Physics

Unit 1 Physics and physical measurement

Ranges of magnitude of:
-15
25
Distance 10 (sub-nuclear particle) to 10 (extent of observable universe)
-30
50
Mass 10 (electron) to 10 (universe)
-23
18
Time 10 (passage of light across a nucleus) to 10 (age of universe)

Unit 2 - Mechanics
Displacement Distance in a particular direction
Velocity Displacement per unit time
Speed Distance travelled per unit time
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity with time
st

Newtons 1 law of motion A body will remain at rest or moving with constant velocity
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
Translation equilibrium All forces on the body are balanced
nd
Newtons 2 law of motion The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the unbalanced force acting on the body and taking place in the same
direction.
Linear momentum (p) The product of mass and velocity
Impulse Change in momentum
Law of conservation of linear momentum For a system of isolated bodies the total
momentum is always the same.
rd
Newtons 3 law of motion If body A exerts a force on body B then body B will exert an
equal and opposite force on body A.
Work done force times distance moved in the direction of the force.
Kinetic energy (KE) The energy that a body has due to its movement.
Gravitational potential energy (GPE) The energy that a body has due to its position
above the Earth.
Principle of conservation of energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only
be changed from one form into another.
Elastic collision Collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

Unit 3, 10 Thermal physics

Temperature A measure of the average random kinetic energy of the molecules of an ideal
gas.
Internal energy The sum of all the random kinetic energies (arising from their random
motion) and all the potential energies (arising from the forces between molecules) of all the
molecules of a substance.
Specific heat capacity (c) The amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1K.
Thermal capacity (C) The amount of energy needed to increase the temperature of a body
by 1K.
Specific latent heat (L) The amount of energy needed to change the state of 1kg of a
substance without a change in temperature.
Pressure of a gas The particles exert a continuous force on the walls of their container as
they bounce off the walls.
Assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas:
- Perfectly elastic
- Spheres
- Identical
- No forces between the molecules except when they collide
- The molecules are very small (their total volume is much smaller than the volume of the gas)

First law of thermodynamics ! = ! + !, where ! is the heat energy added into the
system, ! is the increase in internal energy, and ! is the work done by the gas.
Second law of thermodynamics In any thermodynamic process, the total entropy always
increases. => Thermal energy cannot spontaneously transfer from a region of low
temperature to a region of high temperature.

Unit 4 Oscillations and waves, Unit 11 Wave phenomena

Frequency Number of completed oscillations per unit time
Period Time taken for one complete oscillation
Phase difference The fraction of an oscillation that one wave moves behind another
Conditions for simple harmonic motion:
- Acceleration is directed towards equilibrium position
- Acceleration is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.
Damping A dissipative force that is always in the opposite direction to the direction of
motion of the oscillating particle.
Natural frequency of vibration The frequency at which the system vibrates when in
motion.
Forced oscillation When the system is forced to oscillate at a frequency other than its
natural frequency.
Resonance When the frequency of the driving force is equal to the natural frequency of
vibration of the system, producing a maximum amplitude of oscillation.
Wave pulse One oscillation
Continuous progressive wave A succession of individual oscillations
Continuous travelling wave Transfers energy without a net motion of the medium through
which the waves travel.
Transverse wave Direction of propagation of energy is perpendicular to the direction of
vibration of the particles of the medium through which the wave is travelling.
Longitudinal wave Direction of the propagation of energy is in the same direction as the
vibration of the particles of the medium through which the wave is travelling.
Ray Direction in which the wave is travelling. Perpendicular to the wavefront.
Wavefront A line joining neighbouring points that have the same displacement at the same
time (phase).
Amplitude (A) Maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position
Frequency (f) Number of complete cycles that pass a point per unit time
Period (T) Time taken for one complete wave to pass a fixed point
Wavelength (!) Distance between any two consecutive points that are in phase
Wavespeed (v) Distance travelled by the wave profile per unit time / Speed of transfer of
energy of the wave.
Intensity Power per unit area (intensity amplitude! )
Snells law The refractive index is the ratio of the speeds of the waves in the two media /
the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction.
Diffraction Where a wave spreads out when passing through an opening or an obstacle.
Principle of superposition If two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any
point is found by adding the displacements produced by each individual wave.
Constructive interference When two waves are in phase (path difference is a whole
number of wavelengths), the resultant displacement is the sum of both displacements.
Destructive interference When two waves are out of phase (path difference is an odd
number of half wavelengths), the resultant displacement is the difference between both
displacements.
Coherent Phase difference between the waves leaving the sources is constant.

Standing waves Formed when two identical waves travelling in opposite directions
superpose.
Difference between travelling waves and standing waves:
- No energy is propagated along a standing wave
- Neighbouring points have different amplitudes in a standing wave
- All particles in a standing wave have a constant phase difference
Doppler effect Where there is a change in the observed frequency of sound or light due to
the relative motion of the source of the sound or light and the observer.
Rayleigh criterion Two points will just be resolved if the central maximum of the diffraction
pattern formed of one point coincides with the first minimum of the other.
Polarised light Light where the direction of the electric field is always in the same plane.
Polariser Only lets the components of light in the direction of polarisation through.
Brewsters law When the angle between the refracted ray and the reflected ray is 90
degrees, 100% of the light is polarised.
Malus law When polarised light passes through a second polariser (analyser), the intensity
of light passing through the analyser is given by the equation ! = !! cos ! !.
Optically active substance Rotates the plane of polarisation of light.

Unit 5 Electric currents

Electric potential difference / voltage (V) Work done per unit charge.
Electronvolt (eV) Energy gained by an electron accelerated through an electric potential
difference of 1V.
Electric current (I) Rate of flow of charge passing a point / force per unit length between
parallel current-carrying conductors.
Conduction electrons Delocalised electrons that are not bound to any one particular atom
of the metal.
Electrical resistance () Potential difference across a resistor divided by the current in the
resistor.
Ohms law The resistance of an ohmic conductor is constant (current is directly
proportional to potential difference) if its temperature is constant.
Power dissipated Amount of electrical energy converted to heat per unit time.
Electromotive force (emf) Chemical energy converted to electrical energy per unit charge.
Internal resistance (r) Resistance of the cell.

Unit 6 Fields and forces, Unit 9 Motions in fields, Unit 12 Electromagnetic

induction
Newtons universal law of gravitation The force between two point masses is
proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of their
separation.
Gravitational field strength (g) Force exerted per unit mass on a small test mass.
Gravitational potential (V) Work done per unit mass in bringing a small test mass from
infinity to the point.
Gravitational potential energy (GPE) Work done in bringing a small test mass from infinity
to the point.
Escape speed Minimum speed with which an object must leave the surface of a planet to
completely escape its gravitational field.
Keplars third law ! ! ! ! , where ! is the period of orbit and ! is the radius of orbit.
2
2
(GMm/r =mv /2, v=2r/T)
Coulombs law The force between two point charges is proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of their separation.
Electric field strength (E) Force exerted per unit charge on a small positive test charge.

Electric potential (V) Work done per unit charge in bringing a small positive test charge
from infinity to the point.
Electric potential energy (PE) Work done in bringing a small positive test charge from
infinity to the point.
Magnetic flux (!) Product of the normal component of magnetic field strength and the area
it links.
Magnetic flux linkage Magnetic flux linked to a component.
Faradays law Magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage.
Lenzs law Direction of induced emf is such that the current it causes to flow will oppose
the change producing it.

Unit 7, 13 Atomic, nuclear, and quantum physics

Nuclide A particular type of atom or nucleus, characterised by the number of protons and
neutrons it has.
Isotope A species with the same number of protons in the nucleus but a different number of
neutrons.
Nucleon A proton or a neutron.
Nucleon number (A) The number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.
Proton number (Z) The number of protons in the nucleus.
Neutron number (N) The number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Mass defect The difference between the mass of a nucleus and the mass of its constituent
nucleons separately.
Binding energy (BE) Energy released when a nucleus is formed from its constituent
nucleons. BE per nucleon BE divided by the number of nucleons.
Natural radioactive decay The random and spontaneous emission of particles and/or EM
radiation from unstable nuclei.
Ionisation Where an electron gains enough energy to be completely removed from the
atom, leaving a positive ion.
Decay constant Constant of proportionality linking decay rate to the number of undecayed
nuclei / the probability of an undecayed nucleus decaying per unit time.
Half-life (t1/2) The time taken for half the undecayed nuclei in the sample to decay.
Transmutation Where a nucleus is changed by adding nucleons.
Nuclear fission Where a large nucleus is split into two smaller ones.
Nuclear fusion Where two small nuclei join up to form one big one.
Bohrs postulate Electrons occupy one of a finite number of energy levels. A photon is
emitted when an electron drops to a lower energy level, and absorbs a photon when it is
excited to a higher energy level. The photon energy is the energy difference between the
energy levels, and corresponds to a spectral line of a certain wavelength, give by the
!!
equation ! = .
!
Bohr model does not predict:
- Relative intensity of spectral lines
- Splitting of the lines in a magnetic field
- Fine structure of the lines
de Broglie hypothesis All particles have wave-like properties, and the associated
!
-34
wavelength is given by the equation ! = , where is Plancks constant 6.63*10 Js, and ! is
!

the momentum of the particle.

Schrdingers model of the atom Each electron is assigned a probability wave . The
aplitude! , or ! , is the probability distribution function which gives the probability of finding
the electron in a particular position.

Heisenbergs uncertainty principle It is possible to determine the momentum of an

!
electron or its position, but not both at the same time. !! , where ! is the uncertainty
!!
in the momentum of the particle, and ! is the uncertainty in the position of the particle.
Photoelectric effect The emission of an electron from the surface of a substance as a
result of the absorption of EM energy.
Einsteins photoelectric theory Light consists of photons with energy ! = !. A certain
amount of energy is required to eject an electron from a metal. If ! is less than this energy,
no electrons are emitted.
Work function of a material (!) The amount of energy an electron needs to be liberated
from their atom.
Threshold frequency (f0) The frequency below which no photoelectrons are emitted.

Unit 8 Energy, power, and climate change

Energy degradation When (thermal) energy is transferred to the surroundings it becomes
more spread out, and is no longer available to perform useful work.
Renewable energy Energy generated by processes which are part of the natural
environment, and are continually and rapidly replenished naturally by the passage of time.
Non-renewable energy Energy generated by processes which cannot be regenerated by
natural processes over a short period of time, and so are finite and will eventually run out.
Energy density of a fuel The amount of energy that can be extracted per kg of the fuel.
Critical mass Minimum mass required to sustain a chain reaction.
235
Fuel enrichment Where the percentage of U in the fuel is increased by using a
238
235
centrifuge to take away U nuclei, so there is more U available for fission.
Moderators Made of graphite or heavy water. Slows down the neutrons emitted by fission
235
so they will be absorbed by U nuclei to cause further fission.
Control rods Made of boron. Absorbs neutrons without reacting so prevents too many
fission reactions from taking place at the same time.
Photovoltaic cell Converts solar radiation to electrical energy.
Solar heating panel Converts solar radiation into thermal energy.
2

Solar constant The power per m that reaches the Earth from the Sun,
-2

!1390Wm .
Albedo Ratio of reflected to incident radiation of a surface.

!.!"!"!"
!! !.!!"!! !

Greenhouse effect Where the Earth is warmed as the atmosphere absorbs some of the
radiation radiated by the Earth. When radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere,
UV and X-rays, and IR are absorbed by ozone, and water and carbon dioxide molecules
respectively. When solar radiation lands on the ground, some is absorbed and some
reflected, depending on the albedo. The absorbed radiation is re-emitted as IR radiation as
the ground heats up and is absorbed by the H2O and CO2 molecules in the atmosphere.
These molecules reradiate IR radiation in all directions, some back to the Earth, which raises
the temperature of the Earths surface again. Therefore the amount of radiation leaving the
Earth is reduced.
Enhanced greenhouse effect Where the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
is increased by human activity, so more IR radiation is absorbed and reradiated in all
directions, further increasing the temperature of the Earth.
Black body radiation Radiation emitted from a black object, i.e. contains all wavelengths.
!
Wiens displacement law !max = , where !max is the most intense wavelength emitted by
!

a black body, ! = 2.8910!! mK, and ! is the temperature of the body.

Stefan-Boltzmann law Power emitted per unit area of a black body is !! ! , where
-2 -4
! = 5.6710!! Wm K , and ! is the temperature of the surface.
Emissivity (e) Ratio of the energy radiated by a body to the energy radiated by a black
body of the same temperature.

Surface heat capacity (Cs) Energy required to raise the temperature of unit area of a
planets surface by one degree.
Coefficient of volume expansion (!) The fractional change in volume per degree change
in temperature
Effects of global warming:
- Reduces ice/snow cover, lowering the average albedo so increasing the rate of heat
absorption. Increased temperatures also reduces the solubility of CO2 in the sea so increases
atmospheric concentrations.
- Deforestation, causing carbon fixation.
Effects of the enhanced greenhouse effect:
- Rise in mean sea-level
- Changes in weather patterns
- Change in biodiversity
Possible solutions:
- Greater efficiency of power production
- Replacing the use of coal and oil with natural gas
- Use of combined heating and power systems
- Increased use of renewable energy sources and nuclear power
- Use of hybrid vehicles
- Carbon dioxide capture and usage

Unit 14 Digital technology

Advantages of storing information in digital rather than analogue form:
- Does not degrade/corrupt easily
- Easy/quicker to reproduce
- More compact / less storage space needed
- Easy to manipulate
- Easy to distribute
- Easier to search/retrieve/filter information
Capacitance (C) Stored charge in a capacitor divided by the potential difference, in farad.
Quantum efficiency (QE) The ratio of the number of electrons freed to the number of
photons absorbed.
Magnification The ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object (hi/ho).
How a voltage signal stores information Each voltage is digitised. The p.d. across a pixel
is proportional to the intensity of incident light, and the position of each pixel is recorded
together with the digitised voltage. The image is formed by registering the intensity and
position.
Advantages of CCDs over film:
- Instant results
- Can delete immediately
- Much higher quantum efficiency
- Much shorter exposure times
- Sensitive to wider spectrum
- No moving parts required
- Compact storage!

Option H Relativity
Inertial frame of reference A coordinate system in which measurements of distance and
time can be made which is not accelerating (i.e. in which Newtons laws of motion apply).
Postulates of special relativity:
- The laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers
- The speed of light in a vacuum is the same as measured by all inertial observers
Simultaneity:

- Speed of light is constant for all inertial observers

- Both beams of light hit person A simultaneously, according to person B (zero time
difference) A
- Person B is moving away from [light source 1]
- Hence [light source 1] is emitted first according to person B.
Proper time interval Time interval between two events taking place at the same point in
space.
Proper time (t0) Time as measured by the observer at rest relative to the event.
Proper length (L0) Length as measured by the observer at rest relative to the object.
Twin paradox Person A is travelling away from person B at high speeds, so As clock will
appear to run more slowly, meaning that A appears to age more slowly to B. But in As frame
of reference the same thing occurs, so B will appear to age more slowly to A. The paradox
lies in that they both expect each other to have aged more slowly.
Resolution One twin experiences two different inertial frames of reference
Rest mass Mass measured at rest relative to the body
Michelson-Morley experiment:
Purpose To determine the speed of the Earth relative to the aether.
Procedure Light from two beams causes an interference pattern at the detector due to the
path difference of the light. If the apparatus was rotated by 90 degrees the interference
pattern would change since the speed of light relative to the aether changes. The amount of
change would allow the speed of the Earth relative to the aether to be determined.
Result+conclusion The orientation of the apparatus had no/little effect on the interference
patter. Hence the speed of light does not depend on the speed of the source / there is no
absolute reference frame / there is no either.
Other evidence Neutral pions moving at close to the speed of light are observed to decay
into two photons in different directions. The speed of each of the photons is measured to be
c, independently of the speed of the pion.
Gravitational mass Mass obtained by measuring the objects weight and using ! = !".
Inertial mass Mass obtained by measuring the force that must be applied to make an
object accelerate with the spaceship and using ! = !".
Principle of equivalence It is impossible to distinguish between an accelerating reference
frame and a gravitational field.
Spacetime A coordinate system consisting of three dimensions of space and one of time.
Movement in spacetime All masses warp spacetime. Moving objects follow the shortest
path between two points in spacetime.
Black holes Causes extreme curvature of spacetime such that any light leaving the surface
(where escape speed is equal to c) will be bent back to the surface of the black hole.
Schwarzschild radius (Rs) Distance from the centre of the black hole (singularity single
point to which all mass would collapse) at which light can no longer escape
Gravitational red-shift The decrease in the frequency of light moving from a stronger to a
weaker gravitational field.
Why Photons moving upwards through a gravitational field lose energy, and since ! = !,
frequency decreases. / If the mass was accelerating away, the signal would undergo Doppler
shift to lower frequency, and by the Equivalence principle the same would happen in a
gravitational field.
Eddington Measurement of the position of a star during a solar eclipse as the light from the
star moves close to the Sun was compared with the measurement of the position of the same
star at night. The two positions were different, hence light has been bent in the curved space
around the Sun.