DataAcquisition:AnIntroduction

Data Acquisition:
An Introduction
Bruxton Corporation

This is an informal introduction digital data acquisition hardware. It is primarily directed towards assisting in the selection of appropriate hardware for
recording with the Acquire program.

Overview
In principle, data acquisition hardware is quite simple. An A/D converter delivers a sequence of values represent-ing an
analog signal to an acquisition program. In practice, selecting and properly using data acquisition hardware is more
complex. This document provides an informal intro-duction to the topic.
Contents
Background
From Sensors to Signals
From Signals to Samples
From Samples to Computer
Measurement Accuracy

1
2
2
4
5

Many of the examples are taken from patch-clamp recording. This technique requires accurate acquisition of low-level
signals (picoamperes) with bandwidth in the audio range (up to 10kHz).

Background
A data acquisition system
converts a
signal
derived from a
sensor into
a
sequence of digi-

Amplifie
r
Sensor

Digitizer
+3.250
+3.100
+2.500
+1.745
+0.985

tal values. The sensor is connected to an amplifier, which converts the signal into a potential. The amplifier is in turn
connected to a digitizer, which contains an A/D converter. The digitizer produces a sequence of values representing the
signal.

Signal Source
The source of most signals to be digitized is a sensor, connected to an amplifier with appropriate signal condi-tioning. The
amplifier delivers an electrical signal. This sig-nal is then digitized using an A/D converter.

For patch-clamp recording, the sensors are solution-filled pipettes. The pipette is connected to a patch-clamp amplifier
that converts the voltage at the pipette or the cur-rent through the pipette to a high-level signal. By conven-tion, the full-

scale output range of a patch-clamp amplifier is 10V, matching the range of common instrumentation-quality digitizers.

Digitizer
A digitizer converts one or more channels of analog signal to a sequence of corresponding digital values. The heart of a
digitizer is an A/D converter, a device that sam-ples an analog signal and converts the sample to a digital value.
For example, for recording from a single ion channel, the digitizer might determine the output of the patch clamp
amplifier once every 50s and provide the resulting value to the computer.

Sampling Theorem
The purpose of data acquisition is
to analyze an analog signal in digital
form. For this to be possible, the sequence of values pro-duced by a digitizer must represent the original analog sig-nal. The
sampling theorem states that this is the case.

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DataAcquisition:AnIntroduction

The sampling theorem states that an analog signal can be reconstructed from a sequence of samples taken at a uni-form
interval, as long as the sampling frequency is no less than double the signal bandwidth. For example, assume a signal
contains frequencies from DC (0Hz) to 10kHz. This signal must be sampled at a rate of at least 20kHz to be reconstructed
properly.
As a practical matter, the sampling rate should be sev-eral times the minimum sampling rate for the highest fre-quency of
interest. For example, to resolve a 10kHz signal, a minimum sampling rate of 20kHz is required, but a sam-pling rate of 50kHz or
more should be used in practice.

Control
Most of this discussion is about digitizing analog sig-nals for a computer. In many cases, a computer also pro-duces analog
control signals. For example, in patch-clamp experiments involving voltage-gated ion channels, the com-puter is frequently used
to produce an electrical stimulus to activate the channels. These control signals are produced using a D/A (digital to analog)
converter.

From Sensors to Signals

Preamplifier
Many instrumentation systems are built with a pream-plifier located as close to the sensor as possible. A separate amplifier
converts the preamplifier output to a high-level signal. Placing the preamplifier close to the sensor reduces noise, by allowing the
signal to be amplified before being sent over a cable. Since physical space near the sensor is limited, the preamplifier is as small as
possible, with the bulk of the electronics being located in the amplifier.

For
example, in a
patch clamp
setup,
the

Headstage
(Preamplifier)
Microelectrode

Amplifier

senso
r

is a

solution-filled pipette, the preamplifier is the head stage, and the amplifier is the patch-clamp amplifier itself.
FromSensorstoSignals

Signal Conditioning
Many sensors deliver signals that must be transformed before they can be digitized. For example, a microelectrode pipette may be
used to measure current, while the digitizer measures potential (voltage). The patch clamp amplifier provides a current-to-voltage
amplification, usually mea-sured in mV of output per pA of input. This transformation of the sensor signal is called signal conditioning.

Signal conditioning may be more complex. An input signal from a non-linear sensor may be converted to a volt-age that
is linear in the quantity being measured, compen-sation may be made for second-order effects such as temperature, or an
indirect effect such as a frequency shift may be converted to a voltage.

Integrated Digitizer
As the cost of A/D converters declines, the digitzing function can be moved into the amplifier. For example, the HEKA
elektronik EPC-9 patch-clamp amplifier contains a built in digitizing unit (an Instrutech ITC-16).
Integrating a digitizer into an amplifier can substan-tially reduce total noise in the digitized signal, since the analog signal is
not carried over a cable from the amplifier to an external digitizer. Be careful of instrument specifica-tions when comparing an
analog amplifier to one with a built-in digitizer. Including the digital electronics in the amplifier housing may increase noise, and
the digitizer itself may add noise to the signal. However, the total noise in the digitized signal may be much less than if an external
digitizer is used. Compare an amplifier with an integrated digitizer to the combination of an analog amplifier and an external
digitizer.

A major advantage of integrating a digitizer into an amplifier is that the amplifier designer can easily include features
for computer control. A data acquisition program connected to such an amplifier can then offer an integrated user interface,
simplifying operation. In addition, the acqui-sition program can record all amplifier settings, simplifying data analysis.

From Signals to Samples

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Page 2 of 7

Aliasing
The sampling theorem states that, in order to be able to reconstruct a signal, the sampling rate must be at least twice the
signal bandwidth. What happens if a signal con-tains components at a frequency higher than half the sam-pling frequency?
The frequency components above half the sampling rate appear at a lower frequency in the sampled data.
The apparent frequency of a sampled signal is the actual frequency modulo half of the sampling rate. For example, if a
26kHz signal is sampled at 50kHz, it appears to be a 1kHz signal in the sampled data. This effect is called aliasing.

Anti-Aliasing Filter
If a signal to be digitized has components at frequen-cies greater than the half the sampling frequency, an anti-aliasing

filter is required to reduce the signal bandwidth. The anti-aliasing filter must cut off signal components above one half the
sampling rate.
Most signal sources are inherently band-limited, so in practice, anti-aliasing filters are often not required. How-ever,
some signal sources produce broadband noise that must be removed by an anti-aliasing filter.
For example, patch-clamp amplifiers have built-in anti-aliasing filters. The pipette used for patch-clamp recording inherently
filters signals above a low frequency in the range of 1kHz. The good high frequency response of a patch clamp amplifier is
achieved only by boosting the high fre-quency component of the signal to compensate for the fre-quency response of the pipette.
This can produce significant high-frequency noise. A patch-clamp amplifier provides a filter to eliminate this noise.

Integrating Converters
The discussion of aliasing assumes instantaneous sam-pling. The output value produced by the A/D is represents the
instantaneous analog signal amplitude. Such sampling A/D converters are the most common for use in instrumen-tation.
Some A/D converters employ an integrating conver-sion technique. The output value produced by such a digi-tizer
represents the integral of the analog signal amplitude over the sampling interval. Such converters eliminate alias-ing. They
can be viewed as containing a built-in anti-alias-ing filter.
Integrating converters are rarely used in high-speed
FromSignalstoSamples

control applications. The most common techniques for implementing high-speed integrating converters result in a delay of
many sample intervals between an analog sample and the corresponding digitizer output value. This delay can introduce
considerable phase shift at high frequencies in closed-loop response if the digitizer is used in a control system.

Resolution
Typically a digitizer provides the computer with fixed-length binary numbers. For example, the Axon Instruments
Digidata 1200A produces 12-bit numbers, while the Instrutech Corporation ITC-16 produces 16-bit numbers. The length of
each value is called the resolution of the device, measured in bits.
The resolution can be translated to an absolute input level. Most digitizers measure swings of up to approxi-mately 10V
from zero, for a total range of 20V. A 12-bit value has a resolution of 1 part in 4096, so the resolution of a 12-bit digitizer is
20V divided by 4096, or approxi-mately 5mV. This is expressed by saying that a change of one count (or one least
significant bit, or LSB) represents 5mV.
Digitizer Resolution (10V Range)
Resolution Distinct
1 LSB
Values (approximate
)
8 bits
256
80mV
10 bits
1024
20mV
12 bits
4096
5mV
14 bits 16384
1.25mV
16 bits 65536
300V
18 bits 262144
75V
Since analog instruments rarely have an accuracy sig-nificantly exceeding 0.1%, it might seem that 10 or 11 bit resolution
would be sufficient in a digitizer. However, addi-tional bits of resolution are needed because the input signal frequently does not
use the entire input range. For example, even if the instrumentation amplifier gain has been adjusted to yield an input signal with a
20V range, small compo-nents of the signal with a 2V range might also be of inter-est. 0.1% resolution of a 2V signal within a
20V range requires at least 13 bits of resolution.

Accuracy

Several specifications are used to express the accuracy of a digitizer.

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