Chapter 9
Steady Flow in Open channels
Objectives
Be able to define uniform open channel flow
Solve uniform open channel flow using the
Manning Equation
9.1 Uniform Flow in Open Channel
Open-channel flows are
characterized by the presence of
a liquid-gas interface called the
free surface.
Natural flows: rivers, creeks,
floods, etc.
Human-made systems: freshwater aqueducts, irrigation,
sewers, drainage ditches, etc.
In an open channel,
Velocity is zero on bottom and sides of channel due to noslip condition
Velocity is maximum at the midplane of the free surface
In most cases, velocity also varies in the streamwise
direction
Therefore, the flow is 3D
Nevertheless, 1D approximation is made with good success
for many practical problems.
differences between pipe flow and open
channel flow
The flow of water in a conduit may be either
open channel flow or pipe flow. The two kinds
of flow are similar in many ways but differ in
one important respect. Open-channel flow must
have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has
none. A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure. In Pipe flow there exist no direct
atmospheric flow but hydraulic pressure only.
Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by
pressure work as in pipes.
9.2 Classification of Open-Channel Flows
The most common classification method is by rate of
change of free-surface depth. The classes are summarized
as
1. Uniform flow (constant depth and slope)
2. Varied flow
a. Gradually varied (one-dimensional)
b. Rapidly varied (multidimensional)
Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Flow in open channels is also
classified as being uniform or
nonuniform, depending upon
the depth y.
Uniform flow (UF)
encountered in long straight
sections where head loss due
to friction is balanced by
elevation drop.
Depth in UF is called normal
depth yn
Classification of Open-Channel Flows
Obstructions cause the flow depth to vary.
Rapidly varied flow (RVF) occurs over a short distance near the
obstacle.
Gradually varied flow (GVF) occurs over larger distances and
usually connects UF and RVF.
9.3 Properties of open channels
Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals,
navigation canals, spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage
ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular cross-section
shape throughout and are thus prismatic channels (they dont
widen or get narrower along the channel.
Natural channels
Natural channels can be very different. They are not regular nor
prismatic and their materials of construction can vary widely
(although they are mainly of earth this can possess many different
properties.) The surface roughness will often change with time
distance and even elevation.
Properties of open channels
Geometric properties necessary for analysis
Depth (y) the vertical distance from the lowest point of the
channel section to the free surface.
Stage (z) the vertical distance from the free surface to an
arbitrary datum
Area (A) the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction
of flow
Wetted perimeter (P) the length of the wetted surface measured
normal to the direction of
flow.
Surface width (B) width of the channel section at the free
surface
Hydraulic radius (R) the ratio of area to wetted perimeter (A/P)
Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) the ratio of area to surface width
(A/B)
The wetted perimeter does not include the free
surface.
Multiple Choice
Consider an open rectangular channel 3m wide laid
on a 1slope. If the water depth is 2m, the hydraulic
radius is:
(a) 0.43m
(b) 0.60m
(c) 0.86m
(d) 1.00m
9.4 Continuity and Energy Equations
1D steady continuity equation
can be expressed as
1D steady energy equation
between two stations
Head loss hL is expressed as
2
L V
hL = f
4R 2 g
9.5 Uniform Flow in Channels
Occurs in long straight runs
of constant slope
The velocity is constant
with V = Vo
Water depth is constant
with y = yn
Slope is constant with
So = tan
Head loss in a Channel
Recall: Darcy-Weisbach Equation
For circular pipes:
2
LV
hf = f
D 2g
For non-circular conduits:
2
L V
hf = f
4R 2 g
R=
Head loss in a Channel
2
L V
hf = S0 L = f
4R 2g
Solve for V:
4S 0 R 2 g
V=
f
8 g 1/ 2 1/ 2
R S0
V=
f
Chezy Formula
For a given channel shape and roughness:
8g
= Constant = C
f
This leads to the Chezy Formula
Named after Antoine Chezy, who did experiments in
the River Seine in 1760s
V = C RS0 = C Ri
CChezy Coefficient
i the bed slope of the channel
Mannings Analysis
Robert Manning (Irish engineer, 1880s)
Found
C increases with channel size:
1 1/ 6
C= R
n
Where
Mannings formula
n = a roughness coefficient
Values of Manning n
Lined Canals
Cement plaster
Untreated gunite
Wood, planed
Wood, unplaned
Concrete, trowled
Concrete, wood forms, unfinished
Rubble in cement
Asphalt, smooth
Asphalt, rough
Natural Channels
Gravel beds, straight
Gravel beds plus large boulders
Earth, straight, with some grass
Earth, winding, no vegetation
Earth , winding with vegetation
n
0.011
0.016
0.012
0.013
0.012
0.015
0.020
0.013
0.016
0.025
0.040
0.026
0.030
0.050
How to get n ?
Field studies expensive!
References
Estimate based on roughness height
9.6 Computations in uniform flow
We can use Manning's formula for discharge to
calculate steady uniform flow. Two calculations are
usually performed to solve uniform flow problems.
1. Discharge from a given depth
2. Depth for a given discharge
In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal
depth.
example 1
Discharge from depth in a trapezoidal channel
A concrete lined trapezoidal channel with uniform flow has a normal
depth is 2m.The base width is 5m and the side slopes are equal at
1:2 Manning's n can be taken as 0.015
And the bed slope S0 = 0.001
What are:
a) Discharge (Q)
b) Mean velocity (V)
c) Reynolds number (Re)
Solution:
Calculate the section properties
the mean velocity
And the Reynolds number
This is very large - i.e. well into the turbulent zone - the application of
the Manning's equation was therefore valid.
Example: Manning Formula
What is the flow capacity of a finished concrete channel
that drops 1.2 m in 3 km?
1.5 m
2
3m
Example
solution
1
Q = AR 2 / 3 S01/ 2
n
A = (3m)(1.5m) + (3m)(1.5m) = 9m 2
P = (3m) + 2 (3m) + (1.5m) = 9.71m
2
n = 0.012
. m
12
= 0.0004
S0 =
3000m
1
Q=
(9m 2 )(0.927 m) 2 / 3 (0.0004)1/ 2
0.012
Q = 14.3m3 / s
A
R = = 0.927 m
P
9.7 Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Best hydraulic cross section
for an open channel is the
one with the minimum
wetted perimeter for a
specified cross section (or
maximum hydraulic radius
Rh)
Also reflects economy
of building structure
with smallest perimeter
Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Example: Rectangular Channel
Cross section area, Ac = yb
Perimeter, p = b + 2y
Solve Ac for b and substitute
Taking derivative with respect to
To find minimum, set derivative to zero
Best rectangular channel has
a depth 1/2 of the width
Best Hydraulic Cross Sections
Same analysis can be performed
for a trapezoidal channel
Similarly, taking the derivative of
p with respect to q, shows that the
optimum angle is
For this angle, the best flow depth
is
Multiple Choice
Consider an open rectangular channel 3m wide laid on a
1slope. The most efficient water depth (best depth for
a given flow and resistance ) is:
(a) 1.0m
(b) 1.5m
(c) 2.0m
(d) 2.5m
