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Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays | Electrical Notes & Articles

Electrical Notes & Articles

Sharing Abstracts,Notes on various Electrical Engineering Topics.

Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

DECEMBER 1, 2012
3 COMMENTS
(HTTP://ELECTRICALNOTES.WORDPRESS.COM/2012/12/01/TYPES-AND-REVOLUTION-OFELECTRICAL-RELAYS/#COMMENTS)

Introduction:
Protective relays work in concert with sensing and control devices to accomplish their
function. Under normal power system operation, a protective relay remains idle and serves no
active function. But when fault or undesirable condition arrives Relay must be operated and
function correctly.
A Power System consists of various electrical components like Generator, transformers,
transmission lines, isolators, circuit breakers, bus bars, cables, relays, instrument transformers,
distribution feeders, and various types of loads. Faults may occur in any part of power system
as a short circuit & earth fault. Fault may be Single Line to Ground, Double Line to Ground,
Line to Line, three phase short circuit etc. This results in flow of heavy fault current through
the system. Fault level also depends on the fault impedance which depends on the location of
fault referred from the source side. To calculate fault level at various points in the power
system, fault analysis is necessary.
The protection system operates and isolates the faulty section. The operation of the protection
system should be fast and selective i.e. it should isolate only the faulty section in the shortest
possible time causing minimum disturbance to the system. Also, if main protection fails to
operate, there should be a backup protection for which proper relay co-ordination is necessary.
Failure of a protective relay can result in devastating equipment damage and prolonged
downtime.

Working of Protective Scheme:

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Protective relaying senses the abnormal condition in a part of power system and gives an
alarm or isolates that part from healthy system. Protective relaying is a team work of CT, PT,
protective relays, time delay relays, trip circuits, circuit breakers etc.
Protective relaying plays an important role in minimizing the faults and also in minimizing the
damage in the event of faults.

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Figure shows basic connections of circuit breaker control for the opening operation. The
protected circuit X is shown by dashed line. When a fault occurs in the protected circuit the
relay connected to CT and PT actuates and closes its contacts.
Current flows from battery in the trip circuit. As the trip coil of circuit breaker is energized, the
circuit breaker operating mechanism is actuated and it operates for the opening operation.
Thus the fault is sensed and the trip circuit is actuated by the relay and the faulty part is
isolated.

What is Relay:
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and closes
its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit
hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical
circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.

Functions of protective Relay:

To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of a circuit breaker so as to disconnect Faulty
Section.
To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent subsequent faults. For e.g.
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Overload protection of a machine not only protects the machine but also prevents Insulation
failure.
To isolate or disconnect faulted circuits or equipment quickly from the remainder of the
system so the system can continue to function and to minimize the damage to the faulty part.
For example If machine is disconnected immediately after a winding fault, only a few coils
may need replacement. But if the fault is sustained, the entire winding may get damaged and
machine may be beyond repairs.
To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from healthy part, causing least
disturbance to the healthy system.
To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve system stability, service continuity and
system performance. Transient stability can be improved by means of improved protective
relaying.
To minimize hazards to personnel

Desirable qualities of protective relaying:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Selectivity,
Discrimination
Stability
Sensitivity,
Power consumption
System Security
Reliability
Adequateness
Speed & Time

Terminology of protective relay:

Pickup level of actuating signal: The value of actuating quantity (voltage or current) which is
on threshold above which the relay initiates to be operated. If the value of actuating quantity is
increased, the electromagnetic effect of the relay coil is increased and above a certain level of
actuating quantity the moving mechanism of the relay just starts to move.
Reset level: The value of current or voltage below which a relay opens its contacts and comes
in original position.
Operating Time of Relay: Just after exceeding pickup level of actuating quantity the moving
mechanism (for example rotating disc) of relay starts moving and it ultimately close the relay
contacts at the end of its journey. The time which elapses between the instant when actuating
quantity exceeds the pickup value to the instant when the relay contacts close.
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Reset time of Relay: The time which elapses between the instant when the actuating quantity
becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contacts returns to its normal
position.
Reach of Relay: A distance relay operates whenever the distance seen by the relay is less than
the pre-specified impedance. The actuating impedance in the relay is the function of distance
in a distance protection relay. This impedance or corresponding distance is called reach of the
relay.

History of Protective Relay:

The evolution of protective relays begins with the electromechanical relays. Over the past
decade it upgraded from electromechanical to solid state technologies to predominate use of
microprocessors and microcontrollers.
The timeline of the development of protective relays is shown below
1900 to 1963

1963 to 1972

1972 to 1980

1980 to 1990

Electromechanical Relay.

Static Relay

Digital Relay

Numerical Relay

1925=Single Disc Type

Relay (Single Input)

1963=Static Relay
(All Purpose)

1961=Single Cup Type

Relay (Impedance Relay)

1972=Static Relay
with self checking
(All Purpose)

1980=Digital
Type Relay
(All Purpose)

1990=Numerical
Type Relay (All
Purpose)

Types of Relays:
Types of protection relays are mainly

(A) Based on Characteristic:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Definite time Relays.

Inverse definite minimum time Relays (IDMT)
Instantaneous Relays
IDMT with Instantaneous.
Stepped Characteristic

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6. Programmed Switches
7. Voltage restraint over current relay

(B) Based on logic:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Differential
Unbalance
Neutral Displacement
Directional
Restricted Earth Fault
Over Fluxing
Distance Schemes
Bus bar Protection
Reverse Power Relays
Loss of excitation
Negative Phase Sequence Relays etc.

(C) Based on Actuating parameter:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Current Relays
Voltage Relays
Frequency Relays
Power Relays etc.

(D) Based on Operation Mechanism:

(A) Electro Magnetic Relay
(B) Static Relay
Analog Relay
Digital Relay
Numerical /Microprocessor Relay
(C) Mechanical relay.
(1) Thermal
(a) OT Trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
(b) WT Trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
(C) Bearing Temp Trip etc.
(2) Float Type
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(a) Buchholz
(b) OSR
(c) PRV
(d) Water level Controls etc.
(3) Pressure Switches.
(4) Mechanical Interlocks.
(5) Pole discrepancy Relay.

(E) Based on Applications:

1. Primary Relays.
2. Backup Relays

Type of Relay based on Relay Operation

Mechanism:
(1) Electromagnetic Relay:
Electromagnetic relays are further categorized under two following categories.
(A) Electromagnetic Attraction Relay:
This Relay works on Electromagnetic Attraction Principle
(B) Electromagnetic Induction Relay:
This Relay works on Electromagnetic Induction Principle

(2) Solid State (Static) Relay:

Solid-state (and static) relays are further categorized under following designations.
(A) Analog Relay:
In Analog relays are measured quantities are converted into lower voltage but similar signals,
which are then combined or compared directly to reference values in level detectors to
produce the desired output.
(B)Digital Relay:
In Digital relays measured ac quantities are manipulated in analogue form and subsequently
converted into square-wave (binary) voltages. Logic circuits or microprocessors compare the
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phase relationships of the square waves to make a trip decision.

(C)Numerical Relay:
In Numerical relays measured ac quantities are sequentially sampled and converted into
numeric data form. A microprocessor performs mathematical and/or logical operations on the
data to make trip decisions.

(1) Electromechanical Relay:

History of Relay: This is the first generation oldest relaying system and they have been in use
for many years. They have earned a well-deserved reputation for accuracy, dependability, and
reliability. There are two basic types of operating mechanisms: the electromagnetic-attraction
relay and electromagnetic-induction relay.
Measuring Principles: The electromechanical protective relay converts the voltages and
currents to magnetic and electric forces and torques that press against spring tensions in the
relay. The tension of the spring and taps on the electromagnetic coils in the relay are the main
processes by which a user sets in a relay.
Function of Relay: These relays are usually instantaneous in action, with no intentional time
delay, closing as soon after pickup as the mechanical motion permits. We can add time delay
by means of a bellows, dashpot, or a clockwork escapement mechanism. However, the timing
accuracy is considerably less precise than that of induction type relays. As such, users seldom
choose these relays with time delay in switchgear applications.
Electromechanical Relays can operate with either AC or DC on the coils. Therefore, the DC
component of an asymmetrical fault definitely affects these relays using this principle.
Most relays come enclosed in a semi flush-mounting draw out case. Installers typically install
relays usually on the door of the switchgear cubicle. They bring sensor and control wiring to
connections on the case. The relay inserts into the case and connects by means of small
switches or a bridging plug, depending on the manufacturer.
As such, we can disconnect and withdraw it from the case without disturbing the wiring.
When the relay is disconnected, the current transformer (CT) connections in the case are
automatically shorted to short circuit the CT secondary winding and protect the CT from over
voltage and damage.
Operation of Electromagnetic-attraction Relay: Figure shows a typical electro-mechanical
relay. An input voltage is applied to the coil mechanism. The input voltage magnetizes the
core which pulls the arm towards it. This action causes the output contacts to touch, closing
the load circuit. When the input voltage is removed, the spring lever will push the contacts
away from each other, breaking the load circuit connection.

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Operation of Electromagnetic-Induction Relay: Induction relays are available in many
variations to provide accurate pickup and time-current responses for a wide range of simple or
complex system.
They are actually like induction motors. On the relay, the moving element (rotor) is usually a
metal disk, although sometimes its a metal cylinder or cup. The stationary part (stator) is one
or more integral electromagnets, with current or potential coils inducing currents in the disk,
causing it to rotate. Until the rotational forces are great enough to turn the disk and bring its
moving contact against the stationary contact, a spring restrains the disk motion

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This closes the circuit the relay is controlling. The greater the sensed fault, the greater the
current in the coils, and the faster the disk rotates.
A calibrated adjustment called the time dial sets the spacing between the moving and
stationary contacts; this varies the operating time of the relay from fast (contacts only slightly
open) to slow (contacts nearly a full disk revolution apart). Reset action begins upon removing
the rotational force, either by closing the relay contact that trips a breaker or by otherwise
removing the malfunction the relay is sensing. The restraining spring resets the disk to its
original position. The time required to reset depends on the type of relay and the time-dial
setting (contact spacing).
Most electromechanical Relays are typically rated for minimum input to output isolation
voltages of 1500 to 2000 VAC.
Limitations of Electromagnetic relays:
Low speed of operation.
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Change in characteristics over a period due to ageing effect.

Component failure leading to relay failure.
Relay is Bulky: Because there are internal mechanical components with physical dimension
restraints, the package size of an electromechanical Relay can limit the size of a PCB design
Excessive power consumption.
Imposes high burden on CT
No fault data available except phase indication.
Inherent in its design, the Electromechanical Relay must make mechanical contacts in order to
switch a load. At the point of these contacts, oxidation breakdown occurs over extended life
cycling (typically 106 operations), and the relay will need to be replaced.
When an electromechanical Relay is activated, bounce occurs at the contact site. Bounce creates
a window of time where the load circuit is flickering between open and closed, a condition
which may need to be considered in load design.
Isolation voltage is another area where Electromechanical Relays are limited.

(2) The Solid State Relay (Static Relay):

History of Relay: The static relay are next generation relays .The Solid Static relays was first
introduced in 1960s. The term static implies that the relay has no moving mechanical parts in
it. Compared to the Electromechanical Relay, the Solid Static relay has longer life-span,
decreased noise when operates and faster respond speed. However, it is not as robust as the
Electromechanical Relay.
Static relays were manufactured as semi conductor devices which incorporate transistors, ICs,
capacitors, small micro processors etc.
The static relays have been designed to replace almost all the functions which were being
achieved earlier by electromechanical relays.
Measuring principles: The working principle of the Solid Static relays is similar to that of the
Electromechanical Relay which means the Solid Static relays can perform tasks that the
Electromechanical Relay can perform.
The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices instead of magnetic coils and
mechanical components to create the relay characteristics. the measurement is carried out by
static circuits consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc while in a conventional
electro-magnetic relay it is done by comparing operating torque (or force) with restraining
torque (or force). The relaying quantity such as voltage/current is rectified and measured.
When the quantity under measurement attains certain well-defined value, the output device is
triggered and thereby the circuit breaker trip circuit is energized.
In a solid state relay, the incoming voltage and current waveforms are monitored by analog
circuits, not recorded or digitized. The analog values are compared to settings made by the
user via potentiometers in the relay, and in some case, taps on transformers.
In some solid state relays, a simple microprocessor does some of the relay logic, but the logic
is fixed and simple. For instance, in some time over current solid state relays, the incoming AC
current is first converted into a small signal AC value, and then the AC is fed into a rectifier
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and filter that converts the AC to a DC value proportionate to the AC waveform. An op-amp
and comparator is used to create a DC that rises when a trip point is reached. Then a relatively
simple microprocessor does a slow speed A/D conversion of the DC signal, integrates the
results to create the time-over current curve response, and trips when the integration rises
above a set point. Though this relay has a microprocessor, it lacks the attributes of a
digital/numeric relay, and hence the term microprocessor relay is not a clear term.
Function of Relay: Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and diodes in
conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc., but advances in electronics enabled the
use of linear and digital integrated circuits in later versions for signal processing and
implementation of logic functions. While basic circuits may be common to a number of relays,
the packaging was still essentially restricted to a single protection function percase, while
complex functions required several cases of hardware suitably interconnected.

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User programming was restricted to the basic functions of adjustment of relay characteristic
curves. Therefore it can be viewed in simple terms as an analogue electronic replacement for
electromechanical relays, with some additional flexibility in settings and some saving in space
requirements.
In some cases, relay burden is reduced, making for reduced CT/VT output requirements. in a
static relay there is no armature or other moving element and response is developed by
electronic, magnetic or other components without mechanical motion.
A relay using combination of both static and electro-magnetic units is also called a static relay
provided that static units accomplish the response.
Additional electro-mechanical relay units may be employed in output stage as auxiliary relays.
A protective system is formed by static relays and electro-mechanical auxiliary relays.
The performance of static relay is better than electromagnetic relays as they are fast acting and
accuracy of measurement is better than electromagnetic relay.
The constraint in static relay is limited function/features. In the last decade, some micro
processors were introduced in this relay to achieve the functions like (i) Fuse failure features
(ii) Self check feature (iii) Dead Pole detection and iv) Carrier aided protection features.
Operation of Relay: The essential components of static relays are shown in fig. The output of
CT and PT are not suitable for static components so they are brought down to suitable level by
auxiliary CT and PT. Then auxiliary CT output is given to rectifier. Rectifier rectifies the
relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or PT or a Transducer

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The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit comprising of comparators, level
detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e., the
relaying quantity) attains the threshold value. This output of the measuring unit is amplified
by amplifier and fed to the output unit device, which is usually an electro-magnetic one. The
output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay operates.
Advantages of Solid State Relay:
Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of relays. Hence error is less.
Low Weight
Required Less Space which results in panel space saving.
Arc less switching
No acoustical noise.
Multi-function integration.
Fast response.
Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations
High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical Relay
More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay
Low Electromagnetic Interference.
Less power consumption.
Shock and vibration resistant
No contact bounce
Microprocessor compatible.
Isolation of Voltage
No moving parts: There are no moving parts to wear out or arcing contacts to deteriorate that
are often the primary cause of failure with an Electro Mechanical Relay.
No mechanical contact bounce or arcing: A solid-state relay doesnt depend on mechanical
forces or moving contacts for its operation but performs electronically. Thus, timing is very
accurate even for currents as low as the pickup value. There is no mechanical contact bounce
or arcing, and reset times are extremely short.
Low input signal levels: Ideal for Telecommunication or microprocessor control industries.
Solid state relays are fast becoming the better choice in many applications, especially
throughout the telecommunication and microprocessor control industries.
Cost Issues: In the past, there has been a rather large gap between the price of an
electromechanical relay and the price of a solid state relay. With continual advancement in
manufacturing technology, this gap has been reduced dramatically making the advantages of
solid state technology accessible to a growing number of design engineers.
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Limitations of static relays:

Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay Operation.
Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are caused by operation of breaker and
isolator in the primary circuit of CTs and PTs.
Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control circuit, relay contacts etc. Such
voltage spikes of small duration can damage the semiconductor components and also cause
mal operation of relays.
Temperature dependence of static relays: The characteristics of semiconductor devices are
affected by ambient temperature.
Highly sophisticated isolation and filter circuits are required to be built into the relay design to
take care of electromagnetic interference and transient switching disturbances in the power
system.
Highly reliable power supply circuits are required.
Effect of environmental conditions like humidity, high ambient temperature, dust
accumulation on PCB leading to tracking.
The component failure.
Non availability of fault data.
Characteristic variations with passage of time.

(A) Digital Relay:

History of Relay: Around 1980s the digital relay entered the market. Compared to the Solid
State Relay, the digital relay takes the advantages of the development of microprocessors and
microcontrollers. Instead of using analog signals, the digital relay converts all measured
analog quantities into digital signals.
Digital protection relays is a revolution step in changing Relay technology. In Digital Relay
Microprocessors and micro controllers are used in replacement of analogue circuits used in
static relays to implement relay functions. Digital protection relays introduced in 1980.
However, such technology will be completely superseded within the next five years by
numerical relays.
By the mid-1990s the solid state and electromechanical relay had been mostly replaced by
digital relay in new construction. In distribution applications, the replacement by the digital
relay proceeded a bit more slowly. While the great majority of feeder relays in new
applications today are digital, the solid state relay still sees some use where simplicity of the
application allows for simpler relays, and which allows one to avoid the complexity of digital
relays
Measuring principles: Compared to static relays, digital relays introduce Analogue to Digital
Convertor (A/D conversion) of all measured analogue quantities and use a microprocessor to
implement the protection algorithm. The microprocessor may use some kind of counting
technique, or use the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to implement the algorithm.
The Microprocessors used in Digital Relay have limited processing capacity and memory
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compared to that provided in numerical relays.

Function of Relay: The functionality tends therefore to be limited and restricted largely to the
protection function itself. Additional functionality compared to that provided by an
electromechanical or static relay is usually available, typically taking the form of a wider range
of settings, and greater accuracy. A communications link to a remote computer may also be
provided.

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The limited power of the microprocessors used in digital relays restricts the number of
samples of the waveform that can be measured per cycle. This, in turn, limits the speed of
operation of the relay in certain applications. Therefore, a digital relay for a particular
protection function may have a longer operation time than the static relay equivalent.
However, the extra time is not significant in terms of overall tripping time and possible effects
of power system stability.
Operation of Relay: Digital relay consists of: (1) Analogue input subsystem, (2) Digital input
subsystem, (3) Digital output subsystem, (4) A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad),
main memory (historical data file) and Power supply

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Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more analog signals in three steps:
Conversion of analogue signal to digital form Processing of digital form Boolean decision to
trip or not to trip
Advantages of Digital Relay:
High level of functionality integration.
Additional monitoring functions.
Functional flexibility.
Capable of working under a wide range of temperatures.
They can implement more complex function and are generally more accurate
Self-checking and self-adaptability.
Able to communicate with other digital equipment (pear to pear).
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Less sensitive to temperature, aging

Economical because can be produced in volumes
More Accurate.
plane for distance relaying is possible
Signal storage is possible
Limitations of Digital Relay:
Short lifetime due to the continuous development of new technologies.
The devices become obsolete rapidly.
Susceptibility to power system transients.
As digital systems become increasingly more complex they require specially trained staff for
Operation.
Proper maintenance of the settings and monitoring data.

(B) Numerical Relay:

History of Relay: The first protection devices based on microprocessors were employed in
1985. The widespread acceptance of numerical technology by the customer and the
experiences of the user helped in developing the second generation numerical relays in 1990.
Conventional electromechanical and static relays are hard wired relays. Their wiring is fixed,
only their setting can be manually changed. Numeric relays are programmable relays. The
characteristics and behaviour of the relay are can be programmed.
First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay protection
characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete
protection with added functions like control and monitoring. Numerical protection devices
offer several advantages in terms of protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and fault
information.
The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests on points of fine technical detail,
and is rarely found in areas other than Protection. They can be viewed as natural
developments of digital relays as a result of advances in technology. Typically, they use a
specialized digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational hardware, together with the
associated software tools.
Measuring principles: The input analogue signals are converted into a digital representation
and processed according to the appropriate mathematical algorithm. Processing is carried out
using a specialized microprocessor that is optimized for signal processing applications, known
as a digital signal processor or DSP for short. Digital processing of signals in real time requires
a very high power microprocessor.
The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical and static)
are fewer than those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many aspects like the type
of protection algorithm used, sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software
discipline, etc. These are microprocessor-based relays in contrast to other relays that are
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electromechanically controlled.
Function of Relay:Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated
functions. Multifunction like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are available
today in numeric power system protection devices. Also, the communication capability of
these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.
Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered single-function, single
characteristics, whereas modern numeric protection offers multi-function and multiple
characteristics.
The measuring principles and techniques of conventional relays (electromechanical and static)
are fewer than those of the numerical technique, which can differ in many aspects like the type
of protection algorithm used, sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software
discipline, etc.
First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to meet the static relay protection
characteristic, whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable of providing complete
protection with added functions like control and monitoring. Numerical protection devices
offer several advantages in terms of protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and fault
information. Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission and
distribution systems

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Numerical relays are micro processor based relays and having the features of recording of
parameter used as disturbance recorder flexibility of setting & alarms & can be used one relay
for all type of protections of one equipment hence less area is required. Wide Range of setting,
more accurate, Low burden hence low VA of CT is required which minimize the cost. Numeric
relays take the input analog quantities and convert them to numeric values. All of the relaying
functions are performed on these numeric values.
The following sections cover relay hardware, relay software, multiple protection
characteristics, adaptive protection characteristics, data storage, instrumentation feature, selfcheck feature, communication capability, additional functions, size and cost-effectiveness.
Numerical protection devices are available for generation, transmission and distribution
systems. Modern power system protection devices are built with integrated functions. Multifunctions like protection, control, monitoring and measuring are available today in numeric
power system protection devices. Also, the communication capability of these devices
facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.
These relays provide great precision and convenience in application in the sophisticated
electronic products. By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save
capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays. The disadvantages of a
conventional electromechanical relay are overcome by using micro controller for realizing the
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operation of the relays. Micro controller based relays perform very well and their cost is
relatively low
Also, the communication capability of these devices facilitates remote control, monitoring and
data transfer. Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection relays offered singlefunction, single characteristics, whereas modern numeric protection offers multifunction and
multiple characteristics. Some protections also offer adaptable characteristics, which
dynamically change the protection characteristic under different system conditions by
monitoring the input parameters.
Operation of Relay: A current signal from CT is converted into proportional voltage signal
using I to V converter.
The ac voltage proportional to load current is converted into dc using precision rectifier and is
given to multiplexer (MUX) which accepts more than one input and gives one output.
Microprocessor sends command signal to the multiplexer to switch on desired channel to
accept rectified voltage proportional to current in a desired circuit.

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Output of Multiplexer is fed to analog to digital converter (ADC) to obtain signal in digital
form. Microprocessor then sends a signal ADC for start of conversion (SOC), examines
whether the conversion is completed and on receipt of end of conversion (EOC) from ADC,
receives the data in digital form. The microprocessor then compares the data with pick-up
value. If the input is greater than pick-up value the microprocessor send a trip signal to circuit
breaker of the desired circuit.
Incase of instantaneous over current relay there is no intentional time delay and circuit breaker
trips instantly. In case of normal inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse and long inverse over
current relay the inverse current-time characteristics are stored in the memory of
microprocessor in tabular form called as look-up table.
Advantages of Numerical relays:
Compact Size: Electromechanical Relay makes use of mechanical comparison devices, which
cause the main reason for the bulky size of relays. It uses a flag system for the indication
purpose whether the relay has been activated or not. While Numerical Relay is in Compact
Size and use Indication on LCD for Relay activation.
Digital protection can be physically smaller, and almost always requires less panel wiring than
equivalent functions implemented using analog technology.
Flexibility: A variety of protection functions can be accomplished with suitable modifications
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in the software only either with the same hardware or with slight modifications in the
hardware.
Reliability: A significant improvement in the relay reliability is obtained because the use of
fewer components results in less interconnections and reduced component failures.
Multi Function Capability: Traditional electromechanical and static protection relays offers
single-function and single characteristics. Range of operation of electromechanical relays is
narrow as compared to numerical relay.
Different types of relay characteristics: It is possible to provide better matching of protection
characteristics since these characteristics are stored in the memory of the microprocessor.
Digital communication capabilities: The microprocessor based relay furnishes easy interface
with digital communication equipments. Fibre optical communication with substation LAN
Modular frame: The relay hardware consists of standard modules resulting in ease of service.
Low burden: The microprocessor based relays have minimum burden on the instrument
transformers.
Sensitivity: Greater sensitivity and high pickup ratio.
Speed: With static relays, tripping time of cycle or even less can be obtained.
Fast Resetting: Resetting is less.
Data History: Availability of fault data and disturbance record. Helps analysis of faults by
recording details of (1) Nature of fault, (2) Magnitude of fault level, (3) Breaker problem, (4)
C.T. saturation , (5) Duration of fault.
Auto Resetting & Self Diagnosis: Electromechanical relay do not have the ability to detect
whether the normal condition has been attained once it is activated thus auto resetting is not
possible and it has to be done by the operating personnel. while in Numerical Relay auto
Resetting is Possible
By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays also save capital cost and
maintenance cost over electromechanical relays
Separate connection is not required, zero sequence voltages and currents can be derived inside
the processor
Basic hardware is shared between multiple functions, the cost of individual protection
functions can be reduced significantly.
Loss of voltage feature helps block the relay in case of momentary/permanent loss of voltage.
Limitations of Numerical Relay:
Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater precision. Unfortunately, that does not
necessarily translate into better protection.
Numerical Relay can make faster decisions. However, in the real world, faster protection itself
is of no value because circuit breakers are still required to interrupt at the direction of the
protective equipment, and the ability to make circuit breakers interrupt faster is very limited.
Numerical Relay protection often relies on non-proprietary software, exposing the system to
potential risk of hacking.
Numerical Relay protection sometimes has exposure to externally-sourced transient
interference that would not affect conventional technology.
Numerical Relay protection shares common functions. This means that there are common
failure modes that can affect multiple elements of protection. For example, failure of a power
supply or an input signal processor may disable an entire protective device that provides
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many different protection functions. This problem has receive a lot of design attention, and
experience generally has supported the notion that the equipment has a very high reliability
once it is past the infant mortality stage. But it remains something to be aware of.
A multifunction numeric relay can provide three phase, ground, and negative sequence
directional or non-directional over current protection with four shot recloser, forward or
reverse power protection, breaker failure, over/under frequency, and over/under voltage
protection, sync check, breaker monitoring and control, It would take 10 11 single function
Solid State or Electromechanical relays at least 5 to 6 times the cost. Additionally Numeric
relays have Communications capabilities, sequence-of-events recording, fault reporting, rateof-change frequency, and metering functions, all in an integrated system.

Comparison of Different Type Relay:

Characteristic

Electro Mechanical
Relay

Static Relay

Digital Relay

Technology
Standard

1st generation
Relays.

2nd generation
Relays.

Present generation Relays.

Operating
Principle

They use principle

of electromagnetic
principle.

In this relays
transistors and
ICs r been used

They use Microprocessor. Within built

software with predefined values

Measuring
elements/
Hardware

Induction
disc,Electromagnets,
Induction cup,
Balance Beam

R, L, C,
Transistors,
Analogue ICs
comparators

Microprocessors, Digital ICs, Digital

Signal Processors

Measuring
method

Electrical
Qtysconverted
intomechanical
force, torque

Level
detects,comparison
withreference
value in analogue
Comparator

A/D
conversion,Numericalalgorithmtechniqu

Surrounding
Environment

Depend upon
gravitation and the
value changes to the
surrounding
magnetic fields also.

There value may

vary with respect
to temperature
also.

Relay Size

Bulky

Small

Small

Speed of
Response

Slow

Fast

Fast

Timing

Mechanical clock

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function

works, dashpot

Static timers

Counter

Time of
Accuracy

Temp .Dependant

Temp. Dependant

Stable

Reliability

High

Low

High

Vibration
Proof

No

Yes

Yes

Characteristics

Limited

Wide

Wide

Requirement
of Draw Out

Required

Required

Not Required

CT Burden

High

Low

Low

CT Burden

8 to 10 VA

1 VA

<0.5 VA

Reset Time

Very High

Less

Less

Auxiliary
supply

Required

Required

Required

Range of
settings

Limited

Wide

Wide

Isolation
Voltage

Low

High

Function

Single Function

Single Function

Multi Function

Maintenance

Frequent

Frequent

Low

Resistance

100 mille ohms

10 Ohms

10 Ohms

Output
Capacitance

< 1 Pico Farad

> 20 Pico Farads

Deterioration
due to
Operation

Yes

No

No

Relay
Programming

No

Partially

Programmable

SCADA
Compatibility

No

No

Possible

Operational
value
indication

Not Possible

Possible

Possible

Visual
indication

Flags, targets

LEDs

LEDs, LCD

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High

> 20 Pico Farads

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Self
monitoring

No

Yes

Yes

Parameter
setting

Plug setting, dial

setting

Thumb wheel,dual
in line switches

Keypad for numeric values,through

computer

Fault
Disturbance
Recording

Not possible

Not possible

possible

Relays Nomenclature as per ANSI:

No

Type of Relay

Time delay relay

3 Checking or Interlocking relay

21

21 Distance relay

25

Check synchronizing relay

27

Under voltage relay

30

Annunciation relay

32

Directional power (Reverse power) relay

37

Low forward power relay

40

Field failure (loss of excitation)

46

Negative phase sequence relay

49

Machine or Transformer Thermal relay

50

Instantaneous Over current relay

51

A.C. IDMT Over current relay

52

Circuit breaker

52a

Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch Normally open (a

contact)

52b

Circuit breaker Auxiliary switch Normally closed

(bcontact)

55

Power Factor relay

56

Field Application relay

59

Overvoltage relay

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64

Earth fault relay

67

Directional relay

68

Locking relay

74

Alarm relay

76

D.C Over current relay

78

Phase angle measuring or out of step relay

79

AC Auto reclose relay

80

Monitoring loss of DC supply

81

Frequency relay

81 U

Under frequency relay

81 O

Over frequency relay

83

Automatic selective control or transfer relay

85

Carrier or pilot wire receive relay

86

Tripping Relay

87

Differential relay

87G

Generator differential relay

87G

T Overall differential relay

87U

UAT differential relay

87NT

Restricted earth fault relay

95

Trip circuit supervision relay

99

Over flux relay

186A

Auto reclose lockout relay

186B

Auto reclose lockout relay

Relays for Transmission & Distribution Lines

protection:
No

Line

Protection

400 KV
Transmission Line

Main-I: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme

Main-II: Non switched or Numerical Distance Scheme

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220 KV
Transmission Line

Main-I : Non switched distance scheme (Fed from Bus PTs)

Main-II: Switched distance scheme (Fed from line CVTs)
With a changeover facility from bus PT to line CVT and
vice-versa
Main Protection: Switched distance scheme (fed from bus
PT).

132 KV
Transmission Line

33 KV Lines

Non-directional IDMT 3 Over Current and 1 Earth Fault

relays

11KV Line

Non-directional IDMT 2 Over Current and 1 Earth Fault

relays

Backup Protection: 3 Nos. directional IDMT O/L Relays and

1 No. Directional IDMT E/L relay.

Reference:
Handbook of Switchgear Bhel
Digital/Numerical Relays -T.S.M. Rao

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About Jignesh.Parmar
Jignesh Parmar has completed his B.E(Electrical) from Gujarat University. He has more than 11
years experience in Power Transmission-Power Distribution-Electrical energy theft detectionElectrical Maintenance-Electrical Projects(Planning-Designing-coordination-Execution). He is
Presently associate with one of the leading business group as a Assistant Manager at
Ahmedabad,India. He is Freelancer Programmer of Advance Excel and design useful Excel Sheets
of Electrical Engineering as per IS,NEC,IEC,IEEE codes. He is technical Author for "Electrical
Mirror" and "Electrical India" Magazines. He is Technical Blogger and Familiar with English,
Hindi, Gujarati, French languages. He wants to Share his experience & knowledge and help
technical enthusiasts to find suitable solutions and updating themselves on various Engineering
Topics.
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3 Responses to Types and Revolution of Electrical Relays

Engr. Babalola Christopher says:
December 4, 2012 at 10:01 am
I really appreciate your good work. on several occasions I have tried to purchase your
electrical note or software but you did not include my country (NIGERIA) on the paypal list.
Please i need to purchase some of your article and software
Regards
Reply
Preeti Mishra says:
August 30, 2013 at 6:51 pm
very well written..clears the basics! thanks
Reply
androwregan says:
December 2, 2013 at 5:53 pm
thank u sir i am learning a lot .
Reply

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