 5m
and 1m respectively. The sun shade is set 0.5m above from the window. The depth of the room is 7m. We treat
area 3m from the window as perimeter zone. The ventilation volume of the west room is 10 CMH. Outdoor air is
taken in to the room from the perimeter zone and exhausted from the interior zone. There is no air-intake from
outdoor at the east zone. There is 10 CMH interior ventilation between the perimeter and interior zone at the east
zone. A heat production element is set in the east interior zone (Sensible radiative heat gain=100W, Sensible
convective heat gain=100W, Latent heat gain=20W). The glasses of the windows are low-emissivity coating
single glass. It's width and height is 3m and 2m. All the walls are concrete and thickness is 400 mm. The building
has no substructure and directly set on the ground. The temperature of the ground is treated as constant (28C).
Table 6.25, figure 6.24 and figure 6.25 shows weather data. It is data measured in Tokyo Japan in
2007/8/3.
The rooms are maintained at constant temperature (26C) and humidity (0.01 kg/kg(DA)) from 8:00 ~
19:00.
Supply air
10CMH

Sun shade

2,000

3,000

3,000

3,000

10CMH

Ventilation
10CMH

4,000

3,000
Heat source
Sensible radiation100W
Sensible convection100W
Latent 20W

5,000

Exhaust air
10CMH

Section
S
N

5,000
Plan

Figure 6.23 The plan and the section of the building

-62-

4,000

Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.25 Sample weather data (Tokyo : 2007/8/3)
0:00
1:00

Drybulb temperature
[]
24.2
24.1

Humidity ratio
[kg/kg(DA)]
0.0134
0.0136

Nocturnal Radiation
[W/m2]
32
30

2:00

24.1

0.0134

3:00

24.2

0.0133

4:00

24.3

5:00

Hour

Direct normal radiation

[W/m2]

Diffuse horizontal
radiation [W/m2]

0
0

0
0

30

29

0.0131

26

24.2

0.0134

24

6:00

24.4

0.0138

24

0
106

7:00

25.1

0.0142

25

185

36
115

8:00

26.1

0.0142

25

202

198

9:00

27.1

0.0140

25

369

259

10:00

28.8

0.0147

24

427

314

11:00

29.9

0.0149

24

499

340

12:00

30.7

0.0142

24

557

340

13:00

31.2

0.0146

23

522

349

14:00

31.6

0.0140

24

517

319

15:00

31.4

0.0145

24

480

277

16:00

31.3

0.0144

24

398

228

17:00

30.8

0.0146

24

255

167

18:00

29.4

0.0142

23

142

87

19:00

28.1

0.0136

23

16

20:00

27.5

0.0136

24

21:00

27.1

0.0135

26

22:00

26.6

0.0136

25

23:00

26.3

0.0140

23

Humidity ratio

34

0.0155

32

0.0150
0.0145

30

0.0140

28

0.0135

26

0.0130

24

0.0125

22

Humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)]

Drybulb temperature [C]

Drybulb temperature

0.0120

0:00

2:00

4:00

6:00

8:00

10:00

12:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

20:00

22:00

Figure 6.24 Weather data (Drybulb temperature and Humidity ratio)

Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]

Nocturnal radiation
[W/m2]

600

35

500

30
25

400

20

300

15

200

10

100

0:00

2:00

4:00

6:00

8:00

10:00

12:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

20:00

22:00

Figure 6.25 Weather data (Solar radiation and nocturnal radiation)

-63-

Nocturnal radiation[W/m2]

Solar radiation[W/m2]

Direct normal radiation

[W/m2]

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

2)

Simulate with Zone class (Simplified algorithm)

The Zone class solves equation 6.18~6.21 to determine the temperature, humidity ratio, sensible heat load
2) 18)
and latent heat load
. The convective heat transfer between room air and surfaces is treated simply in this
mode. As shown in equation 6.18, temperatures (TMRT) and convective heat transfer coefficients ((i) kc) are treated
as same value for the all surfaces

d T R NW
ZN S
= An i k c T MRT T Rc a G o T a T R HG cHE s
dt
n=1

(6.18)

ZN S =c a VOLCPF

(6.19)

ZN L

d xR
=Go x a x R LG LE
dt

1)

ZN L =VOL LCPF

(6.20)
(6.21)

ZNS : sensible heat capacity of the zone [J/K], TR : drybulb temperature of the zone [C], t : time [sec], NW : number of surfaces belong to zone
An : area of surface [m2], (i) : film coefficient [W/(m2 K)], kc : convective rate of film coefficient [-]
TMRT : mean radiant temperature of surfaces [C], ca : specific heat of the air [J/(kg K)], Go : ventilation [kg/s]
Ta : drybulb temperature of ventilation air [C], HG(c) : sensible heat production in the zone (convective) [W]
HEs : sensible heat supply to the zone [W], : density of the air [kg/m3], VOL : zone volume [m3]
CPF : additional sensible heat capacity of the zone (furniture) [J/K], ZNL : latent heat capacity of the zone [kg]
xR : humidity ratio of zone air [kg/kg(DA)], xa : humidity ratio of ventilation air [kg/kg(DA)]
LG : latent heat production in the zone [kg/s], LE : latent heat supply to the zone [kg/s]
LCPF : additional latent heat supply to the zone (furniture) [kg]

Table 6.26 and 6.27 shows the properties defined in the Zone class. SensibleHeatCapacity is sensible heat
capacity of the zone (CPF in the equation 6.19). It is mainly heat capacity of furniture and doesn't include the heat
capacity of the room air and building structure. It is 12~15 kJ/(m3 K) for the office building 19) 20).
LatentHeatCapacity is latent heat capacity of the zone (LCPF in the equation 6.21). As same as
SensibleHeatCapacity property, it doesn't include latent heat capacity of the room air. It can be set to 0 for the
most cases 2).
FilmCoefficient is film coefficients of the surfaces ((i) in the equation 6.18). The Zone class assumes that
the film coefficient of all surfaces are the same value. kc in the equation 6.18 is set by SetConvectiveRate.
To calculate drybulb temperature or humidity ratio, solve equations for Tr or xR. To calculate sensible or
latent heat load, solve equations for HEs or LE. The equations are solved for Tr or xR when the
DrybulbTemperatureSetPoint or AbsoluteHumiditySetPoint properties are set to true. If these properties are set to
false, free float temperature and humidity ratio is calculated.
AtmosphericPressure is atmospheric pressure and it has an effect to density of the room air. Surfaces and
HeatGains are the list of surfaces and heat production elements in the room. These elements can be set by
AddSurface method or AddHeatGain method.

1) 2)
2) : , , 1987,
-64-

Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.26 The properties defined in the Zone class
Name
TimeStep
Name

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Time step of calculation

TRUE

sec

double

Name

TRUE

string

Volume

TRUE

m3

double

Sensible heat capacity

It doesn't include heat cap. of air.

TRUE

J/K

double

SensibleHeatSupply

Sensible heat supply

Heating : >0, Cooling : < 0

TRUE

double

LatentHeatCapacity

Latent heat capacity

It doesn't include heat cap. of air.

TRUE

kg

double

LatentHeatSupply

Latent heat supply

humidify : >0, Dehumidify : < 0

TRUE

double

FilmCoefficient

Film coefficient of the surfaces

TRUE

W/(m2 K)

double

Volume
SensibleHeatCapacity

VentilationVolume

Vintilation volume

TRUE

m /h

double

VentilationAirState

Ventilation air state

TRUE

MoistAir

Control drybulb temperature or not

TRUE

bool

ControlDrybulbTemperature
ControlHumidityRatio
DrybulbTemperatureSetPoint
HumidityRatioSetPoint
Surfaces
HeatGains
AtmosphericPressure
CurrentDrybulbTemperature
CurrentHumidityRatio
CurrentSensibleHeatLoad
CurrentLatentHeatLoad
CurrentMeanRadiantTemperature
CurrentDateTime

Control humidity ratio or not

TRUE

bool

Set point of drybulb temperature

TRUE

double

Set point of humidity ratio

TRUE

kg/kg(DA)

dobule

List of surfaces belonging to room

ImmutableSurface[ ]

List of heat gains

IheatGain[ ]

Atmospheric pressure

TRUE

kPa

double

Current drybulb temperature

double

Current humidity raio

kg/kg(DA)

double

Current sensible heat load

double

Current latent heat load

double

Current mean radiant temperature

double

Current date and time

TRUE

DateTime

-65-

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Table 6.27 The methods defined in the Zone class (Related to setting boundary conditions)
Name

AddSurface

RemoveSurface

Description
Function

Add a surface to the zone

Return

Successfully added or not

Arg.1

Surface to add. (ISurface object)

Function

Remove a surface from the zone

Return
Arg.1

AddWindow

RemoveWindow

Add a window to the zone

Successfully added or not

Arg.1

Window to add (Window object)

Function

Remove a window from the zone

Arg.1

AddHeatGain

Return
Arg.1
Function

RemoveHeatGain

Return
Arg.1
Function

SetConvectiveRate

Arg.2

Arg.2

Arg.2

Arg.2

Successfully removed or not.

Window to remove. (Window object)
Add heat producing element to the zone
Successfully added or not.
Heat producing element to add
(IHeatGain object)

Remove heat producing element from the zone

Successfully removed or not
Heat producing element to remove
(IHeatGain object)

Arg.2

Function

Convective rate [-]

Arg.2

Initialize air state of the zone

Return
Arg.1

Set convective rate [-] of film coefficient [W/(m2 K)]

Return
Arg.1

InitializeAirState

Surface to remove. (ISurface object)

Return

Function

Successfully removed or not

Function

Return

Arg.2

Drybulb temperature [C]

-66-

Arg.2 Humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)]

Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.28 shows the methods defined in the Zone class. The drybulb temperature, humidity ratio,
sensible heat load and latent heat load of the zone is updated by Update method. The state of the zone at next time
step can be calculated by the methods named as GetNext~~~. They don't update the states of the zone.
Table 6.28 The methods defined in the Zone class (Related to updating the model)
Name

Update

Description
Function

Update the drybulb temperature, humidity ratio, sensible heat load and latent heat load
of the zone

Return

Arg.1

Arg.2

Function Calculate the drybulb temperature [C] with the sensible heat supply [W] indicated.
GetNextDrybulbTemperature

Return
Arg.1

Drybulb temperature [C] of the zone

Sensible heat supply [W]
(Treat heating as positive value)

Arg.2

Function Calculate the humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)] with the latent supply [W] indicated.
GetNextHumidityRatio

Return
Arg.1

Humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)]

Latent heat supply[W]
(Treat humidifying as positive value)

Arg.2

Function Calculate mean radiant temperature [C] at next time step.

GetNextMeanRadiantTemperature

Return
Arg.1

Mean radiant temperature [C]

-

Arg.2

Function Calculate the sensible heat load [W] with the drybulb temperature [C] indicated.
GetNextSensibleHeatLoad

Return
Arg.1

Sensible heat supply [W] (Treat heating as positive value)

Drybulb temperature [C]

Arg.2

Function Calculate the latent heat load [W] with the humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)] indicated.
GetNextLatentHeatLoad

Return
Arg.1

Latent heat load [W] (Treat humidifying as positive value)

Humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)]

-67-

Arg.2

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

The sol-air temperature near wall and window surfaces can be represented by equation 6.22. The upper
line represents an air at surface facing to the zone. The middle line represents an air at surface facing to the
outdoor. The lower line is in the case surface is directly connected to ground. The Outdoor class calculates the
middle and the lower equation.
Table 6.29 and 6.30 shows the properties and methods defined in the Outdoor class. The surface of the
walls and windows can be set by the methods named Add~~ and Remove~~. When the
SetWallSurfaceBoundaryState method is called, sol-air temperatures are set to the surfaces. Outdoor boundary
states can be set by AirState, Sun, GroundTemperature and NocturnalRadiation properties.

a c T R a r T MRT RS
a i
T SOL = a s I W F S RN
T a
o
T GRZ

(6.22)

TSOL : sol-air temperature of a surface [C], TR : drybulb temperature of a zone [C], TMRT : mean radiant temperature of surfaces [C]
RS : radiation to a surface [W/m2], (i) : film coefficient of surface [W/(m2 K)], (c) : convective heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 K)]
(r) : radiative heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2 K)], as : solar absorptivity [-], IW : solar incident [W/m2], : emissivity [-]
FS : form factor from incline to the sky [-], RN : nocturnal radiation [W/m2], Ta : drybulb temperature of outdoor air [C]
TGRZ : ground temperature [C]

Table 6.29 The properties defined in the Outdoor class

Name
AirState
Sun
WallSurfaces
GroundWallSurfaces
Windows
GroundTemperature
NocturnalRadiation

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Moist air state of outdoor

TRUE

MoistAir

Sun

TRUE

Sun

List of wall surfaces facing the outdoor

TRUE

ImmutableWallSurface []

List of wall surfaces contacted to ground

ImmutableWallSurface []
ImmutableWindow []

List of windows

Temperature of the ground

TRUE

Nocturnal radiation

TRUE

-68-

double
2

W/m

double

Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.30 The methods defined in the Outdoor class
Name

Description
Function Set outdoor state to wall surfaces

SetWallSurfaceBoundaryState

Return

Arg.1

Arg.2

Function Add a wall surface which is exposed to the outdoor

AddWallSurface

Return

Successfully added or not

Arg.1

Wall surface to be added

(WallSurface type)

Arg.2

Function Remove a wall surface which is exposed to the outdoor

RemoveWallSurface

Return

Successfully removed or not

Arg.1

Wall surface to be removed

(WallSurface type)

Arg.2

Function Add a wall surface which is contacted to the ground

AddGroundWallSurface

Return

Successfully added or not

Arg.1

Wall surface to be added

(WallSurface type)

Arg.2

Function Remove a wall surface which is contacted to the ground

RemoveGroundWallSurface

Return

Successfully removed or not

Arg.1

Wall surface to be removed

(WallSurface type)

Arg.2

Arg.2

Arg.2

Function Add a window

AddWindow

Return
Arg.1

Successfully added or not

Window to be added
(Window type)

Function Remove a window

RemoveWindow

Return
Arg.1

Successfully removed or not

Window to be removed
(Window type)

Function Calculate incoming radiation [W/m2] to given Incline object

GetRadiationToIncline

Return

Incoming radiation [W/m2] to given Incline object

Arg.1

Incline (Incline type)

Arg.2

Arg.3

Shadow rate [-]

Arg.4

Albedo [-]
-

Function Set convective rate [-] of the wall surface film coefficient
SetConvectiveRate

Return
Arg.1

Convective rate [-]

Arg.2

Function Set film coefficient [W/(m K)] to wall surface.

SetFilmCoefficient

Return
Arg.1

Film coefficient [W/(m K)]

-69-

Arg.2

Convective rate [-]

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Figure 6.28 shows a sample program which calculates an air state and a heat load of the building
discussed at 1).
Below shows brief flow of the program.
1) Create an instance of the Wall and the Window class.
2) Set the surface of the Wall and Window object to the Zone and Outdoor object
3) Update outdoor state.
4) Set sol-air temperature to outdoor facing surfaces by Outdoor object.
5) Update Wall objects.
6) Update Zone objects.
7) Set sol-air temperature to indoor facing surfaces by Zone object.
8) Back to 3)
A sample weather data is prepared in the line 4~16. Instances of the Incline class are created in the line
24~29. These instances are used to initialize wall and window surfaces. Instances of the Zone class are created in
the line 31~47. There are four zones (West interior, west perimeter, east interior and east perimeter) in this
building. Instances of the Wall class are created in the line 60~163. The surfaces of these Wall objects are set to
the Zone objects and the Outdoor object. As same as wall surfaces, window surface is set to the Zone objects and
the Outdoor object in the line 174~185. The states of the zones are updated in the line 193~245. 24 hours
calculation is iterated 100 times to get steady state result.
Figure 6.26 and 6.27 shows the results of the simulation. The temperatures of the zones maintained at 26
C from 8:00 to 19:00 since HVAC system is operating. The heat load of the west perimeter zone is relatively
bigger than that of other zones, since the west perimeter intakes air directly from outdoor.
West perimeter

West interior

East perimeter

8:00

12:00

East interior

Drybulb temperature[C]

33
32
31
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29
28
27
26
25
0:00

2:00

4:00

6:00

10:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

20:00

22:00

Figre 6.26 Time-series behavior of room temperatures

West perimeter

West interior

East perimeter

8:00

12:00

East interior

Sensible heat load[W]

2000
1600
1200
800
400
0
0:00

2:00

4:00

6:00

10:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

Figure 6.27 Time-series of sensible heat load

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20:00

22:00

Popolo Reference Manual

1 /// <summary>Sample program calculating the air state and heat load of the building (Zone class)</summary>
2 private static void AirStateAndHeatLoadTest1()
3 {
4
//A sample weather data
5
//Drybulb temperature [C]
6
double[] dbt = new double[] { 24.2, 24.1, 24.1, 24.2, 24.3, 24.2, 24.4, 25.1, 26.1, 27.1, 28.8, 29.9,
7
30.7, 31.2, 31.6, 31.4, 31.3, 30.8, 29.4, 28.1, 27.5, 27.1, 26.6, 26.3 };
8
//Humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)]
9
double[] hum = new double[] { 0.0134, 0.0136, 0.0134, 0.0133, 0.0131, 0.0134, 0.0138, 0.0142, 0.0142, 0.0140, 0.0147, 0.0149,
10
0.0142, 0.0146, 0.0140, 0.0145, 0.0144, 0.0146, 0.0142, 0.0136, 0.0136, 0.0135, 0.0136, 0.0140 };
11
//Nocturnal radiation [W/m2]
12
double[] nrd = new double[] { 32, 30, 30, 29, 26, 24, 24, 25, 25, 25, 24, 24, 24, 23, 24, 24, 24, 24, 23, 23, 24, 26, 25, 23 };
13
//Direct normal radiation [W/m2]
14
double[] dnr = new double[] { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 106, 185, 202, 369, 427, 499, 557, 522, 517, 480, 398, 255, 142, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0 };
15
//Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]
16
double[] drd = new double[] { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36, 115, 198, 259, 314, 340, 340, 349, 319, 277, 228, 167, 87, 16, 0, 0, 0, 0 };
17
18
//Create an instance of the Outdoor class
19
Outdoor outdoor = new Outdoor();
20
Sun sun = new Sun(Sun.City.Tokyo); //Located in Tokyo
21
outdoor.Sun = sun;
22
outdoor.GroundTemperature = 25; //Ground temperature is assumed to be constant
23
24
//Create an instance of the Incline class
25
Incline nIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.N, 0.5 * Math.PI); //North, Vertical
26
Incline eIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.E, 0.5 * Math.PI); //East, Vertical
27
Incline wIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.W, 0.5 * Math.PI); //West, Vertical
28
Incline sIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.S, 0.5 * Math.PI); //South, Vertical
29
Incline hIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.S, 0); //Horizontal
30
31
//Create an instance of the Zone class
32
Zone[] zones = new Zone[4];
33
Zone wpZone = zones[0] = new Zone("West perimeter zone");
34
wpZone.Volume = 3 * 5 * 3; //Ceiling height is 3m
35
Zone wiZone = zones[1] = new Zone("West interior zone");
36
wiZone.Volume = 4 * 5 * 3;
37
Zone epZone = zones[2] = new Zone("East perimeter zone");
38
epZone.Volume = 3 * 5 * 3;
39
Zone eiZone = zones[3] = new Zone("East interior zone");
40
eiZone.Volume = 4 * 5 * 3;
41
foreach (Zone zn in zones)
42
{
43
zn.VentilationVolume = 10; //Ventilation volume[CMH]
44
zn.TimeStep = 3600;
45
zn.DrybulbTemperatureSetPoint = 26;
46
zn.HumidityRatioSetPoint = 0.01;
47
}
48
49
//Set a heat production element to the east interior zone
50
//Convective sensible heat=100W, Radiative sensible heat=100W, Latent heat=20W
51
eiZone.AddHeatGain(new ConstantHeatGain(100, 100, 20));
52
53
//Create an instance of the WallLayers class : Concrete,400mm
54
WallLayers wl = new WallLayers();
55
wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.ReinforcedConcrete), 0.4));
56
57
//Create an instance of the GlassPanes class:Low-emissivity coating single glass
58
GlassPanes gPanes = new GlassPanes(new GlassPanes.Pane(GlassPanes.Pane.PredifinedGlassPane.HeatReflectingGlass06mm));
59
60
//Set wall surfaces to the zone objects
61
Wall[] walls = new Wall[18];
62
List<WallSurface> outdoorSurfaces = new List<WallSurface>();
63
Wall wpwWall = walls[0] = new Wall(wl, "West wall in the west perimeter zone");
64
wpwWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 3;
65
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wpwWall.GetSurface(true));
66
wpZone.AddSurface(wpwWall.GetSurface(false));
67
wpwWall.SetIncline(wIn, true);
68
69
Wall wpcWall = walls[1] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the west perimeter zone");
70
wpcWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
71
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wpcWall.GetSurface(true));
72
wpZone.AddSurface(wpcWall.GetSurface(false));
73
wpcWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
74
75
Wall wpfWall = walls[2] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the west perimeter zone");
76
wpfWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
77
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(wpfWall.GetSurface(true));
78
wpZone.AddSurface(wpfWall.GetSurface(false));
79
80
Wall winWall = walls[3] = new Wall(wl, "North wall in the west interior zone");

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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

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winWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(winWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(winWall.GetSurface(false));
winWall.SetIncline(nIn, true);
Wall wiwWall = walls[4] = new Wall(wl, "West wall in the west interior zone");
wiwWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 4;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wiwWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(wiwWall.GetSurface(false));
wiwWall.SetIncline(wIn, true);
Wall wicWall = walls[5] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the west interior zone");
wicWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wicWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(wicWall.GetSurface(false));
wicWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
Wall wifWall = walls[6] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the west interior zone");
wifWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(wifWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(wifWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall epwWall = walls[7] = new Wall(wl, "East wall in the east perimeter zone");
epwWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 3;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(epwWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(epwWall.GetSurface(false));
epwWall.SetIncline(eIn, true);
Wall epcWall = walls[8] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the east perimeter zone");
epcWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(epcWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(epcWall.GetSurface(false));
epcWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
Wall epfWall = walls[9] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the east perimeter zone");
epfWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(epfWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(epfWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall einWall = walls[10] = new Wall(wl, "North wall in the east interior zone");
einWall.SurfaceArea = 5 * 3;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(einWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(einWall.GetSurface(false));
einWall.SetIncline(nIn, true);
Wall eiwWall = walls[11] = new Wall(wl, "East wall in the east interior zone");
eiwWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 3;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(eiwWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(eiwWall.GetSurface(false));
eiwWall.SetIncline(eIn, true);
Wall eicWall = walls[12] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the east interior zone");
eicWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(eicWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(eicWall.GetSurface(false));
eicWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
Wall eifWall = walls[13] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the east interior zone");
eifWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(eifWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(eifWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall cpWall = walls[14] = new Wall(wl, "Inner wall at perimeter");
cpWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 3;
wpZone.AddSurface(cpWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(cpWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall ciWall = walls[15] = new Wall(wl, "Inner wall at interior");
ciWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 3;
wiZone.AddSurface(ciWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(ciWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall wpsWall = walls[16] = new Wall(wl, "South wall in the west perimeter zone");
wpsWall.SurfaceArea = 5 * 3 - 3 * 2; //Reduce window surface area
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wpsWall.GetSurface(true));
wpZone.AddSurface(wpsWall.GetSurface(false));
wpsWall.SetIncline(sIn, true);
Wall epsWall = walls[17] = new Wall(wl, "South wall in the east perimeter zone");
epsWall.SurfaceArea = 5 * 3 - 3 * 2; //Reduce window surface area
outdoorSurfaces.Add(epsWall.GetSurface(true));

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epZone.AddSurface(epsWall.GetSurface(false));
epsWall.SetIncline(sIn, true);
//Initialize outdoor surfaces
foreach (WallSurface ws in outdoorSurfaces)
{
//Add wall surfaces to Outdoor object
outdoor.AddWallSurface(ws);
//Initialize emissivity of surface
ws.InitializeEmissivity(WallSurface.SurfaceMaterial.Concrete);
}
//Add windows to the west zone
Window wWind = new Window(gPanes, "Window in the west perimeter zone");
wWind.SurfaceArea = 3 * 2;
wpZone.AddWindow(wWind);
outdoor.AddWindow(wWind);
//Add windows to the east zone
Window eWind = new Window(gPanes, "Window in the east perimeter zone");
eWind.SurfaceArea = 3 * 2;
//Set horizontal sun shade.
eWind.Shade = SunShade.MakeHorizontalSunShade(3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, sIn);
wpZone.AddWindow(eWind);
outdoor.AddWindow(eWind);
//Output title wrine to standard output stream
StreamWriter sWriter = new StreamWriter("AirStateAndHeatLoadTest1.csv");
foreach (Zone zn in zones) sWriter.Write(zn.Name + "Drybulb temperature[C], " + zn.Name +
"Humidity ratio[kg/kgDA], " + zn.Name + "Sensible heat load[W], " + zn.Name + "Latent heat load[W], ");
sWriter.WriteLine();
//Update the state (Iterate 100 times to make state steady)
for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++)
{
DateTime dTime = new DateTime(2007, 8, 3, 0, 0, 0);
for (int j = 0; j < 24; j++)
{
//Set date and time to Sun and Zone object.
sun.Update(dTime);
foreach (Zone zn in zones) zn.CurrentDateTime = dTime;
//Operate HVAC system (8:00~19:00)
bool operating = (8 <= dTime.Hour && dTime.Hour <= 19);
foreach (Zone zn in zones)
{
zn.ControlHumidityRatio = operating;
zn.ControlDrybulbTemperature = operating;
}
//Set weather state.
outdoor.AirState = new MoistAir(dbt[j], hum[j]);
outdoor.NocturnalRadiation = nrd[j];
sun.SetGlobalHorizontalRadiation(drd[j], dnr[j]);
//Set ventilation air state.
eiZone.VentilationAirState = new MoistAir(epZone.CurrentDrybulbTemperature, eiZone.CurrentHumidityRatio);
epZone.VentilationAirState = new MoistAir(eiZone.CurrentDrybulbTemperature, eiZone.CurrentHumidityRatio);
wpZone.VentilationAirState = outdoor.AirState;
wiZone.VentilationAirState = new MoistAir(wpZone.CurrentDrybulbTemperature, wpZone.CurrentHumidityRatio);
//Update boundary state of outdoor facing surfaces.
outdoor.SetWallSurfaceBoundaryState();
//Update the walls.
foreach (Wall wal in walls) wal.Update();
//Update the zones.
foreach (Zone zn in zones) zn.Update();
//Update date and time
dTime = dTime.AddHours(1);
//If it is last iteration, output result to CSV text.
if (i == 99)
{
foreach (Zone zn in zones)
{
sWriter.Write(zn.CurrentDrybulbTemperature.ToString("F1") + ", " + zn.CurrentHumidityRatio.ToString("F3") + ", " +
zn.CurrentSensibleHeatLoad.ToString("F0") + ", " + zn.CurrentLatentHeatLoad.ToString("F0") + ", ");
}
sWriter.WriteLine();

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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

243
}
244
}
245
}
246
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sWriter.Close();
248 }

Figure 6.28 The sample program calculating the air state and the heat load with Zone class

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Popolo Reference Manual

3)

Simulate with MultiRoom class (Detailed algorithm)

The MutliRoom class can simultaneously solve more than one zone temperatures. As previously shown in
the figure 6.22, building is treated as three layers (Zone, Room and MultiRoom) hierarchic structure in this class
library. The Zone class defines the extent of convective heat transfer. The Room class defines the extent of
radiative heat transfer. Figure 6.29 shows concept of these heat transfers.
As shown on the left of the figure 6.29, the moist air of the zone doesn't exchange heat with surfaces
belonging to other zones. In this figure, Z1 only exchange heat with surface W1, W2 and W3. It doesn't exchange
heat with W4, W5 and W6. On the other hand, radiative heat transfer occurs not only single zone. As shown on
the right of the figure 6.29, the surfaces belonging same room exchanges heat each other. In this figure, the
surface W1, W2, W3, W4, W5 and W6 exchanges heat each other.
Heat transfer by convection

Heat transfer by radiation

W1

W1

W2

W3

W2

W3

W5

W4

W5

Z1

W4
Z2

W6

W6

Figure 6.29 Radiative and convective heat transfer in the room

The MultiRoom class solves equation 6.23 to determine the room state. Unlike equation 6.18, equation
6.23 evaluate convective heat transfer between wall surface and room individually. The temperatures and the
1
convective heat transfer coefficients of surfaces are treated as different value .

ZN S

d T R NW
= An i n k cn T Sn T Rc a G o T a T R HG cHE s
dt
n=1

(6.23)

ZNS : heat capacity of the zone [J/K], TR : drybulb temperature of the zone [C], t : time [sec], NW : number of the surfaces in the room
An : surface area [m2], (i) n : film coefficient of the nth surface [W/(m2 K)], k(c) n : convective rate of the film coefficient of a surface [-]
TMRT : mean radiant temperature of the surfaces [C], ca : specific heat of the air [J/(kg K)], Go : ventilation volume [kg/s]
Ta : drybulb temperature of out door air [C], HG(c) : convective heat transfer from indoor heat production element [W]
HEs : heat supply to the zone [W]

Figure 6.31 shows the constructors of the Room class. The list of the zones belonging to the room is an
argument.
Table 6.31 The constructors of the Room class
No.

Argument 1

Argument 2

List of the zones belonging to the room (Zone array)

Name of the room (string type)

List of the zones belonging to the room (Zone array)

1) 2)
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Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

Table 6.32 and 6.33 shows the properties and methods defined in the Room class.
There are two type of radiations, the short wave radiation and the long wave radiation. A short wave
radiation is a solar radiation transmitted through a window. A long wave radiation is a radiation from wall surface,
window surface or other heat production equipment in a room. These two radiations are distributed to wall or
window surfaces in a room. The distribution rate can be set by SetShort(Long)WaveRadiationRate method.
Initially, distribution rate is set to surface area ratio. The short wave radiation distributed to window surface is
conducted back out to outdoor. This amount can be get by TransmissionHeatLossFromWindow property.
A radiative heat exchange rate from surface to surface can be set by SetRadiativeHeatTransferRate
property. These values are calculated by equation 6.24 initially.

A
n j= NW j
Al

(6.24)

n j : radiative heat exchange rate from surface n to surface j [-], Aj : area of the jth surface [m2]
NW : number of the surfaces belonging to the room [sec]

Table 6.32 The properties defined in the Room class

Name
Name
SurfaceNumber
ZoneNumber
TransmissionHeatLossFromWindow
CurrentDateTime

Description

Has set accessor

Unit

Type

Name

TRUE

string

Number of the surfaces

uint

Number of the zones

uint

Sum of transmission heat loss

from windows in the room

double

Current date and time

DateTime

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Popolo Reference Manual

Table 6.33 The methods defined in the Room class
Name

Description
Function Set a short wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window surface.

SetShortWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

Window (Window type)

Arg.2

short wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Function Set a short wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window or wall surface.
SetShortWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

Surface (ISurface type)

Arg.2

short wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Function Get a short wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window surface.
GetShortWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

short wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Window (Window type)

Arg.2

Function Get a short wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window or wall surface.
GetShortWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

short wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Surface (ISurface type)

Arg.2

Function Set a long wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window surface.
SetLongWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

Window (Window type)

Arg.2

long wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Function Set a long wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window or wall surface.
SetLongWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

Surface (ISurface type)

Arg.2

long wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Function Get a long wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window surface.
GetLongWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

long wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Window (Window type)

Arg.2

Function Get a long wave radiation distribution rate [-] of window or wall surface.
GetLongWaveRadiationRate

Return
Arg.1

long wave radiation distribution rate [-]

Surface (ISurface type)

Arg.2

Function Set a radiative heat exchange rate [-] from surface 1 to surface 2
Return
SetRadiativeHeatTransferRate

Arg.1

Surface 1 (ISurface type)

Arg.3

radiative heat exchange rate [-]

from surface 1 to surface 2

Arg.2

Surface 2 (ISurface type)

Function Get a radiative heat exchange rate [-] from surface 1 to surface 2
GetRadiativeHeatTransferRate

Return
Arg.1

radiative heat exchange rate [-] from surface 1 to surface 2

Surface 1 (ISurface type)

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Arg.2

Surface 2 (ISurface type)

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

The constructor of the MultiRoom class takes a list of Room objects as an argument.
MultiRoom mRoom = new MultiRoom(rooms);
Table 6.34 shows the methods defined in the MultiRoom class. Interior ventilation volume can be set by
SetAirFlow method. Use UpdateRoomTemperatures method and UpdateRoomHumidities method to update room
state.
Table 6.34 The methods defined in the MultiRoom class
Name

Description
Function Update temperatures of the rooms.

UpdateRoomTemperatures

Return

Arg.1

Arg.2

Function Update humidity ratio of the rooms.

UpdateRoomHumidities

Return

Arg.1

Arg.2

Function Set the time step [sec]

SetTimeStep

Return
Arg.1

Time step [sec]

Arg.2

Function Set the air flow [m3/h] between the rooms

Return
SetAirFlow

Arg.1

Upstream zone
(ImmutableZone type)

Arg.2

Downstream zone
( ImmutableZone type)

Arg.3

Air flow [m3/h]

Arg.4

Function Get the air flow [m /h] between the rooms

GetAirFlow

Return
Arg.1

Air flow [m3/h]

Upstream zone
( ImmutableZone type)

Arg.2

Downstream zone
( ImmutableZone type)

Function Set current date and time.

SetCurrentDateTime

Return
Arg.1

Current date and time

(DateTime type)

Arg.2

Figure 6.30 shows a sample program which calculates an air state and a heat load of the building
discussed at 1) with MultiRoom class. Most of the program codes are same as the codes shown in figure 6.28.
The instances of Room class and MultiRoom class is created in the line 187~191. The west room is
consists of west perimeter zone and west interior zone. The east room is consists of east perimeter zone and east
interior zone.
Ventilation volumes are set in the line 193~197.
A short wave radiation distribution rates are set in the line 199~209. It assumes that 60% of short wave
radiation is distributed to perimeter floor. Distribution rates to other surfaces are set to surface area ratio.
24 hours calculation is iterated 100 times to get steady state result.

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Popolo Reference Manual

1 /// <summary>Sample program calculating the air state and heat load of the building (MultiRoom class)</summary>
2 private static void AirStateAndHeatLoadTest2()
3 {
4
//A sample weather data
5
//Drybulb temperature [C]
6
double[] dbt = new double[] { 24.2, 24.1, 24.1, 24.2, 24.3, 24.2, 24.4, 25.1, 26.1, 27.1, 28.8, 29.9,
7
30.7, 31.2, 31.6, 31.4, 31.3, 30.8, 29.4, 28.1, 27.5, 27.1, 26.6, 26.3 };
8
//Humidity ratio [kg/kg(DA)]
9
double[] hum = new double[] { 0.0134, 0.0136, 0.0134, 0.0133, 0.0131, 0.0134, 0.0138, 0.0142, 0.0142, 0.0140, 0.0147, 0.0149,
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0.0142, 0.0146, 0.0140, 0.0145, 0.0144, 0.0146, 0.0142, 0.0136, 0.0136, 0.0135, 0.0136, 0.0140 };
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//Nocturnal radiation [W/m2]
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double[] nrd = new double[] { 32, 30, 30, 29, 26, 24, 24, 25, 25, 25, 24, 24, 24, 23, 24, 24, 24, 24, 23, 23, 24, 26, 25, 23 };
13
//Direct normal radiation [W/m2]
14
double[] dnr = new double[] { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 106, 185, 202, 369, 427, 499, 557, 522, 517, 480, 398, 255, 142, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0 };
15
//Diffuse horizontal radiation [W/m2]
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double[] drd = new double[] { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36, 115, 198, 259, 314, 340, 340, 349, 319, 277, 228, 167, 87, 16, 0, 0, 0, 0 };
17
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//Create an instance of the Outdoor class
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Outdoor outdoor = new Outdoor();
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Sun sun = new Sun(Sun.City.Tokyo); //Located in Tokyo
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outdoor.Sun = sun;
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outdoor.GroundTemperature = 25; //Ground temperature is assumed to be constant
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//Create an instance of the Incline class
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Incline nIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.N, 0.5 * Math.PI); //North, Vertical
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Incline eIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.E, 0.5 * Math.PI); //East, Vertical
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Incline wIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.W, 0.5 * Math.PI); //West, Vertical
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Incline sIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.S, 0.5 * Math.PI); //South, Vertical
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Incline hIn = new Incline(Incline.Orientation.S, 0); //Horizontal
30
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//Create an instance of the Zone class
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Zone[] zones = new Zone[4];
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Zone wpZone = zones[0] = new Zone("West perimeter zone");
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wpZone.Volume = 3 * 5 * 3; //Ceiling height is 3m
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Zone wiZone = zones[1] = new Zone("West interior zone");
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wiZone.Volume = 4 * 5 * 3;
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Zone epZone = zones[2] = new Zone("East perimeter zone");
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epZone.Volume = 3 * 5 * 3;
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Zone eiZone = zones[3] = new Zone("East interior zone");
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eiZone.Volume = 4 * 5 * 3;
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foreach (Zone zn in zones)
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{
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zn.VentilationVolume = 10; //Ventilation volume[CMH]
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zn.TimeStep = 3600;
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zn.DrybulbTemperatureSetPoint = 26;
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zn.HumidityRatioSetPoint = 0.01;
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}
48
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//Set a heat production element to the east interior zone
50
//Convective sensible heat=100W, Radiative sensible heat=100W, Latent heat=20W
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eiZone.AddHeatGain(new ConstantHeatGain(100, 100, 20));
52
53
//Create an instance of the WallLayers class : Concrete,400mm
54
WallLayers wl = new WallLayers();
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wl.AddLayer(new WallLayers.Layer(new WallMaterial(WallMaterial.PredefinedMaterials.ReinforcedConcrete), 0.4));
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//Create an instance of the GlassPanes class:Low-emissivity coating single glass
58
GlassPanes gPanes = new GlassPanes(new GlassPanes.Pane(GlassPanes.Pane.PredifinedGlassPane.HeatReflectingGlass06mm));
59
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//Set wall surfaces to the zone objects
61
Wall[] walls = new Wall[18];
62
List<WallSurface> outdoorSurfaces = new List<WallSurface>();
63
Wall wpwWall = walls[0] = new Wall(wl, "West wall in the west perimeter zone");
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wpwWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 3;
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outdoorSurfaces.Add(wpwWall.GetSurface(true));
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wpZone.AddSurface(wpwWall.GetSurface(false));
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wpwWall.SetIncline(wIn, true);
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Wall wpcWall = walls[1] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the west perimeter zone");
70
wpcWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
71
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wpcWall.GetSurface(true));
72
wpZone.AddSurface(wpcWall.GetSurface(false));
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wpcWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
74
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Wall wpfWall = walls[2] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the west perimeter zone");
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wpfWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
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outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(wpfWall.GetSurface(true));
78
wpZone.AddSurface(wpfWall.GetSurface(false));
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Wall winWall = walls[3] = new Wall(wl, "North wall in the west interior zone");

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winWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(winWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(winWall.GetSurface(false));
winWall.SetIncline(nIn, true);
Wall wiwWall = walls[4] = new Wall(wl, "West wall in the west interior zone");
wiwWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 4;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wiwWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(wiwWall.GetSurface(false));
wiwWall.SetIncline(wIn, true);
Wall wicWall = walls[5] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the west interior zone");
wicWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wicWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(wicWall.GetSurface(false));
wicWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
Wall wifWall = walls[6] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the west interior zone");
wifWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(wifWall.GetSurface(true));
wiZone.AddSurface(wifWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall epwWall = walls[7] = new Wall(wl, "East wall in the east perimeter zone");
epwWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 3;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(epwWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(epwWall.GetSurface(false));
epwWall.SetIncline(eIn, true);
Wall epcWall = walls[8] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the east perimeter zone");
epcWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(epcWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(epcWall.GetSurface(false));
epcWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
Wall epfWall = walls[9] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the east perimeter zone");
epfWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 5;
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(epfWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(epfWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall einWall = walls[10] = new Wall(wl, "North wall in the east interior zone");
einWall.SurfaceArea = 5 * 3;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(einWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(einWall.GetSurface(false));
einWall.SetIncline(nIn, true);
Wall eiwWall = walls[11] = new Wall(wl, "East wall in the east interior zone");
eiwWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 3;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(eiwWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(eiwWall.GetSurface(false));
eiwWall.SetIncline(eIn, true);
Wall eicWall = walls[12] = new Wall(wl, "Ceiling in the east interior zone");
eicWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoorSurfaces.Add(eicWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(eicWall.GetSurface(false));
eicWall.SetIncline(hIn, true);
Wall eifWall = walls[13] = new Wall(wl, "Floor in the east interior zone");
eifWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 5;
outdoor.AddGroundWallSurface(eifWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(eifWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall cpWall = walls[14] = new Wall(wl, "Inner wall at perimeter");
cpWall.SurfaceArea = 3 * 3;
wpZone.AddSurface(cpWall.GetSurface(true));
epZone.AddSurface(cpWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall ciWall = walls[15] = new Wall(wl, "Inner wall at interior");
ciWall.SurfaceArea = 4 * 3;
wiZone.AddSurface(ciWall.GetSurface(true));
eiZone.AddSurface(ciWall.GetSurface(false));
Wall wpsWall = walls[16] = new Wall(wl, "South wall in the west perimeter zone");
wpsWall.SurfaceArea = 5 * 3 - 3 * 2; //Reduce window surface area
outdoorSurfaces.Add(wpsWall.GetSurface(true));
wpZone.AddSurface(wpsWall.GetSurface(false));
wpsWall.SetIncline(sIn, true);
Wall epsWall = walls[17] = new Wall(wl, "South wall in the east perimeter zone");
epsWall.SurfaceArea = 5 * 3 - 3 * 2; //Reduce window surface area
outdoorSurfaces.Add(epsWall.GetSurface(true));

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Popolo Reference Manual

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epZone.AddSurface(epsWall.GetSurface(false));
epsWall.SetIncline(sIn, true);
//Initialize outdoor surfaces
foreach (WallSurface ws in outdoorSurfaces)
{
//Add wall surfaces to Outdoor object
outdoor.AddWallSurface(ws);
//Initialize emissivity of surface
ws.InitializeEmissivity(WallSurface.SurfaceMaterial.Concrete);
}
//Add windows to the west zone
Window wWind = new Window(gPanes, "Window in the west perimeter zone");
wWind.SurfaceArea = 3 * 2;
wpZone.AddWindow(wWind);
outdoor.AddWindow(wWind);
//Add windows to the east zone
Window eWind = new Window(gPanes, "Window in the east perimeter zone");
eWind.SurfaceArea = 3 * 2;
//Set horizontal sun shade.
eWind.Shade = SunShade.MakeHorizontalSunShade(3, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, sIn);
wpZone.AddWindow(eWind);
outdoor.AddWindow(eWind);
//Creat an insances of the Room class and MultiRoom class
Room eRm = new Room(new Zone[] { epZone, eiZone }); //East room
Room wRm = new Room(new Zone[] { wpZone, wiZone }); //Weast room
MultiRoom mRoom = new MultiRoom(new Room[] { eRm, wRm }); //Multi room (east and west rooms)
mRoom.SetTimeStep(3600);
//Set ventilation volume
wpZone.VentilationVolume = 10; //Only west perimeter zone has outdoor air ventilation
mRoom.SetAirFlow(wpZone, wiZone, 10);
mRoom.SetAirFlow(epZone, eiZone, 10);
mRoom.SetAirFlow(eiZone, epZone, 10);
//Set short wave radiation distribution:60% of short wave is distributed to perimeter floor.
double sfSum = 0;
foreach (ISurface isf in eRm.GetSurface()) sfSum += isf.Area;
sfSum -= epfWall.SurfaceArea;
foreach (ISurface isf in eRm.GetSurface()) eRm.SetShortWaveRadiationRate(isf, isf.Area / sfSum * 0.4);
eRm.SetShortWaveRadiationRate(epfWall.GetSurface(false), 0.6);
sfSum = 0;
foreach (ISurface isf in wRm.GetSurface()) sfSum += isf.Area;
sfSum -= wpfWall.SurfaceArea;
foreach (ISurface isf in wRm.GetSurface()) wRm.SetShortWaveRadiationRate(isf, isf.Area / sfSum * 0.4);
wRm.SetShortWaveRadiationRate(wpfWall.GetSurface(false), 0.6);
//Output title wrine to standard output stream
StreamWriter sWriter = new StreamWriter("AirStateAndHeatLoadTest2.csv");
foreach (Zone zn in zones) sWriter.Write(zn.Name + "Drybulb temperature[C], " + zn.Name +
"Humidity ratio[kg/kgDA], " + zn.Name + "Sensible heat load[W], " + zn.Name + "Latent heat load[W], ");
sWriter.WriteLine();
//Update the state (Iterate 100 times to make state steady)
for (int i = 0; i < 100; i++)
{
DateTime dTime = new DateTime(2007, 8, 3, 0, 0, 0);
for (int j = 0; j < 24; j++)
{
//Set date and time to Sun and Zone object.
sun.Update(dTime);
mRoom.SetCurrentDateTime(dTime);
//Operate HVAC system (8:00~19:00)
bool operating = (8 <= dTime.Hour && dTime.Hour <= 19);
foreach (Zone zn in zones)
{
zn.ControlHumidityRatio = operating;
zn.ControlDrybulbTemperature = operating;
}
//Set weather state.
outdoor.AirState = new MoistAir(dbt[j], hum[j]);
outdoor.NocturnalRadiation = nrd[j];
sun.SetGlobalHorizontalRadiation(drd[j], dnr[j]);
//Set ventilation air state.
wpZone.VentilationAirState = outdoor.AirState;

-81-

Chapter 6 Calculating Thermal Load of Building

243
//Update boundary state of outdoor facing surfaces.
244
outdoor.SetWallSurfaceBoundaryState();
245
246
//Update the walls.
247
foreach (Wall wal in walls) wal.Update();
248
249
//Update the MultiRoom object.
250
mRoom.UpdateRoomTemperatures();
251
mRoom.UpdateRoomHumidities();
252
253
//Update date and time
254
dTime = dTime.AddHours(1);
255
256
//If it is last iteration, output result to CSV text.
257
if (i == 99)
258
{
259
foreach (Zone zn in zones)
260
{
261
sWriter.Write(zn.CurrentDrybulbTemperature.ToString("F1") + ", " + zn.CurrentHumidityRatio.ToString("F3") + ", " +
262
zn.CurrentSensibleHeatLoad.ToString("F0") + ", " + zn.CurrentLatentHeatLoad.ToString("F0") + ", ");
263
}
264
sWriter.WriteLine();
265
}
266
}
267
}
268
269
sWriter.Close();
270 }

Figure 6.30 The sample program calculating the air state and the heat load with MultiRoom class

Figure 6.31 and figure 6.32 shows the result of the simulation. The heat load of the west interior zone is
affected by ventilation at the perimeter zone, since the ventilation between the interior zone and the perimeter
zone is explicitly solved in the MultiRoom class.
West perimeter

West interior

East perimeter

8:00

12:00

East interior

Drybulb temperature[C]

33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
0:00

2:00

4:00

6:00

10:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

20:00

22:00

20:00

22:00

Figure 6.31
West perimeter

West interior

East perimeter

8:00

12:00

East interior

Sensible heat load[W]

2000
1600
1200
800
400
0
0:00

2:00

4:00

6:00

10:00

14:00

Figure 6.32

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16:00

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7) Bugler, J.W. : The determination of hourly insolation on an inclined plane using a diffuse irradiance model based on hourly
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