-V

GU

Chapter 2: LIMIT and CONTINUITY

AM

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

T.

PH

Fundamental Engineering Mathematics II for EEIT2014

D.

Vietnamese German University

Binh Duong Campus

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-V
GU

Outline

Limit of functions

Continuity

Derivative and rate of change

Derivative as a function

D.

T.

PH

AM

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Limit of a function
if x 6= 3
if x = 3

f (x)
4.98
4.998
4.9998
4.99998
4.999998

|5 f (x)|
0.02
0.002
0.0002
0.00002
0.000002

2.9999999

4.9999998

0.0000002

5+
5
5

D.

T.

PH

AM

x
2.99
2.999
2.9999
2.99999
2.999999

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GU

(
2x 1
Consider f (x) =
6

3 3 3+

We say: f converges to 5 as x goes to 3, and we write

lim f (x) = 5
x3

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Limit of a function

Def: Let f be a function defined on some open intervals that contains a,

except possibly at a itself. Then

AM

lim f (x) = L

xa

PH

if for every  > 0, there is a number > 0 such that

then

|f (x) L| < .

D.

T.

if 0 < |x a| <

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Limit of a function
Ex: Prove that lim (4x 5) = 7
x3

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GU

Ans:
Guessing : given an arbitrary  > 0, we need to find > 0 s.t.
if 0 < |x 3| < then |(4x 5) 7| < .

AM

We have

PH

|(4x 5) 7| <  4 |x 3| < .

We choose = /4.

D.

T.

Proof: For any  > 0, there is = /4 satisfying that if

0 < |x 3| < , then
0 < |x 3| < /4

|(4x 5) 7| < .

This conclude that lim (4x 5) = 7

x3

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Limit of a function
Ex: Prove that lim (x 2 1) = 0
x1

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GU

Ans:
Guessing : given an arbitrary  > 0, we need to find > 0 s.t.


if 0 < |x 1| < then (x 2 1) 0 < .

T.

PH

AM



We have (x 2 1) 0 = |x 1| |x + 1| <  (we want) .
We may choose = min{1/4, /3}.
Proof: For any  > 0, there is = min{1/4, /3} satisfying that if
0 < |x 1| < , then |x 1| < < 1/4 3/4 < x < 5/4
7/4 < x + 1 < 9/4 7/4 < |x + 1| < 9/4 .

D.

Hence, if 0 < |x 1| < = min{1/4, /3}, we have

 2

(x 1) 0 = |x 1| |x + 1| < |x + 1| <  9 < .
34
This conclude that lim (x 2 1) = 0
x1

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Left-hand and right-hand limits

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Def: We say that

lim f (x) = L

xa

AM

if for every  > 0, there is a > 0 such that

then

|f (x) L| < 

PH

a <x <a

if
Def: We say that

lim f (x) = L

T.

xa+

if

D.

if for every  > 0, there is a > 0 such that

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

a<x <a+

then

|f (x) L| < 

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Left-hand and right-hand limits

Ex: Prove that

lim+

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GU

x0

Ans:

PH

We may choose = 2 ?

AM

Guessing : Given  > 0, we need to find a > 0 satisfying



if 0 < x < then  x 0 = x < .

D.

T.

For every  > 0, there is = 2 > 0 such that if 0 < x < = 2 then



 x 0 = x < = 2 = .

Hence, lim+ x
x0

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Limit Laws

lim [f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x)

xa

lim [f (x) g (x)] = lim f (x) lim g (x)

xa
3

xa

xa

T.

lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) lim g (x)

xa

xa

lim f (x)
f (x)
= xa
xa g (x)
lim g (x)
lim

D.

xa

lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)

xa
4

xa

AM

xa

PH

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Limit Laws: Suppose that lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist and let c R.
xa
xa
Then

if

xa

lim g (x) 6= 0

xa

xa

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AM

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Limit Laws

D.

T.

PH

Proof:

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Some corollaries

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In the rest of this course, except when being asked to use the definition of
limit to prove, we can use the six Limit Laws and the following simple
limits without proving:
lim c = c

xa
2

lim x = a

AM

xa

sin x
=1
x
lim x n = an
xa

lim n x = n a
xa
q
p
lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) if the second limit exists and if n is even
lim

T.

xa

D.

PH

xa

xa

we assume further that lim f (x) 0

xa

Proof:
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Limit Laws
Ex: Evaluate lim (3x 3 2x 2 + 10) and lim
x2

x2

Ans:

x +1
x 2 2x + 3

x2

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GU

lim (3x 3 2x 2 + 10) = lim (3x 3 ) lim (2x 2 ) + lim 10

x2

x2

x2

= 3 lim x 3 2 lim x 2 + 10
x2
3

x2
2

lim (x + 1)
x +1
x2
=
x2 x 2 2x + 3
lim (x 2 2x + 3)

PH

and

AM

= 3 2 2 2 + 10 = 26

x2

D.

T.

lim

lim x + lim 1

x2
2

x2

lim x 2 lim x + lim 3

x2

x2

x2

2+1
= 2
=1
2 22+3
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Limit Laws
Proposition: If f (x) = g (x) for all x 6= a, then lim f (x) = lim g (x)
Ex: Find lim f (x) where
x2

if x 6= 2
if x = 2

PH

AM

(
x2 + 1
f (x) =
10

xa

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GU

xa

T.

Ans: Since f (x) = x 2 + 1 for all x 6= 2, we have

D.

lim f (x) = lim (x 2 + 1)

x2

x2

=5

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Limit Laws

(x 2)2 4
x0
x

Ex: Evaluate lim

AM

Ans: We have

(x 2)2 4
= lim (x 4) = 4.
x0
x0
x

D.

lim

T.

Hence,

PH

(x 4)x
(x 2)2 4
=
= x 4 x 6= 0.
x
x

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Left-hand and right-hand limits

xa

xa

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Theorem: lim f (x) = L

lim f (x) = L

lim f (x) = L
+
xa

Ex: Prove that lim |x| = 0

AM

x0

D.

T.

PH

(
x
if x 0
Ans: We have |x| =
x if x < 0.
Thus,
(
limx0+ |x| = limx0+ x = 0
limx0+ |x| = limx0+ (x) = 0

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

lim |x| = 0

x0

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Left-hand and right-hand limits

|x|
does not exist
x0 x
x
if x > 0
|x| x = 1
Ans: We have
= x

x
= 1 if x < 0
x
Thus,

|x|

= limx0+ 1 = 1
limx0+
|x|
|x|
x
lim
6= lim+
|x|

x0 x
x0 x
limx0
= limx0 (1) = 1
x

D.

T.

PH

AM

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Ex: Prove that lim

|x|
does not exist.
x0 x
lim

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Limit of functions
Theorem: Let a (b, c). There holds
f (x) g (x) x (b, c)\{a}
xa

xa

lim f (x) lim g (x)

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lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist

)
xa

xa

Proof: Denote lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M. Suppose further that M < L
xa

AM

xa

= 0 := (L M)/3 > 0.

PH

lim f (x)=L 1 > 0 s.t. if 0 < |x a| < 1 then |f (x) L| < 0

xa

lim g (x)=M 2 > 0 s.t. if 0 < |x a| < 2 then |g (x) M| < 0

T.

xa

D.

Choose 0 = min{1 , 2 }. Then

if 0 < |x a| < 0 then

|f (x) L| < 0
=f (x) > g (x)
|g (x) M| < 0

Contradiction.
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Squeeze Theorem

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Theorem: Let a (b, c). There holds

f (x) g (x) h(x) x (b, c)\{a}

lim f (x) = lim g (x) = L

Ex: Evaluate lim x 2 cos

x0

1
x

AM

xa

lim g (x) = L

xa

PH

xa

T.

Ans: We have 1 cos x1 1 = x 2 x 2 cos x1 x 2 .

x0

D.

Moreover, lim (x 2 ) = lim x 2 = 0

x0

by Squeeze Theorem, limx0 x 2 cos x1 = 0.

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Infinite Limit

Ex: Prove that limx0

1
= .
|x|

then f (x) > M

AM

if 0 < |x a| <

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GU

Def: Let a (b, c). Then lim f (x) = means that for arbitrary
xa
positive number M, there exists > 0 satisfying

PH

Ans: Let M be an arbitrary positive number . We need to find > 0 s.t.

T.

if 0 < |x| <

then

1
>M
|x|

D.

1
1
But |x|
> M |x| < 1/M. Therefore, we choose = M
, then clearly
we have
1
1
if 0 < |x| < =
then
> M,
M
|x|

finishing the proof.

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Infinite Limit

AM

Def: Let a (b, c). Then lim f (x) = means that for arbitrary
xa
negative number N, there exists > 0 satisfying
then

f (x) < N

D.

T.

PH

if 0 < |x a| <

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Exercises

2.3:

D.

T.

1, 2; 1925; 36, 37, 44.

PH

2.4:

AM

120; 3438; 46 48;

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Continuity

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Def: Let a (b, c) and let f be a function defined on (b, c). Function
f is continuous at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

f (a)

D.

T.

f (x)
approaches
f (a)

PH

AM

xa

a
As x approaches a

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(
1x
Ex: Given f (x) =
x2

if x 1
if x > 1.

y
4

PH

AM

f (1) = 1 1 = 0

T.

D.

1
1

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Continuous functions

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

lim f (x) = lim+ x 2 = 1

x1+

x1

lim f (x) = lim+ (1 x) = 0

x1

x1

= lim f (x) does not exist

x1

f is NOT continuous at x = 1
x

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Continuous functions

Def: Let f be a function defined on [a, c). Function f is continuous

from the right at a if

AM

lim f (x) = f (a)

PH

xa+

D.

T.

Def: Let f be a function defined on (b, a]. Function f is continuous

from the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

xa

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Continuous functions
if x 1
if x > 1.

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Ex: Consider again

(
1x
f (x) =
x2

Known: f is NOT continuous at

x =1

lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 0;

AM

x1+

x1

PH

and f (1) = 0

T.

D.

1
1

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

lim f (x) = f (1)

x1

f is continuous from the left

at x = 1
lim f (x) 6= f (1)

x1+

f is NOT continuous from

the right at x = 1
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Continuous on intervals

AM

A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it

is continuous at any point x (a, b),

D.

T.

PH

A function f is said to be continuous on an closed interval [a, b] if

it is continuous at any point x (a, b), and continuous from the
right at a and from the left at b.

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Continuous on intervals
Ex: Show that function f (x) = 1

1 x 2 is continuous on [1, 1].

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GU

Ans:

Let 1 < a < 1. Then

Besides,

PH

= f is continuous at a.

AM

p
q
lim f (x) = lim (1 1 x 2 ) = 1 1 lim x 2
xa
xa
xa
p
2
= 1 1 a = f (a)

x1

D.

T.

p
q
lim + f (x) = lim + (1 1x 2 ) = 1 1 lim + x 2 = 1= f (1)
x1
x1
x1
p
q
2
lim f (x) = lim (1 1x ) = 1 1 lim x 2 = 1= f (1)
x1

x1

= f is continuous at 1 from the right and at 1 from the left.

f is continuous on [1, 1].
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Continuous functions

f +g

f g

fg
f
if g (a) 6= 0
g
cf where c is a constant

Proof:

T.

D.

PH

AM

Theorem: If f and g are continuous at x = a. Then the following

functions are continuous at x = a:

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Continuous functions

Theorem:

T.

PH

Any polynomial f (x) = an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 is continuous on

(, )
g (x)
Any rational function f (x) =
, where g and h are polynomials,
h(x)
is continuous at wherever it is defined.

AM

D.

Proof:

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Continuous functions
x 2 + 2x 3
x2 (x 3)(x + 3)
lim

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GU

Ex: Find
Ans:

x 2 + 2x 3
is continuous at any point x 6= 3 and
(x 3)(x + 3)

AM

Function f (x)

PH

x 6= 3

D.

T.

= It is continuous at x = 2
x 2 + 2x 3
(2)2 + 2 (2) 3
= lim
= f (2) =
x2 (x 3)(x + 3)
(2 3)(2 + 3)
3
=
5

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Continuous functions

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Theorem: The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:
polynomials

AM

rational functions

PH

root functions
trigonometric functions

T.

inverse trigonometric functions

exponential functions

D.

logarithmic functions

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Composition of continuous functions

PH

AM

Theorem: Let f be continuous at a and let g be continuous at f (a).

Then, the composition g f is continuous at a

D.

T.

Proof:

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The Intermediate Value Theorem

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Theorem: Let f : [a, b] R be continuous on [a, b]. Let be any

number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then, there exists a
c (a, b) such that f (c) = .

AM

y = f (x)

PH

f (b)

D.

T.

f (a)

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The Intermediate Value Theorem

Ex: Prove that the equation x 3 x + 2 = 0 has a root between 2 and 0.

Ans:

AM

The function f (x) = x 3 x + 2 is continuous on [2, 0]. Moreover,

f (2) = 4 and f (0) = 2.

PH

Number 0 satisfies 2 < 0 < 2. By using Intermediate Value Theorem,

there is a c (2, 0) such that f (c) = 0 .

D.

T.

In other words, the equation: x 3 x + 2 = 0 has a solution c (2, 0).

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The Intermediate Value Theorem

y = x3 x + 2

AM

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D.

T.

PH

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Exercises

2.5:

AM

16; 7, 9, 1012, 1520, 3132;

PH

35, 37, 38, 40, 42

D.

T.

4750; 55, 62, 63

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Limits at infinity

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GU

lim

1
y=
x

1
=
x

D.

T.

PH

AM

x
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Limit at Infinity
Def: Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ). Then
lim f (x) = L

-V
GU

if for all  > 0, there exists a number N such that

1
=0
x

|f (x) L| < 

PH

Ex: Prove that lim

then

AM

if x > N

D.

T.

Ans:
Let  > 0 be an arbitrary positive number.
We choose N = 1 > 0 . Then
 
1 1 1
1
if x > N = then   = < = .
x
x
x N
Hence, limx 1/x = 0.
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Limit at Infinity
Def: Let f be a function defined on some interval (, a). Then

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lim f (x) = L

if for all  > 0, there exists a number N such that

then

|f (x) L| < 

PH

AM

if x < N

Def: Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ). Then

lim f (x) =

T.

D.

if for all positive number M, there exists a number N such that

if x > N

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

then

f (x) >

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Limit at Infinity

Def: Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ). Then

lim f (x) =

then f (x) > M

T.

PH

if x > N

AM

if for all positive number M, there exists a number N such that

D.

Remark: Note that similar definitions apply when we replace by .

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Horizontal Asymptote

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GU

Def: The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y =

f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L or
lim f (x) = L
x

PH

x2 1
.
Ex: Consider y = 2
x +1
2
x 1
=
Since
lim 2
x x + 1
x2 1
lim 2
= 1, the
x x + 1
line y = 1 is a horizontal
asymptote of the curve.

AM

D.

T.

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Exercises

2.6:

AM

1, 3, 4, 11, 13, 14

PH

1530; 3744

D.

T.

53, 55, 57, 61, 68, 69, 71.

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Tangent line

y =

xQ a

(x a) + f (a)

f (xQ ) f (a)
xQ a

(x a) + f (a)

AM

y = f (x)

D.

T.

f (a)

f (xQ ) f (a)

y =

PH

f (xQ )

lim

xQ a

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GU

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xQ

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Tangent line

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Def: The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P(a, f (a)) is
the line through P with slope
f (x) f (a)
xa
x a

m = lim

AM

provided this limit exists.

PH

Ex: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 at the

point P(1, 1).

T.

Ans: The slope of the tangent line at the point P(1, 1) is

D.

f (x) f (1)
x2 1
= lim
= lim (x + 1) = 2
x1
x1 x 1
x1
x 1

m = lim

The tangent line is

y 1 = 2(x 1)
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(y = 2x 1)
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Tangent line
y

D.

T.

PH

AM

-V
GU

y = 2x 1

Graph of function f (x) = x 2

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Derivative

PH

AM

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Def: The derivative of a function f at a number x = a, denoted by f 0 (a),

is
f (x) f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
xa
x a
if this limit exists

T.

Remark: The limit in the above definition can be replaced by

D.

f 0 (a) = lim

Duong T. PHAM - EEIT2014

h0

f (a + h) f (a)
h

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Derivative

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Ex: Find the derivative of f (x) = x 2 + 2x + 3 at the number x = a

f (a + h) f (a)
h
(a + h)2 + 2(a + h) + 3 (a2 + 2a + 3)
= lim
h0
h
(a + h)2 a2 + 2h
(2a + h)h + 2h
= lim
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
= lim (2a + h + 2)

f 0 (a) = lim

D.

h0

T.

PH

AM

h0

= 2a + 2

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Derivative

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GU

Corollary: The tangent line to to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a))
is given by
y f (a) = f 0 (a)(x a)

AM

Ex: Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x 2 + 2x + 3

at the point (0, 3)

PH

Ans: In the previous example, we have found that

T.

f 0 (a) = 2a + 2.

D.

Thus, f 0 (0) = 2. Applying the above corollary, the desired tangent line is
y 3 = 2(x 0) or

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y = 2x + 3

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Rate of change

AM

and the correponding change in y is

-V
GU

Given a function y = f (x), if the variable x change from x1 to x2 ,

then the change in x is
x = x2 x1

y
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
=
x
x2 x1

D.

T.

The difference quotient

PH

y = f (x2 ) f (x1 )

is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x over

the interval [x1 , x2 ]

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-V
GU

Rate of change

The instantaneous rate of change of y w.r.t. x at x = x1 is

instantaneous rate
of change

= lim

f (x2 ) f (x1 )
y
= lim
x2 x1
x
x2 x1

PH

AM

x0

Note here that

T.

f 0 (x1 ) = lim

y
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
= lim
x2 x1
x
x2 x1

D.

x0

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-V
GU

Exercises

AM

2.7:

D.

T.

PH

1, 38, 11, 13, 18, 21, 2530, 3138, 5152

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Derivative

-V
GU

Def: Given f : D R, denote D := {x D such that f 0 (x) exists}.

The mapping
f 0 : D R
x 7 f 0 (x)
is a function of x and called the derivative of f

AM

Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 x. Find f 0 (x).

PH

Ans: We have

f (x + h) f (x)
(x + h)3 (x + h) (x 3 x)
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
h[(x + h)2 + (x + h)x + x 2 ] h
= lim
h0
h


2
= lim (x + h) + (x + h)x + x 2 1

D.

T.

f 0 (x) = lim

h0
2

= 3x 1

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Derivative
y

-V
GU

y = 3x 2 1

D.

T.

PH

AM

y = x3 x

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-V
GU

Differentiable functions

AM

Def: A function f is differentiable at x = a if f 0 (a) exists.

It is differentiable
on an interval (a, b) or (, a) or (a, ) or


(, ) if it is differentiable at every point in the interval

PH

Remark: The following notations can be used to indicate the the

derivative of a function y = f (x) at the number x:

T.

df
d
dy
=
=
f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx
dx
dx

D.

f 0 (x) = y 0 =

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Differentiable functions

-V
GU

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?

AM

x > 0: then f (x) = |x| = x and for sufficiently small |h|, we have x + h > 0.
Thus
f (x + h)f (x)
|x + h| |x|
x + hx
f 0 (x) = lim
= lim
= lim
= lim 1= 1
h0
h0
h0
h0
h
h
h

PH

= f is differentiable on (0, )

D.

T.

x < 0: then f (x) = |x| = x and for sufficiently small |h|, we have
x + h < 0. Thus
|x + h| |x|
(x + h)(x)
f 0 (x) = lim
= lim
= lim (1)= 1
h0
h0
h0
h
h
= f is differentiable on (, 0)

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Differentiable functions

-V
GU

Ex: Determine when f (x) = |x| is differentiable?

x = 0: then
h
f (0 + h)f (0)
|0 + h| |0|
= lim+ = lim+ 1= 1
lim
= lim+
h0 h
h0
h0+
h0
h
h

h0

f (0 + h)f (0)
|0 + h| |0|
h
= lim
= lim
= lim 1= 1
h
h
h
h0
h0
h0

PH

lim

AM

and

We note here that

D.

= limh0

f (0 + h)f (0)
f (0 + h)f (0)
6= lim
h
h
h0

T.

lim

h0+

f (0+h)f (0)
h

does not exist f is NOT differentiable at x = 0

Conclusion: f is differentiable in (, 0) (0, ).

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Differentiability = continuity?
Theorem: If f is differentiable at a then f is continuous at a
Proof:

T.

PH

AM

Then

-V
GU

f (x) f (a)
exists ( = L )
xa
x a
 f (x) f (a)

lim [f (x) f (a)] = lim
(x a)
xa
xa
x a
f (x) f (a)
= lim
lim (x a)
xa
xa
x a
= L 0 = 0.

f is differentiable at a = lim

lim f (x) = lim [f (x) f (a) + f (a)]

xa

D.

Thus,

xa

= lim [f (x) f (a)] + lim f (a)

xa

xa

= 0 + f (a) = f (a).
= f is continuous at a.
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Higher derivatives

AM

Ex: Given f (x) = x 3 x. Find f 00 (x).

-V
GU

If f is a differentiable function, then f 0 is also function. If f 0 also has a derivative,

we then denote f 00 = (f 0 )0 , and f 00 is called the second derivative of f . We can
 
write
d 2f
d df
= 2
f 00 =
dx dx
dx

Ans: On slide 52, we have found that f 0 (x) = 3x 2 1. Thus

PH

f 0 (x + h) f 0 (x)
3(x + h)2 1 (3x 2 1)
= lim
h0
h0
h
h
3h(2x + h)
= lim [3(2x)]
= lim
h0
h0
h
= 6x

D.

T.

f 00 (x) = lim

Def: The third derivative f 000 is defined to be the derivative of f 00 , i.e., f 000 = (f 00 )0
and so on ...
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-V
GU

Exercises

AM

2.8:

D.

T.

PH

1, 13, 17, 18, 1924, 31, 4546, 54

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