'1

l,()r,/r'l((',rr(,rl\

Oh;rptcr 13 origirr:rlly ,1p1,.',rrc.1 irr c:rtr Oerpcnticr, l{obc:t (lrrstcl,

()ioverltll
Jrrctrrcs I)orrzclot, Jr:un Maric L:tcrosstr, Atltlt: Lovcll tlrl
t
t)n((lt
tlt sttt
lu
1l-istt
s , ltt mtlecint: tt dnnllipliL',tti,.tn
l)roc:;rr't:i,
((1.().1.1).F..S./(lonrntis;rrirt (i'ncrrrl tltr l)l;rn, l)aris 1980). '['hc trlnslltior lrv (lolirr (olrLrrr origitrallv alrl,c:rlccl in /{,'(.'rro. 9, 1.ifi, l.bour ml
..f

lnstLurit ,

(Wirrtcl

9tl

Prefoce

l-19U2).

(lr:rptc'rs 1,6,1(),11 an<l 14

lrc

publishcrl hcrc frr thc first tinrc.

An cf-fcct of this kinrl is by nt, r'ncus :ln appcararcc or an illusion. It is

procluct which sprertls or distencls itsclf ovcr a surfacc; it is strictly coprcsclt to, atttl co-cxtcnsive with, its owu causc, and tk:tt:nnincs this cuusc:rs
ilnntatrctrt cattsc, itrscparablc fi,rrrr its cffct:ts, purcr rrililor.r-, outsitlc of thc

rn

clfccts thcnrsclvcs. Slrch c[fccts, or such;r protlur:t h:rvr: usually

bc:cn

clcsigrratctl by a propcr or singuler narnc. A l)r()l)cr n:rlc c:rn bc t'onsiclcrt'tl

ftrlly as a sign only to thc cxtcnt that it rcfcrs to an cffc'ct ofthis kiltl. ((illes
I)clcrrze, 't'ht: Logic of .Serr.se, p. 70)

Michcl f:oucault's cortenporary ancl ficncl Gillcs l)clcrrze glttsscs hclc a

practicc in scicntific rontcnclrturc, thc n:rrnirrg olccrtain spcc:ial physical
phcnonrctra, such as tlxr Kclvin cflcct or thc C)onrpton cffcct. IIc: is also
hirrting sorrrcthing about irrclivicluality: that its fillcst achicvc.l frrrrn can
t nrbo,ty tlic srrnt- kinrl of irripcrson;rl singrrlarity as that clcsignatcrl by thc
physicists'natnc frr an 'cf-fcct'. ()ur titlc fbr this r:ollcction of stuclics
invokes this iclca. 'fhc 'loucarlt c[fct' tlocunrorrctl hcrc is - briefly
strtc<l - tlic rnaking visible, through a prrtirr.llar pcrspectivc irr thc history
of thc prcsent, of thc rlif-fcrcnt wiys in which an acrivity or rt callccl
gLtverntilent h:rs l;ccn rrradc thinkablc an.l practicablc.
C)ur title also intr:ncls.justly to collvcy whlt, pcrsonal conncction asicle,
otlr atltlors ltvc in corrnron, sonrcthing rathcr cliffcrcnt forn tncnbership of a school or subscription to a nlanifcsto. What thcy sharc is a
Particular cxploratory Ir.rssiotr, a strivirrg to cipturc ancl atralyze ,:tcross:t
range of its roclcrtr nr:uifcsttions (rc,ason of statc, policc, liberalism,
sccurity, social cconorly, insrlrar( c, solidarisne, wclfire, risk rnarragcrncnt
and othcrs) a clirncnsion of historir:'rl (:xistorcr: which Michel Fou<;ault,
perhaps, clicl n.rost to isolatc ancl rlt:scribc.
We think thcrc is sorlcthing in this work whi.--h is still ncw, which has
rot l)eer cligesterl or stalc(l by thc intcllcctual trcnds of thc past clccarle,,
an.l which can hclp us to ur(lcrstancl, to rcsponcl to :rnd pcrhaps evclr to
look beyond our prcscnt. f:oucault wrotc in 1976 that in political analysis
wc hve still not crrt olf thc king's he acl - rrcaning that thought about
politics is trappcd by thc antithescs of clc,spotism and lcgitirnation,
repression and rights. In llritain, critical political cultrre row espouscs
the ains of a writtcn constitutior ancl a llill of I.ights. Ccltainly Foucault
vill

lx

lrtlu

CHAPTER ONE

,li..[ not,,,e,,r th,rt thcsc wcrr: frtilrr otrjct:tivcs. l]ut g()vcrrnrcnt is trot.jtrst
: I)()w(r rtc<,,1itrg to bc [aniccl or:u] :utl()rity nccdrng to ltc lcgitirrrizt:cl. It
and which tottchcs cach. Atrcl
is:rn:rc't.ivity utlcl an art which conccrs

it is:rn;rrt whir:h

'rll

prcsupp()scs thought.'I'hc sctrsc ancl oll.je,ct of

:rcts
clo
tr,rt
,li f rorlr thc ,ky .rt: .:,rrr..,.gc rca,ly f.rrltlc.l f-orlr
gov(rlr.rcrtrl
socr:rl pr:rr:tic:c.'l'lir:y urc thirgs whiclr lilvc hacl tn bc, - anci which h:rvc,
b,'t:n - invcntccl. Ioucault obscrvcrl that thcrc is a parccl of-thorrght in
cvcr thc .,55rSt lrncl nlost obtrsc purts of sotrial rcality, which is why
r:ritir:isnl ,::rn bc:i le:rl powrrr frr changc, clc:rriving sorrc practic(s of
tht:ir sclf-cviclcrrcc, cxtcncling thc bouncls ol thc think:rblt tc, pcrrrrit thc
invcntion of otlicrs. 'I'hc 'Foucult c,ffcct'rl1y, or such is ortr ho,c,
contributt t() a rcrcw:l of thc:sc powcrs oI criticltrc.

Governmentol rotionolity: on introducTion

Colin Gordon

Ilcrwcror 1970 rrnrl 19U4, Michcl []ouclult <lclivcrtcl thirtct:tr:rntrrrll

corlrscs of lccturcs at thcr C)ollge clc l:r:tttc:c itl l):rris. Itortt'lttlt's tltrtics:rt

thc collegc,,rs l,rofcsst,r in,r spct;ially crcrtlct[ (]hair in tlrt: Ilistory t'1.
Systcrrs of''l'houglit, wcrc n()t to teaclt ,r syll,rbrrs 1,ttt t,, rtrport ott tlrt'
rcsults of his own rcscrcllcs. Scvcr;tl tf'tlit:sc lccrtul-c scrics, [:ortcrtrtlt's
own ollic:ial sunlnlalics of-whir:h liavc l,ccn rcpublishccl ;rs :r volutttt' by
t.hc Oollgc cfc l'rancc,larc prclinrinar-y cxplor.rtl()ls ()l tlrcrncs t",rkctr ttr
in various ol I'-oucault's l:rtcr books. Iut otllt:r's t:ont:rirr riclt sc:uns of
rnatcrial wliich hc ttcvcr c:lioscr,r hatl titrlc to wc,r'k trp rlr a frtrl writtclr
frrnl. I)r:rhps tlc two llost rc-r:rrkablc atrtrual c()urscs of: wltich tliis is
tnlc wcrc thosc of 1978 ancl 1979, cntitlcrl rcspcc:tivr:ly 'Sci:urity, t<:t'ritory
and popul;rti,rn',,rrr,l "l-hc Lrirth olbiopolitics'. ()nc of thc 1978 lccturcs
wrrs rrrblishctl (;rlthortgh tiot in I:rcnc:h) itr []or.rc;trtlt's li[ctirtle, atrcl is
rcprintc,l in this volurnc (Chartcr 4). r\ prc.'vision iti Fottc:trrlt's will hrs
bccrr intcrprctccl by his litcrrrry (xo(:tlt()rs as prcclutling postlunr()us
prrblication of thc r:orriplctc lcctrlrc scrics; brrt thc cxccptioral intcrcst of
thr:.1 978 and 1979 (--ourscs h,rs bcctt rccognizccl by thc rcccnt publicatiorr
or (::rssctt(' t1pc of thc initi:rl lccturcs of the twc, scries, atttl a <:ontplett:
tapc cclitiorr of thc two scrir:s js culrcltly unclcr consirlcr:rtiotr. Ooniple tc
rer'orclings of'thr,sc lc(tur(s arc rvailablt: to rcscart;hcrs ir thc fottcattlt
,rrt:hivcr t thc llibliothquc clu Saulchoir in l)rrris.
In thcsc lccturcs Foucult clc[intcl :rn<.l c,xplc,rc,l a frcsh,lonraitr of
rcscarch irto wh:rt lie r:llcrl 'govcrtrrtrctttul rationality', or, itr his own
ncologisrrr, 'govertrrnctrtlity'. 'l-his work was llot carricd ottt singlch,rrr.lct.lly. A group of'fcllow rt:st::rrclrr,rs, sr,vcral of whotn arc atuottg tht'
contributors to this v.,lurrrt,, took prLrt itr scnritrus Irclrl :Lt tlrcr Oollgc tk'
rmnce whicli parlllclt:rl ,rncl c;orrrlrlcrrrcttt.r',1 t.lit: l)rollliulrlc ol tht:
lccttrlrcs. In thc srrbsc.lucrl lccturc coLlrs(s in l)aris, [ouc:rult shrftccl iris
ltt('nti()r rrway flc,nr thcsc govcrnnlcntal rlicnlcs iil thc,lircr;tioll ,,f tllt,
tolrics of'his final volurncs of'tht: I/i-rory ol Scxuality. lJut hc c()rtiruu(l to
tcach arrcl orguuizer ltsr,,rrr:ll st:lrrinurs on (lu('stiors of govcrnnttrt olr lls
frcqrrtnt visits to tlrc Llrritcrl Statcs, particularly;rt lcrkelcy. A Irtttnbcr
of lcctulcs, cssays antl ititcrvicws Pul.l;.1t., in thc USA tlulirrg thcse latcr
ycars providc, valuablc ckrcrunetrtatittrt of'this ,rrca of Iottcault's work.

)litt ( )olon

Irr tlrc'1,r'r:st'nt (:ss;ry I:;lr:r1 lrttt'rrrpt;r brit'f ()utlilc of thc lltt'tning of tlrc
tlcnlc of'[jr)vcl'tr('rt;rity' irr l]out:lrrrlt's rt',rrk lrtr,l tltc stttrlics rvhicll lrc

,111,rtlrtlr

t.rtlilrl ()ltl lrt\l(l rlrii lrt:r,litrg, (()lt\l11(lilg.l (()lll()\il(

l)ic;tur.c,rl thr: kiurls ol-pt,liticrl rrrrrl 1,,lril,,s,r1,hic',rl lnllysis whit.lr tlris st1'lc
of rvorking lrrorlLr<:t's in tlrt' lrrrrr,ls ,rt- r uuruLre'r of' rlil'f 'l crrt ;trtl
u<lt:1,,rtrrk,trt rcsc:u r lrcrs. Irr sollrc wlrvs tlris is ;r l,rrrblcrrlttit: lnrl c\/('r ir
lirohrrrrly urrrlc'r'takin1. A ci,r,krnst,l, s)'lrc'r-r'tir' :( c()u1rt rrr:r1' r'isk glrtisirr;
()v('r jrrl)ort;rlrt ,lifli'l-t'nr:r's ol' r.'r'sc't tjvc lrctrvt'cr tlif-f'rt'rrt in,livi,ltr:rl
(olrtril)u1iors. ()trc is tlcsclilrrr ri z,rrt' ,ri r-t'sr',rr-.1r, not rr [rlly frrrrrctl
Pr'()(hl( t (:rltlr,rrrglr lr:rIPill', it is lrorv Iossiblt' to rt'1i'r to Itrtjot sul)s('(lll(:l1
rul.llir';rtiorrs by Inlny ol'this \'()lulrc's ruth()rs).. l'hc inlt ccssibrlity ;rrr<l
tllc infrnnlrl oltl stluctttrc' of'thc l('( tur-(' nretclirls trlrk,'s sutlnririz;rti()n
rt ol(c lrrr rtrrlispt'rrs:rblt',rncl :rn uncorrllt:rlllt't;rsk. I r:ltn ottly lrol>t'tlr:rt
tlrt' l ir:lrrrt ss olr thc nr;rtcri,rl its,'11- rvill clrt'our':gc Llc lt u,lcl to t.olcr:rtt'
tlllsc nli sllrt;rlon;rl ollsl;rclls ;1)(] tl('ir ;lll('n(l;n)l illit:1ions.
As wcll ils slurnlr'izirrg, Islnll itt.('lrl)t t() (:()rrcct:rrr.'l to ('()lt('xtu;rlizc. We ;rrc r',ttlv grrrrltr:rllv bcr:onritrg:nvutc'of', trtrtl rrrc still firr f-onr
h;rvirrg lrl]v ,l,rr:rrrr(l)t('(l rr(((.'ss to, thc lrstotrnclitrg r,rrrgt, t,f Ic,rrc::rult's
ilrtcllcr:tual crrtcr-priscs, cscr-illlv in thc lt, r y,:rr'. fr'llr l(.176 to 19t4.
'llic govcrnncrtirl tlcrc hrrs :r 1rcal lllcc in Iour.ault's lrrtcr Philosophy;
'l'o
arr <'lrfru l trct',ls t., trc truclc' to loc:lrtc this rs :rccur:rtc:ly as
rossiblt:.

stln,l tllt' tltctrrc's wirlr' rcsollr.lco, s()nctlring rrcr:rls to bc slricl

:rbout tllc inicrrctir>ls bctwcr:n a rcscalc:h agcn,la ln,l ;r r:ontcnp()rary

urrlr,l

politi<:rl wt,rl,1. '1'o hc11, lo situ:rtc its clistinctivc valuc -,urcl .rn grouncls of
g,r,r,l st'ttsc - ir will [rr',rrlvslblr, ttl lcsist cloc;tnrlrirt: ()vcrst.rtcrrcrrt of-this
work's utriquc uncl unpr-r:ccclcntccl charactcr, anrl instcrt to try t()
cstrblisll lirrcs of conttuulricatiou witll twcntictl-ccntury cntluirics into
;rllit'tl rrrc;rs ol'lrolitic;rl l,hiLrso,hy :rncl thc history of political idcas. Such
roirrts o1-lr tritfrrl colnc't:tion ;u(', as (rahanr llurchcll illustrate s (Chaptcr
(,). crrc;our-agingly nrrrrrcrous. [irrllly, :rntl taking cluc uccount crf wiclesy,rcricl L:xtunt cliscussiorr of' Ioucault's lrtcr publishccl work, sorne thirrg
ou1ht to bc sairl ubout thc cthical aucl political considcrations (if any)
inrplic.it in this way of'wor"king rrrrcl thirrking.
Wbrit clid loucault havc in rnincl lry thc topic'govcrnnterrtal ration,rlity'? Ft,ut:rrult un.lcrst,rocl thc tcrnr'govcnncrt' in both a wiclc anc-l a

u clclnition of tlie tcrrn 'govcrnncnt' in

'tllc t:onrlur:t r'rf corrcluct': that is t() say, a fbrnr of
irctivity:rirning to shalrc. guitkr ol rrfi-ct tllc conduct of somc person or

n.rr()\\, scrrsc. I Ie

1rr',-lposr,cl

uctrcnrl ;rs nrc;uring

pcrsons. 'T'lrr govcrnnrcnt of onc':r :;clf anrl of othcrs'was Foucatlt's title

frr his lrst trvo ycrrrs'lccturcs, arr,l frr a plojcctcrl, rrnpublishc<1 book.
(ovr:rnurt'lt:rs lu lrt:tivi1.y cottlrl c()lrccnr thc rclation bctwccn sclf and
scl, r'ivrrtc intcrpursotrll rclatiors involving sclnrcr fornr crf control or
grtitlant:c, r'clrrtiotrs withirr soci:rl ilrstitutions ancl cornllutritie s an(1,

) tt u e

nmte nt

al r atiuuli

ttt

n t r o tl u

t. I

io tt

finally, rcl:rtiotrs corrc:crnr,t[ with thc t:xcrt;isc of'lroliti<:ll sovcrs.il,1y.

lou<:attlt w:rs r;r'ur:irrlly illtr:rcsl.r:rl iu Ll)( ilt('l(orlrlt:r.tions br.tvr't'l tltcst.
diffcrcnt f'ornls atrrl tnc;tttittgs of'govcrrrtnt'rrt; lrut in llis lr:r.ttrr-cs sccif-cally ou g()vLrrrc:rt;rl ratiorr:rlity hc conc-r:rrrcrl hilllsclf' plirrr:i1r:rlly witlr
Il()v(n)lr)c'rt irr thc: Politic:r1 tlolrLirr.

tt:lru'tltiollllity of govclnnl(lL' rrlrrost. iirtt,ic,lrrrrrgt'g()vcn)rncrt'. Ilcr wrs irrtc'r'cstcrl itr govr:nrrrrcnt:rs:l)

irctivity or pr:rr:tir:r',:urtl irr;rrts of-ovt,rllt(lt irs w;rys o1'krrowirrll wlr;rt
th;rt activity r-otrsistctl in,:rrrtl how it nright lrt'r:;rrricrl on. A rltion:rlity ol'
gov(rl)r)clt will tlrrrs r)(an lr wuy or systclr ol-thirrkrng ubout tlrrr rllture
of thc pr:rt;ticc of- govcrnuclt (wl() (:n g()v(n; wlr;rt govclrrirrg is; wlrlt
or who is g<>vcrnctl), c:rpablc of- nr:rking sonlc lrrrl of' tllet. :rr:tivity
thinkrrblc arrtl pr':rctir::rblc both to its pr:rr:titioncrs rrrr,I to thosc urorr
wlrorn it w;s lrrlc.tisecl. I Ie rc, lrs clscwhc,rc irr lris wolk, lrouc::rult w:rs
intcr-cstt'tl irr tlrc rhilosolrlrir.;rl tucstiorrs p.rsc,l by tllc llistorir':r1, .',,rrlilB(tl .,tr,i lrtrrrr,rtrly llrvClrl('ti ( xs((il(( (l v;ilr((1,ilr(l ilrullrl)l( i()rn)\ (l
suc,ll,r rrrtiorrulity.
ln thcsc t.,vo ycars'lr,'t:t.rrr<rs, Iiout::lrll:rpplit',1 t.lris rclsrt'r:1.ivt ul'
analysis to thr-cc or fnrr clif'fc'rr:nt Ilistorir rl rloni:rins: tlrc tlicrrrc, in (ireck
philosophy an.l nr.,rc gcncrrrlly irr:rrrtirluity rrtr,I c:rrly Olrristiurrity, of tlr<r
lrturc ol"govrrrtttrrclt, iur(l tllr: irlcrr of- govr:t'rrtrrcnt us ir frrru ttf-'1r:rstorul
1,,rwcr'; tlor:tlincs of g()v('t-lnrcrr( in t':rrly nlorlt'rrr litrlopt';rssrlr:i:rtt'ti witll
thc itlc:r of rc:rsorr ()f stat( :rrr.l tht, poli<:r'statc; thc ciglrtct:rrth*<:cnt.rrry
bcirrrrirrg ol- libcr:rlisrrr, cotrsirlcrctl us:r c()lccpti()n of'tlrc rrt of
Iottr-atilt ust:rl thc

:rbly

with'rtrt of

gr)vLnrr(:lrt; rrrrrl, lrrstly, l)r)st-w:r forrns t,f nco-liber:rl thoLrght irr

(t:rrrnrry, thc LJSA:rrrtl I'ranr:c,.:,rrsirlcrr,,l :rs wirys of rcthirrkirrg tlrc
r;rtiorr;rlity of ovt'rlrnrort. 'l'llcsc .lif f crcr,t an,l ,lis<:r',ntirruorrs frr;rys wcrc
linkcrl togcthcr for Iiottc:ault l,y u c,.-rntrr,rn frcus of intcrcst, r:uc:urstrlatccl
in thc frrrrnrlr o1-onc of his lccturc titlcs: '()nrtrcs ct sirrgulatinr'(all anrl
."ch).t I'ouc:rult srrw it us ;r r:hrrr;rr:tcristic: (;rrrtl troublingj prolrerty of thc
dt,vcltrpnrcnt of'thc rr;r<:tic;c of'govr:rrlrcnt il Wcstcrn sor:ictics to tcncl
tow:rrrls a f'ornr of political sovurcitrty which woultl bt: a govcrnrncnt of'
all ancl of c:rclt,:rnrl wltost'(;()lc(r'rs would bc at onc.c to'totalizr:'ancl t,,
'inc[v iclu;rlizc'.
'Wr:

r:lur bt'ttcr lot::rtt'tlris rt't'trr'rtrP:rtrritr of Iorrt::rrrl1's lry rct:orrstltrr

titrg sotttc of- tht' lr()vcs wlrit:lr look lrilrr tllt'rt. Irr lris rtcr:t'rrir1,. 1rook
l)isciplrnt and l)unish,llc lll,l fanrorrsly pr-,rp,,sr',1 :rrr,1 r:xr,rrrr,lt',1 ,r liil,i ,,l
politiral anrrlysis rlllcc[ tht''rniclophysits of'powcr'', r:.xcnrpll-ir',1 lry ilrc
strrrly ofthc:rrplir:rtiotr of-rlist:irlitrary tcclrtrirlr.lcs 1rs p:rrt ()l tllc irlvcrrlir;rr
of thc llorlcrtr pt:nitt:trti;rry plisotr. A wlr,,lt, ;rsptrr:t of'nlotlt'ltl 5j1tits,
Fouc':rrrlt wlrs sulillcsl.lng lrt'rc, ,:,rrrl,l 1rr, ur(lcl st.()()(l ,rnly l,y r(corstrur til)g
r;crtlitr 'tcr.htricltrcs of' powcr', or of 'powur/krrowlctlgc', tlcsi1nctl to

obscrvc, rrronitor,

sh:r1,c arrrl

(orrtrol thc: bchlrvior.u ol'irrrlvirlurrls situ;rtcrl

Oolin ()ordon

within a ralE5t: olsoc:ial ancl cr:ononric; institr.rtirns sucl as thc scllool, tllc
f:rctory arr<l thc Irisotr.'fhcsc: irlcas cncountr,rccl consiclcrablc irltcrest atlcl
(xtursivc crit.ir:isrlr. Forrcault's rcsporscs to sor)c of thesc criticisllls call
bc rc,acl as giving sonrc oi thr: kcy rlircr:tiotrs to his subsccltlctt work.
()nc ob.jcction ficcrently laisecl by the: Marxist lc,ft ws that this trcw
luttcntivcncss to thc spr:r:ilcs of p<,wcr rclutions anrl thc clctailccl t<:xtltr(
of the rarticular tcchniqucs ancl practices rilcci to .l,lrc,ss or sht.l light
on thc global issucs of politics, trarnc,ly tllc rclations bctwccn socicty :rtrtl
thcr stutc. Anothct' was th;rt l.ottcartlt's rcprcscntatiott of socicty lts it
nr:twork of onrtriprcsctrt rclations of sub.jug.rtittg ro1v- s.'crrlc,l ttt
prcclutlc thc rossibility of nrcaningfrl inrlivitltr:rl f.ccrlorrr. A thircl
conrplairrt was that [oucrrult's rn:rrkc,,lly blcak accortnt of thc cf'ccts of
Inrnlunit:rri;rrr pcn:rl refrrnlisnl ,:.trrcspr'ttr,lc.l t., utt ovclull rolitical
philosopliy of niliilisnr ancl cle spair.
lorrc;rrrlt introrlrrr:t'tl llis lcctrlrcs ()l !()vcnnrcntality as bcin, lrl()n!l
othcr tlrirrgs, rn lr'rswcr to thc frst of thcsc objcctions.'['hc santc stylc of'
analysis. hc rrrgtrc.l, that ha<l bccn r,rsccl to stucly tcchttirlut:s atttl prut;tit:r:s
:rclclrcssccl to incliviclrrll lrurrrl sLrb-jet:ts within p;rrtic:ular', lot:al institutions coulrl ;rlso bc,r.lcllcrsst'J to tt-r;htriclucs atrtl r:rcticr:s frr govr:rrrirrg
poprrl;rtions oi sulr.jct:ts:rt tlic lcvcl of a politit;rl sovcrcigtrty ()vcr alr
('rtir( s()cicty. '['ht:rc w:rs n() nrcthorLrlogical ()r r:rtcrirrl cliscontirrtrity
bctwccn tlrlce lcsrcctive, nricrophysir:;rl ,ttt,l trr,rcrol,liysit::rl uppr'o;tc:lttrs
to tllc sturlv of rowcr'. At tllc surnc tirnc', uroving 1-orlr thc frrnrcr to thc
l:rttcr lnc:rt sor('tlilg,lif1rrcllt fionr r-cturning to thc thcory of tlic statc
in tllt: frrrr ,lcnrarr,lc..l ,,tr.l 1rr actisctI by [t,rre :rult's MrLtxist c:t itics.
lour.ault :rckrrowlcclgccl thc cortinuing tnltl of thc rcrroach that he
rcl'lirrccl ilt,rrr thc tlrcorr,, o['tllc st:rtc, 'in tllc scnst' lh:rt oncr abstains frotr
;rrr irrrligcstiblc nlc;rl'. St;rtc tllcor-v ;rttcnrpts to rlcrlui:c tllc Inorlcrtr
;rt:tivitics of govrrrrurrt'nt. f orlr cssclltill propcrtics atr<l propctrsitics of'thc
strt('. in p:rrticular its suplrosccl lrroctrsity to !lrow ancl t,, sr.l,allow up or
colorrize cvcrvthinll outsiclc itscll''. Forrt:riult holrls thlt thc st;rtc hlrs l()
sur:ll irrhclcnt plorcnsitrcs; r'rorc gcrrcr,rlly, thc slatc lls nr'r r-sscncc.'l'hc
n:tur('oi tllc instltution of tbc strtc is, Ioucault thinks, a ftulction of
t-hrrngcs in ructir-cs of'govcnrrrcnt, r:rrhcr thun thc convcrsL. Political
thcory:rttcrrcls too unrr'lr to irrstitrrtiorrs,,rtr,l too littlc to pnrcticcs.
Forrr:;rLrlt t;rkcs tlre srinlt nlr'tlrtr,l,,l,rgicrrl (olus('hcrc,rs in l)iscplnu'and
l)utish, wlrcrt' clr,rrrgcs irr thc r-:rtion;rlc un,l rrrcaning of thc pllc:ticc of
purrislrin lrrc lrriolitizt',.1 ,n't,. tr';rnsfirnn;itions itr thc strll(.turc of pcnal
in

st

it ut ions.

I:orrr':rult llr,l llrr':r,ly bcgrrrr t,r,1,'vt'lop Ilis vicw of-thc links lletwccrrr
thu rrrir.r'ophvsit:s rintl tht' nr;rt r-ophvsit s of'l)o\v(r in thc fnal .:haptcr ,rl
'1'|rc IIstor,,,f',!r'.r'ria/ity, volunrc I (f 976). llcrc hc hlcl itrtroclncccl thc tcrn,
'bioPrlu't'r', to lcslg'l litr lrr ,,1'l)(,w( r t xe rcisccl ovcr pcrsons spccifi-

( out:nunentl rationality

: n

introducIion

cally in so far as thcy:rrc thought of as living bcings: u politir:s (r()rccnc(l

witlr strlccts s nenb(rs <tf t Ttopul,ttion, in wliich isstrcs of il..livitlLr'rl
scxLll :rnd rc1lrorluctivt: conrlnct intcrconnct;t witll issucs of rrational
policy ancl l)()wcr. foucault reilltroclucecl this thcnlc of- biopowcr- or
biorolitics in his 197U k:cturcs, irr a way lirrking it intirn:rtcly with his
approach to thc thcnlc of govcrnrrrt--nt. ()lc of thc kcy t:onrrct'tiorrs lrt'r'r'
was thc l)crccpti()n th;rt nrotlcrrr bio,olitics gclrcratcs a rcw kincl ,,f'
cc,untt:r-politics. As [Iovcnrr(ltal practicr.'s h,rvc ,t..l.lrcssr',1 thcrnst'1v,. in
;rn incrcasingly irnrnccli:rtc way to'lifc', in thc frrnr of thc in.livi,lLr,rl
tlctail of inclivi,lual scxual contlucts, intlivirluals h:rvc bcgutr to frrnrul:rtc
thc ncccls ancl inipcrativcs of that sunrc lilc as thcr brtsis frr rolitic:rl
countcr-rlcnrancls. Iliopolitics thrrs provitlcs :t prirtic irtstalr:t' of- wli:rt
Four:trlt c:rrlls hcrc thc 'stl';rtt:gi<r rcvcrsil)ility' oi- powe I' rt'l;ttiorts, or tltc
ways in which thc tcrnrs of g()vcnlrctt:rl pructictr clr lle tttrnctl :tr,,turrl
into foc:uscs of rcsistuncc: ()r, rs he put it in llis l97l lt'r:trrrcs, tht'w;ry tlrt'
history of govt:r'nnrclt;ls th('contluct of-conchrr:t'is itrtcrwovcn with thc
history of- rlisscnting'countcr-collclttcts'.
In thcsc ntrttcrs foucault ha,l s.rnr., inrport:rtrt r:lrrrifi<:rrtions to olll',
notably in his Arlrtrricn cssays uncl intcrvicws, on his vit'ws :tlrout l)()w('r',
f:rccclonr an,l hopc. Fouc:rult sccnrs t() Ilavc fun.l [:rult aftcrw,rrtls ut lc:rst
with his rhctorit: it l)ixiplinr and l)unish, whcr-c this Irray havc scctrretl to
givc lrtr inrprcssiotr of t cr t.rirt itscs of l)(rwt L :rs llrvirrg ;trl :tlluost ,rbs,,ltttt'
capability to t:uc;rncl sulr.jt:ct inclivirlu;rls. In his 19t12 css;ry "l'lrc strl).i((l
rrtrcl powcr', Irorrr:;nrlt lrflrrns, ()l t1c (rottl'1rry, that powt'r is only p()wcr

(r;rthcl than Itrr,r'c rhysic:al frrt:c or violcrrt.c) wltt'tt t,,l,l.t,ssc,l t()

inrliviclu:rls wh,, arc fict'trr.rr't in onc w.ry ol anotltcr. l)ower is clcfncrl ls
'actions rn othcr-s'ut.tions': tht is, it prcsurposcs r:rtllc tll:ur rtrlrtrls tllcil'
capacity rs afclts; it:tcts ttIotr,:rtrrl thrrlrrglr,.tl r)l(ll rt't ttf rt,rttit;tl:tlrrl
cthical possibilitics.t I I,,,r,,., llth,rugh l)ow(r is :rrt otrrnir'cst'nt rlinlcnsiorr
itr lrruu:rn lt lrrtion:, lowt r irr ,i ror it ly is lrt vt'r' ,r l'i xt,l .rnrl t lost tl lt'girrrt ,
but rrthcr an cn..llc,ss atrcl opcn strate f-{ic ll:urc:

At thc vc,ry hc:irt

ol'th<: owur rt'l:rtiotrshr, ,ttt,l .:t,ttst,Ltttly provoking rt, ;irc

thc rr:<:alcitr:urr:t'ol'thc rvlll :rnrl thc ttrtr:rtrsigcntc o1'l'ct:tl,rtn. I{;rtltt'r tlt:ul
spcaking of':rn t'sstnti;rl 1t't'tloln, it rvt,rtl,l l>, 1r, tt, l() \l)('ik t,l rttl':tl'tttrislrr'
'
- of' a rcrl:rtiorrshi rvhr'1r is :rt tllt slullt tirt r t r irr or ;rl itrt it,rttotr ;urrl
strugglc; lcss of-;r f ;rcc-to-1:rr:t t orlontrrtiorr rvlrii )r 1,'rr;rlt,zt : lrot]l sirlcs tll;rn
PL-l l)lacll t lrrtrvrrc ;iti,rtl.'

l)crliaps, then, wlllt Four'arrlt litr,ls Irrost lasr:irr:rtirrg,rn.l ,listrulrirrli in tlrl

history of-'Wcstcnr g()vt.nrcrtl prat:tir:t' un,l its rltiorr:rlittcs is thc i,It';r
of a kin,l ollrowtr whir:h trkes l'ccclonr itself ;rncl tltc'sotrl of'tllc citizctr',
the lif: and liic-con(luct of tlic cthic;rlly f'rt'c strlr.jt'r:t, :ts irt sonrc scnst: tlrt'
corrclativc ob.jcct of its ,,wn \tl;\iv( (,rl):('ity. 'l'llts w:rs ()ltc ()f'tlltr r:r'tr<:ial
roints wliercr Fout:riult lruncl llinlsclf arrr,,ng tllc inltcritors of Max

( ovennnental

)olin ( )orlon

'W,,l,cr.t'In thr, frt'sh way it lc'-l)oscs thc cotr.irttrction of thc history of

politics at(l thc history of cthics, Fouc:rult's latcr work rc.joins i grct
thonc of rnoclcrtt political soc:iology.
A littlc rnorc ncc.ls to bc saicl ab.rut the political ancl critical valtre
oricntation of this work of loucattlt's, bcginning with a notc ol its placcr
atrcl tirnc, of gcstation. Fortcartlt's 1978 cottrsc: ovcrlappcd with atr
r.rtrcxrct:tccl clcfcat in Frcnch parliatncntary clectiotrs of arl alliancc: oI
Sor:ialist arrrl (lornnrutrist partics. Ilis 1979 cotlrsc cnclc,l a fc,w wecks
-l'hatchcr's
clcctiotl as Ilritish l)rirlrc Ministcr. 'Ihis work
bcfrrrc Margarct
wus bcirrg rlonc lt r rinrc of thc fircling in Fr:rncc of thc nrultituclincrts
blossorrrings of post-19(rt social rrrilitancy, irt r titrtc whcll thc, itttcllct:tual
l)rcstiflc of M;rrxsnr w;ts abortt to tttt<lcrgo a lapitl coll:rpsc (partly
stiniul:rtecl by thc influctrc:c of'Erstcrtr lttropc:rn clissitlcnts, with whosc,
wclc:t,ulr: iu(i rcccptiotr in lratrc'c Fottclrttlt w:Is activcly involvtcl), arrcl
whcrr thc sprcading influcnc:c r>f ntro-libcral polrtical thought, f rorrr thc
,(ernnny ()f l lcllrLlt Sr:linri,lt to tllc: Irancc of'(iisc::rrcl ancl llarrc ,rn,l thc
llrit.rirr t,i-(,rll:rili;ir,,,,,..1 Il,al.,y,1ia.l l,egriri to i)L(s(riit:r t:hallcngc to thc
lx)st-w;rr orthorloxit:s,rf g,rvcrtrtncntlrl th<,ught.
()nc ol thc conspic:r.rous lrttr-ibrrtcs.,f loucrult's govcrtrtnc'trtelity
lccturcs is tht.:ir s('rcnc ancl (irr rr Wcbct'ian scnsc) cxcrtnplary abstctrtion
irt,nl vrrluc.jutlgcnretrts. Irr :r rithy rt,rtrrtbItt hc ltjcc.ts thc ttsc of att
lt'rrclcrrrit: ,lisroursc s l vclticlt' of- 1tr:r<:tit:el itrjutrttiotr ('lovc this; li;rtc:
thet; rlo this; rcfrse th;rl .'),:urtl tlisnrisscs thc trttiotr tlrt prrctical
politiral clroir:t's r:lrr lrr',lctelnlinctl within thc sr:tcc of :r thcol'ctit:al tcxt
:rs tlivirlizilrg thc lt:t of rltor;rl <lccisiotr to tllc lcvcl .,ia Ittc,l'cly acsthctic
prcf rrt'nt:t'. 'l'ht' tcrnls of I't,ttclrttlt's ,t,'..'.,ttttts of govcrtrtricntal r:ttiotr:rlitrcs :rre clcvoirl ol- tllc irrrplicit c'jor:rtivc slr(;rsn whit:h Fottcault's
Nictzschc:rn rrfflli'rt'ions havc so ofcn lcrl rc;t,lcrs to hcrar in his writirtg.
ltt,rrt'rrult's l(:c()urts rrf thc littcl ll ;rrltl Ilt:o-libcr:rl thinkcrs incicccl oftcn
t'l,inc't' l s('nsc of (rlbcit v,rluc-ncrrtrrl) irrtcllcctual attt:tctiotr ln,l c,stcc,tn.
'l'hc pc'rslrcctivt'ttr;ty lrt'libcl-t;rl-i:rn, bnt it is ltot,rtl:trc:hist. IIis rcProach,
if tlicrc is onr', is,r,l,lr-essc..l to critic:rl c:ulture itsclf. []our:ault tlocs trot
.'schcu, prat:tir::rl rri:rxit.ns wlrt'rt' thc oblig:rtions of'thorrght arc c.rtrcc,rnccl.
In:r nrrtsllcll, hc suggests thrtt rc(ctt nco-libcralisln, utrcl-crstoocl (as he
proposcs) ,rs ;r llt,vt'l sct cf'notiotrs abttttt the rt tti govertttnent, i\
corrsiclr.r,rbly nrorc origitr.,l ,rtr,l clnllcrtging rltcttotrtt-tt.rn than thc lcft's
r'ritit:ll c:rrlttrrc h:rs ll;rcl tlrt't ottt':tgc to rtt:ktrorvletlgc, ancl thrt its political
th,rllcngc is onc whic'h tlrc lcf't is sirrtrlarly ill cquitpccl to rcsrotrcl to, tlc
lurorc s() sitrct',;rs Forrr':rrrlt r',rntctr,ls, st,cilisllr itsclfclc,es ltot l)osscss al(l
-llie conc:lttsion
Irrs nt'vt.r ,,rsst'ssc,1 its ou,rr rlistirrc tivc ,rrt ..,f g.rvt rrring.
I'orn tllis t'xclt-ise in critic;rl ltt('ltivclt(ss to tllc Prcsctt lics in tllcr
effir-nlltion ,ri thc l.tc,ssibility rrn.l ttcct'ssity, fol thosc ,,vllo wish t() ptlrsuc
ccrtuin cttcls ,rtrcl v,tlLtcs, of'f-csh :tcts of itlvctttivctless.

of

ruoilality: an intrduriot

well attestecl in Foucault's latcr ycars. In ar

ction of a Socialist
government, Foucault expressed thc hope of seeing a ncw 'logiqrrc, ,lc
gauche'in the concluct of the rcgirne, replacing the tutelary arrogancc of
its predecessor towarcls the governcd with a practice of free cliakrguc
bctwccn govcrnlrent ancl governecl, 'debout et en facc'(upright antl ftrcc
to face). Hc hirnsclf sliowccl willingness ro cllgge in cliscussion abour
problerns ncl contradictions in social policy, rrotably in a long clialoguc
with a (IFDT tracle union representativc on hcaltir funcling issucs rncl tlrr,
need to devisc new wclfarc policy rnechanisms capablc of provicling thc
rneans of indiviclual autonomy as wcll as thc rncans of security. In thc.
coursc o[ tliis ciiscussion Foucault makes an cnphatic plca for a rcncwal of
inventivcness in political culture. Foucault also rctaincd a cortiruing
practical conccrn with thc problcnrs of the prisons which hacl so nuch
occupiccl hirn in thc: 1970s. It is a mattcr of rccorcl that Foucaulr g:rvc
privatc advicc to ore govcrnrncntal fgurc, thc Ministcr ofJrrsticc lobcrt
ll.rclintci,lis l(,ngst,i(lirrg.rlly iu th. 1970s cairrp.rigri agaiirsi rhc.lctL
pen,rlty. Foucault is saicl also to havc been on lrienclly tcnl'rs with Michcl
llocard, whosc, subseclucnt writtcn rcfcrcnccs to 'lc gouvcrnlrc,nt rles
honrrncs'sccrn rcrlrinisccrt of sonrc of cr1r prcsclrt nratcrial. ()n thc
wholc, howcvcr, loucrult sccr]s to have been cliselrpointccl by thc
Soc:ialists atrcl thr:ir rrcf crrcd rolc f or intcllcctuals as :r supporting
i<lcologic;rl cllonts liner r:rthcr than as itrtcrlocutors in a rliscussion :rbout
how to govcrr. I)arrl Vcync rcrcently wrorc tlat, at thr-' tirnc of his dcath
in 1984, louc;nrlt was 'prcparing a book against thc Socialists'.
I will return bclow to thc prar:tical philosophy contaillccl in Foucault's
ltcr wolk.'We nrust now look r.norc closcly ar thc'govcrnrnentality'
lccturcs. Wc havc sccn how Fouc:mlt distinguishccl his topic from that of
certain fbrnis of'statc thc()ry. How clocs it rclrte to the more classic
rlornain of political philosophy? Pcrhaps a classic clistinction can bc used
to clraw a cloubtlcss overrsirnplificcl contr:rst. A nr;rjor part, at lcast, of
classical political philosophy, in irs ccrntrl conccrn with thc lcgitimatc
Sornc

these views arc

itrtcrview in

1981 where he canclidly welcomes the ele

founclations of political sovcrcignty ancl political obeclicncc, is about 'rhc

best governnlclrt'. (;ovcrnrtrcntality is aborrt liow to govcn. Foucault
c-ortilucs hcre his rrcclilcction [or 'how' ctcstions, for thc irtrrl:nent
conclitions ancl cotrstlaillts of Practir:cs. -fhe c:hoicr, ,krcs not (arry any
illtt('([iitt( 1.<tlt'rllit',rl irrr1,]11 1ir,. I;rrttt,rttll rlrrs rrrrt \.tv tl;tt lt'{itirrr;Lti,,rr
tltcory is ernrty (though il r lccrr.rrc hc,{t,c,s call thc sor:ial t-ontrrrr't:r blLrff
anrl civil soc:icty a f:airy st,,ry); but only that ;r thcory ol thc lcitirn;rrt.
basis of sovcrcignty (--:nlr()t bc rcliccl upon ;rs a nlcarls ol tlcscribing thc
ways in whit:h powcr is:rctually t'xcrt:isccl unclcr such:r sovcrcignty.
lvcn herc, though, thc conc:t:rn with'how'is r()t a (--onccnr with tlic
rklnain r'rI thc, purcly exrcclicnt or frctual. [:irstly, I:oucault's topic is

(Lvernmental rationality: an intrLtdurtittn

Oolin ()ord;tt

criticluc, problernatizatiotrs, inventiotr ancl irrlaginarion, about thc changing shapc of the thinkablc, s it is about thc 'actually
cxisting'. Scconclly, the pe rceivcd internal cottstraints of thc activity of
govcrning arc lo lcss capablc of carrying nortnative tne:rning atrcl ccltrtcnt
ih.r, thc principlcs of lcgitinration. 'Ihirtlly, as we have alreacly seen, the
corltcnt ancl objcct oI govcrning as biopolitics, as thc conduct of living
an,l thc living, is itsclf alrcady cthical. Fourthly, Foucault goes on to
.levc,lop (in thc first lccturc oIhis 1980 coursc), thc iclea tht govcrllcnt
in Wcitcrn cultrlrcs carrics with it a coltccrlt witlt trttth which excec,ls
thc nrercly utilitrian rclationship pttstulatcd in his carlicr schellra of
quitc

as nruch about

powcr-knowlcclgc. Extcncling thc itlca that sovcreignty is scltlont

grorrn.lc,l oll purc virlcncc alotrc, Iroucault :r.lvatrcc,s thc thcsis of a
i',-gtrl"., though variously actualizccl intcrcie pentlcncc be twe e tr the
'govcrnmctrt c',f lncn' an.l what hc calls thc 'nratrifcstation of trttth'. ()nc
'Wcstcrn vcrsion of thc art of govc,rnnrcnt, accordinflly, is'gclvcrrtttclt ilt
thc nanre of thc trrrth'.

EAIII,Y MOI)EIIN
llcginning his lecturcs in 197U ol thc topic of 'pastor,rl powcr' in ancicnt
culturc, Fottcault was rctttrtrlng irr.r lcw wy to:r classic thcmc irl his
.rwn work. ln'l'he tlrrth of the C'lirlic, I:oucault rctraccs thc cliffictrlt origins
of a stylc of mcclicl knowlcclgc structurccl aroutr.l thc intcrprctation of
thc inciividual cs.'. larlicr trrcclicine, hc showc.l, hacl obcyed an
Aristotclian intcrclict on a science of thc inrliviclual: scicncc cotrcernccl
itself'with genus an.l srecies; thc itrclivitlttal cliffcrcrtcc was ilfrascicntiflc. Plato's,lialoguc,, 'l'he Staturnatl, conccrtring the traturc of thc art
of govcrtrurcnt, rliscttsscs tlic rossibility that thc rulcr's art is likc thc
shcphcr.l's who carcs frr cach incliviclual shccp in his flock. In Plato, this
iclea is clisnrissccl as ir.nprrtctict,lt: a rulcr's knowlcclgc ancl attentivencss
coulcl trc,ver cxtcti.l so tr;ts to nritristcr to cach incliviclual: 'only a gocl
could act thus'. Clrcck politics chooscs the garnc of citizcn and laws,
r!tler tharl thc pastoral gartrc. Thc Pastoral nloclcl is a,loptcd ancl vastly
'Wcstcrtt Christianity,
claboratcrl by (hristianity, as thtr c,rrc, of souls. In
howcvcr, thc rolcs of sace r,lotal pastor atl,l sccular ruler never cotne to bc

unifccl.'l'hc foctts of- I'-ortc:rttlt's iutcrcst in trlotlcrn govcrtrrncntal

rationalitics cotrsists, prcciscly, in tltc rcalizatiotl oI what hc calls thc
'tlucnronic' r:oupling of 'city-gantc' an,1 'shcpltcrtl-gatnc': thc invcntion of
a i'orrri of sccul,rr political pastoratc which couplcs 'incliviclualizatiotr' ancl

'totelization'.
Fouclrrlt singlcs orit thc cncrllLnce of clor:trincs of rcasotr of statc ir-r
sixtcctrtli-r:cntury [uropc s tlc starting point of tnoclern govcrll-

rrrcntality, as al r,rfonorrori.s ratiorlity. 'fhc principlcs of gr',vcrrrrrrort arr'

tto longcr part of ancl srrborcliltc to thc clivinc, cosnlo-thcological orclcr
of thc worlcl.'flic prinr;irlcs t[sttc arc irnrnanernr, prccrscly, ilr thc sr:rrt'
itsclf.'fo know how t() g()vcrn, onc rust know tllc statc ancl tllc ser'r'ct
springs of its infere.fs, a knowlcclgc which in part nry rot :rn,l <::rnnot bt'
:rcccssiirlc to thc nrlcrl, :rntl is liablc to clictatc gc)vcnuuelt:rl acts trf .r
singular, un[<rresccable ancl clrastic chractcr. '['hcsc arc thc kcy irrtcr'-

Iocking tcrtns

ccrltrrry:

of thc Frcnch

politique tlictrists

oI thc t:rrly scvotccrtl

raison d't,tt; intrt d'tttat; nystrt d'tat; ,:0u7, d'tat.

s []tit.nrrt'

Thuarr has writtcn:

'Iltc ttotiott of sttc ccscs to bc clcrivccl ironr tht' <liviuc orrk'r of' thr:
tuttivcrsc. 'lhc point of'clcp;rrttrre for political spr:c:ul:rtiorr is n,, l,rnger tlrr'
(lrcation rn its cntircty, brrt thc sovcrcign stutc. lcason of statc s(:('s t()
It;rvc pcrvcrtc,l thc ol,l or.lcr o[t valucs .
Iorn of thc clctrl:rtion :rntl rusr:

of ttrctt,:r kttowirtg rrrachinc, a work of rcasotr, tlc stlrtc clcorrl)sscs a wll,,lc

llcrctic;ul substrrtc Sct abovc hlnrarr arrtl religious cousirlcrations, thc
st:ttc is thus strircc:t to a rarti<;ular ncccssity . . . Obcying i(s owrr l:rws, rair,rrr
r/.'tf ,rppcars;s:r scanclalous:rnd all-pcrwcrlul lcality, whosc nturc cscal)cs
the irrtcllrgen<:c ;rnrl r:onstitutcs ir nyst('ry."

'fhe statc hus its rcsons which urc known rrcithcr to scntirncnt lor to
rcligion.
A contcrnporary syroryln of

rai.sor r/'rtrrrr (con.lcrrrtrctl by a l)opc as'thc

clcvil's rcasc'rtt') was'civil lrruclctrcc': p:rrt of its gcrrc:rlogy hrs bccn sccn t()
lic in thc translorrnation of thc (lhristi;rn tloc:trinc of pnrclerrc:c, c()l-

sidcrcd as tlr virtuc tlispl:ryc,1 by a nrlcr capablc of just actiol ir

circunlstanccs which lrc sitrgulur ;rncl spccific: thc govcrnor as hclnlsman
- ;uotlcr of Plato's rnet:rphot's - prcscrvirrg ship :rncl p:tssrlllers f ronl thc
hazarrls of rccf :rtrrl stornr. 'l'hc lncatring of pruclcncc cvolvcs frorlr a
c()ntcxt whcrc it can bt: iclcntifcd with:r knowlcdgc of apt prcccdcrt (thc

singrrlar is nrvcr thc wholly urrprcccclcntccl) to r contcxt, s irr

Machivcllian It:rly, wherr, thc unr:t'rtrin;rtrtl thc utrcxlre,ctc,,l conc to Lrc
pcrccivccl as tlc ronr of l:()rtunc's crnpirc. 'l'hc Machiavcllian political
art invcntcci in rcsponsc to this obscrvatiorr has, as Foucault rcnrarks, its
own inhcrctrt linlit: rt rkrctriuc whosc fot:us is rncrcly to'holrl out', t()
rctain onc's sovurcigtrty, howr:vur lc:quilt'tl, <:rn st'urt:.'1y plovick: ussrrr'arrcc of holding ()ut irclcflritcly. 'fhc irnrortrLtrcc of'shilting thc scat of
polrtical rcrrsolr lroui princc to stut( is tli:rt thc lattcr is capablc of'bc'ing
crcrlitctl with rr frrnr ,rf sr,r:ul,tt' l)(rl)ctuity (itsclf',r r()ti()ll r,vitlr r:,rurplcx
(lhristian :rntccctlcnts, cxplorcrl by Kantorowicz:) 'statcs .rlc r-,:rlitics
whi.ll rutrst trct'.ls h,,l.l orrl fi,r ,rrr in,lt'tllitt' lt rrgth ,,i'tilnt . "" l lt ;rrt trl
governing is rutiotiul ', Fouc:uult writcs, 'iI rcflcxion cttsc:s it to obscrvc
thc rrturc of what is govcrtrccl - hcrc, tlic .faf': rcas() of statc is
'govcnrnrcnt irr
with thc statc's strcn5th'.r0
"cc,rr,l^ricc

)olin ( )onlon

I;oucault suggcsts that thc stylc oi political thirrking which clablcs

cortincrtal l:uropcatr roisttn d'titrt t() outgr()w its M:rchi:rvclliall lirlrit:rtitrrrs
,rn,l tr', bcr:otnc' ;r ktr,rwlcclgc o['thc st;rtc's stlr:ttgth'can bc frun.l rnost
hrlly crr,boclierl ancl articulatc(l in thc corpus of theory, lrcrlagogy arrrl
r:otlilir:ltion tlcvcl,r,crl in Ctrnllan tcrritori(s [trrr thc 'llrirty Ycurs W:rr,
turclcr tlic nrbric of-1lr/i:ciriri.r.sol.scll.ft, or'scicncc of polir:c' (although thc
Irnglish worcl 'rolicy'is aru;rbly a l)cttcr ccluivalcnt to this nrc:ttritrg,'f
l'oliz). I)crh;rps onc (()ul(l sry, vcry fornrrrlaicllly, th;rt lclson tf'stutc's
problcnr ol- c:alculatitrg clctailccl actiots appropriatc to ln infnity of
trtrfrrc'sct'lblcr lrncl contilr'rrt circuur\t.lrccs is rrrct by thc crc:rtion ofi;ttt
cxhrrtrstivcly ,lct;rilctl krrowlc,lgc of thc ovcrtrc,l rcllitv ol thc st:rtr'
itsclf, cxtt:nrling (;rt lc:rst in rspiratior) to touch thc cxistcnr.cs of its

irr,livitlu:l licnlbrrrs.'l'lrrr polic:c st:rtc is rlso tcnrrc(l tllr"stltt' of'

'l'hc itlce of'prospclity or.hrrppincss is thc prinr:iplc whir:li
r'ospcrit.y'.
irlcrrtifcs the strtc with its sulr.jcr:ts. l)olir;c thcory sharcs thc nlcrcurtilist
t't:ononlir: polic:y of strivinl to nrrxinuzc thc qulntity oft bullion irr tllc
sovcrcign's trcrsury. llut it rrrrrph:rsizcs thrrt thc lc;rl brsis of'tllc st:rtc's
wcllth atrcl pr',wcr lics in its population, itr thc strcngth arrtl prorluctivity
oi-:rll uld c:rcll. '['llis, I]oucault writcs, is 'tllc cctrtr:rl rara..lox of policc':
thc rinl of thc nloclcrn irt olgov(:rr)lr(rt, viz.. tt clcvclop thtsc clcnlrnts
of- intlivitluul livcs in srr.'lr ,r w,r1, 11" tlrcir rlcvclopnrctrt also frstcrs thr:
strcngtl of thc strtc.' " '1 1,,' folit t' st.rtt, wc nriglit say in othcr tcrnls,
strivcs towarcls tlic rrrrclcntial by cultiv;rting the pustonrl.
Sorrrc citatic-rns:rn<l paraphrrscs fronr 1b/iciu,isscnschaft writcrs iry
I:out:ault arrcl l)asrluirro arc clorlucrt ()r tlis topit:.'l,if'is thc olrjct:t of
'I'hat
rolice : thc inclispcrrsablc, tlic usclrl, arrcl thc supcrfuous.
rc:oplc
survivc, livc,:rncl ervcn clo be:ttcr thrn.just thlt, is what thrr policc has to
crsurc.'1)olicc"scr(,s to living': 'thc olr.jccts which it cnrbrar:cs irc in s<>nrc
scnsc incic[initc'. "['hr: policc's truc objcct is nrn.' l)olicc 'sccs to
cvcrything rcrtaining t() rriu's lrrrr,i1,-''5'. ,'-T'hc solc l)rrposc of poli<;t: is
to leacl [o the utnost ll,rl.l.incss in this lif'.' ' Polic:e is a scicnc:c of cnclless
lists anrl classific:rtions; tlcrc is rr polic:rr of rcligiorr, of custorns, oIhealth,
of footls, of highways, of public, orclcr, ttf scictrccs, ('orrrcrcc, nianufrctnrLs, scrvants, povcrty. . l)olicc scicncc sccrls t():rspirc to corstitutc a
kincl oI onurivorons esrousal ,f govcnlccl reality, thc scnsoriunr of a
Lcviathan. It is lso (rrg:rin irr :rspir:rtiot) a ktrowlcclge of incxhaustibly
tlctrilcrl ancl continuous control. I;orrcault (borrowing thc titlc of an rtiGaullist polcnrii: by [rarrors Mittcrranrl) dcscribc,s govcrrr'nclt ir thc
[)olicc stirtc as:r'pcrnliuc1t (oul) rl'itut'. Policc govcrrn1crt clocs not
linrit its ction on thc govc'rrrctl to the, gcrrcral fc,rnr <f laws: it wc,rks by
thc tlcans ol spcr:ifr-, <lctailcrl rcgulatiotr :rncl rlccrcrc. 'fhc cxpclnents oI
resolr of strtc rlcst:ribcrl its cxccrrtiv('rctiors as thoscr of a'special
justic:r:'; Foucault n()tcs as a clcfining charactcristic of thc policc statc thc

t'tntnottl r,rtiottality: tn

itrttu(

titt

rnlrrgitralizlrtiotr of thc clistinr:tion bctwtr'n g()vcrlrnclt lry lrrw lrr,l

!{ovcnlrtt by c[r'crcc.
what kinrl oF:r r;rtion:rlity of'g()vcnnrcllt is this? I)erlrrlrs ()n(' urry

usc[ully rcfcr hcrc to M;rx wcbcr's vocubulrrry of'rcf'lct.ti,r ()lr tlrc

vrrictics of r;rtiolt:rlity alrtl rutiotr:rliz;rtion in worlrl list()rv :rrr<l t,r,lt'r
lri.t,,y. \r,lnt wll,rr ,,' \)Vr.lrr.l rt.lu,uks ol ( lllillt.st.t:,,,,t,. i,,',,r,,,', 1,,,1i,, i,
;t 'rrtitttl:tlisttt of'orclcr', wllic:lt c'r,nccptu:rlly rrrrr:rlglrrr:rtes tllc orrlt'rt'tl
c()tlrsc of' tllt' w,,rlcl :rtr11 tllc orrlcl'irrg rctivity ol arhlrinistr',rtiorr.r Itrt
ptllic:c rcsittratcs botll tltcsc notions lvitllin;r scculrrr, r()r*trlr(liti()ul
ctlr<rs, unrL:r rr lcign of artif-it:c. Mr:lncckc, in Iris,l,llliat,dlisnt, cvokcs thc
vicw of tlltr strttt' ofi'['urkcy irr thc writirrgs ol thc Itrlirrrr r'(';s()rr ol-stutr.
tlrcorist'['r:r.jano l]or:t:rrlini (155-1613):
'l'ttrkcv brt,tr5ht to lifc rrnrl cxcrrrrlilt',1 rvh:it tlrc
olitir':rl rlr.trgirt oi tht'
lctttiss:ttlt:t lt;rtl:rlrvlrvs bcctr strrvrtrg;r1r'r:;rrr;rrtilt:i;i tonstrrr,'ti,rr wllir.ll
It:rtl bccit cottscit,ttsiy,rrt,i purlroscly'burlt ur,:r St:rtc lrrct'lr:rrrrsrrr rvhrt:lr,"v.rs
rtrrattgcrl likc ;r r'lock, :rntl wltich nl,r,lt' rrs.. rrf lrt. v.u rrrur sr1.r j1.5 ;,1

\tr(ttgtll\.rrrtl rrt;rlitils,'l llrtll.ri

ili s'rir1r.tl wllr.tls.'

Itl lt sotltcwll;rt sirrlil:ir sclse , tlc rssLlral(( ol'olrk'l' irr tlrc rolirt' st.rtt' is
thc ssttntttce of rrr orclcr whir:h ir itsclf- has crr:utc,l. Il'tlrc rroblcrrr of'
Macchiavt:lli's r'irrc:c is thr: scc:urirrg of ir re \\, :rrrrl norr-lcgitinl.rtt.
sovcrcignty, thr: ctlLriv:rlt'nt r'h:rructcl'istit ploblt'rrr of- policr', in tllt'
(c,'rrrlin stltcs ncwly tlcnlarc:tcrl l,y tltc'['rc;rty of'Wr:stpltrrlia, is,.rs
Pasqtrirro sh.ws, to crertc a polity, :rs it wcrc t'x nililo, o.t .f ir wirrclcvastatcd lo
l;rtrcl. What thc social nrrrkct rcolr()nly w:rs frr tlrc
'llrr's
Gerrnany of 1945, thc polic:t: st;rt( was ftrr thc (crrrr:Lny o[ 164t.
Pcllicc scicrrcc, or''(:rrrrcralisnr', is rrlso, in conjrrnction wrth tlic:rllictl
krtowlc,tlgc of trtcrcautilisnr ancl rolitic:al :rrtliinrctic, thc f irsr rnoclcnr
systcr of rcttntttttit. srtvertigtrty, of 4ovcrnnicnt trnrlcrstoocl as an ccon()ny.
Tlrc cconomy cnrcrgcs hcrc,, us Pastuirro lias put it, :rs u speciJ'ic, but n()r yct
(as for libcralisnr) an dLtt()nontotL.s 1:orrrr of ratiorrality. 'l'hc cconorny of- a
furtctiottirrg wholc is a nr:rchiltc whic:h has to bc continuously rnurlc, uncl
lot lllcrely oreratccl, by govcrtrrr)crt.'flris ljovLrlnllclrtrl thont, t,f
t:corony rctins hcrc fonl thc ani:iclt ( ont(,xt o1- the r,i,l,rs :rl] ir.s
irnplications of pt'rsscssi,rtt, clotncstication lrntl (()rtr'()llirg lctior. In
Gernrarr, LVrrtuhaJ't (ci:onorrry) h;rs :rs its t.ogrr;rt.t.s tht: i('rlrs L,l/ir
(hotrseholclcr/snralllrolclcr') ;rncl l4lirt.srlrofit,n (r,c,orronrir: Lc.riviry, rht' r orrcltrct oI the Wirtschali). Max Wcbcr signallcrl urr crluiv;rlcrrt tirrur'(: ()l ir
coltccPt which has a kcy rclt:vrtnc.c lrr tlic antcr:ctlcnts of'(lrrulcr'rlisrn, tllc
Stadtwirtschaft (city cr:onorrry): this w;rs l rcrlr which, s Wcbt'r critically
crbscrvccl, signifcs itrtlist:rirltirr:rttrly Lroth r nrotlc of urtnrtttir 04,(nztttion
rtn.l an ()rg(tnisftt regulang thc ct.onony. If it is l,ossiblc frrr (l;uncr:rlists to
spcak oIthc statc ls bc,ing irlcrrtical with thc'wlrolc bt,cly of socicty', this

lt)
11

ooln

( )ortlou

s lrirgcly bv virtuc of'tlc slatc's t:ort-cslrotttlittg occ'ttttotrticr l)rol)cl'tlcs:

tIc iclt'rtity,'ol statc iu(l socicty llcrrr is, n sottrc sclscs, (:(ltlivitlclrt lo tlc
rrrritv of'tlrc I'f.'irl iu(l thc ll'rrtsL:ha-l't - or possiblv, irr l latcl voc:rbularly, to
t[:rt 1- thc cntrcprcncul un,l thc entcrrrisc (()tto F[irrtzc irgllcs thet the
'sptrt o strrtc'in ('rlly to(lcrti l)rlssi:r is otrc atlcl tllc sattlc thirtg;rs
Wcbcr's l),r()t('stltl spirit of clpitalisni).
l)t,icc govcrrr,r,.,rf, lnrrlly, is itr Fottc:lttllt's tcrttrs r l,t'rrl of pastoral
'.,rl- lll n,l_of c,t,'lt': ,t
l)ow(r, u !lovcrnrr('lrt wllicli rlcfnc:s itsclf'as bcing
trsctrl lifc l'olic:c
L:(ot()rrric:ally
to
alt
,rrriu..r,,l ,,rrigtt"ti,rn ol srrb.jct:ts
()cc()notry,
oi'cqu:rting thc
its
wuy
throtrgh
g()v(,nln('tt r,,1rt., iu
)olit:c is
strcngtlr.
sttc's
with
thc
sulr.jc:cts
,,,1.lpi,,.r, oi its incliviclual
1t:cttrrcr
llis
itl
gl,,ss
I:ottt::rtllt's
tlrrlrl.frrc kirl,l ct' ttrttttttttt p(tst()ttttt'(ct'.
oftrlctr:ttr,l
i
t,f
govt'rllltLttt'ttf
iclc:r
rcprirrtt.tl in Ohapter 4, orr thc
its
rt'irrrt'
itr
c[i[fcrc,nt
sorllcrvhlt
rlicit
tlrirrgs'), or a sc(ulirr hirrroc r-:rc.y,
fr,,,u tir. (';Ltlr,,li, l);\i()r;l( r'r,1t,'lr lr;,1 p1rt,,',1 its,lbst;lt:lt's irr thc plrth of'
thc calll' ,,,r,it,rlisti. 'l'he strrtc cLrcs trot s:rc:ri[icc itsr:li trr tlic intlivi,lual:
tllc in,livi,lu:rl (as Iir:helir,u,lccl,rr.,s) trtlst s()rrLtirrrcs bc srrcriitctl frr tht'
srir(', 1'lc nrlcr.is a shc,hcrcl ((crnrln 1lirr), btrt also a liusbrttr,ltlt:rn
((icrrrrrrrr Il.'irt). 'llrc populrrtiorr of thc govcrrtccl rs likcnccl lo a hcrcl as
".11 ,,s r:L flock: wclf,rrc is cotr.joirrerl to cxploitutiol, ls thc'Wcllcrr
Poli((
thinkcrs :rrc r:oolly cap:rblc of' rct:ognizirr;. Mcrt.rlltilisllr,
IcrrLrrks, ntt'ltlts 'tttltring thc st:itt' likc lr sct tti (lt('l'Iri\c\'.'
Alr.,rrgsi,lr. thc nlorrtl ulttbivrtlcttt.cs .,L tlte polit:t: statc, howcvcr, it is
,r...,r,,.y to rccogttizt' rrlso tirt' clle r!cl(rc o1't'hangirrg f crrtlls _of cthicrl
,.ulturc. llcsiclc tlic sturtlirrgly :rrrrbitir'rus protttistts (tlrrL'tt in tliis pcritltl
chalf f'tllc nerv sciell(:(' of statc, tltc scctttttl I'cnialkablc fcrtulc of
clrly nlo(lcl-n politic,rl ('ultr.rrc is tlrt' st'rrstr ,,f lt pr,ri.,tttttl t:otltrcctcdtlcss
1r.trn,".',, thc riinr'i1.,lL's oi politicll :tr:tiotl art,l th,rsc of rcrstttral cottclttct.
As lour':rult,,1,,.ru"r, it is |ossiblt'tl:it ncvLr beirrc or siltcc hs thc'
;ii:tivity (i,i g,,v,'rtitltcllt 1)cc) l)('r('civc(l :s s() tlssctltielly intcrclcptltltlcttt
rtith tir. !l()vcnurcrt ol'sclt', ()r tlc plrt of rttlcr'ntl rtrlccl ;rlik'. 'l'hc
pr,rblcrrr ..,l grrvcrrurr('nt, it h:rs bc.rr s;ii(1. wits posccl in tcrnls of a

is

t'l lji 't 1 1ttt'lt itl tltis tlttlllltitl

'1.t",t''tgt t'l Pt l'rt'tlr" I'ortt ''ttll w't\ 't\\"ll(
(icrnr;rn
,,t,ir,1y, cs1.,c.,i,rlly in
1,,rlitir:,rl s()ciology sincc wcbcr'.'rht:re is
rulst,, rrs l)rrsqualc [)ascuirro hls lightlv not('(1, a striking cotttPlctrtcttt,rt-ity

ll.r. 1',ctrr.,, l:ttr:rtttlt' r,'.,rk ,ttl..1 tllt' t:ollcttrl-cltt rcsc:lrcl tlf'(crlrarcl

()cstr-cic-lr otr tltcr rt,lc of ttco-stoit:islll ill thc, c:rrlv tllrltltrrtr statc.l6
\\/[rv wlrs't'on,llrr-t'sr.rr'll:ur illportrlrt ttcnle ltt tlris tilllc?'l'ltc:ttiswcr
Ilrs tt, cl,, rvith thc sunrt' br,,,i,l :ultcccrl(rts ;ts tlltlst- oi rcason of statc: tllc
r.r'osion r',f'l fc'u.lll ,,r'tlcl'ttt lvlrrclt 1,t'rs,',nel i,lcntity wits illchorc(l ill
|r,lit,rr-y st:rrlrs iu(l :n lssociutc(l nt'twol'k of'lttyaltit:s lrtr,l tlcpcnclctrccs;
rlrt irrrl'.r1 t l tlrt. l{t'lt,rllttit'n, in t, r'lns,,l tlrt lcligittls l)t()l)l(ltittiztttiott
,.,f'thrj in,livirIual, rrn,l thc c[cnr,ur,l f,r'rt rctrovatt:rl atrcl itivigoratc<i
1l

)trcrnmcntd rionility: n introlu tiott

strtrctllrc of- rastorul guitlatrr:c; ;tnrl tlic pcrv:rsivc clislor:utiol ol prrltlir'

rrtrrl priv:ttc, lif' by rcligious ',vrirs. In Irrncc, r,tis,tt tl'tlttt ll,r,l its orrgirr irr
thc choicc rnuclc,, not;rbly by the ro/itir1rrrr.s, frr :r ',lcth,',rl,rgiz;tion'
(Ocstrcich) of politic.s, in refcrcrrcc t() rr rcligrous :rtlr of'rrrutu:rl
lrlnihil;rtion. -l-ltc .lcvclrrlrnrcrrt of':i scr:ularizccl nranllt'r of'rt'it.r'tion on
pcrsonal ctllir:s is rr closc c:or,rllury ot'tllis shif. 'l'lic trcrrrl shoul,I rot 1rt.
nrist:rkc,n

frr a rnovc towarrls irlcligion. It provrtlcil,,rs r,,'cll,:rl

itrstrtttllctrt of'rtt:tivt nloirilizutiotr on c:rcll sirlc of'thc cont'ssion:rl lr:rtllt'

lincs: (latholic, (llvulist, l.ttthcr;rtr -- r kil,l o1- t:onrpctition irr ruor':rl
:U'l)tlu(l)ts.

'l'llc rc<liscovcry ,rtr.l lcncwul of'Stoir: ctllics stucliccl by ()e stlcit lr rrwcs
its inf-luctrce in carly nrotlcrn roliticll thorrght to rrn clcr:tive rrflririty with
tllcst: cotrclitions. 'Ilrc l{ornan Stoics wurc rcacl witll cspc,:ial :rtt(rti()n
bct::tusc of' a pcr<:civccl sirrrillrity bctwcctr thc publir tIisturbuuccs ol'
:rlr:icnt lrlrnc an<l tliosc of rnotlcrr Iuropc, l)hilosoplry wrs stLrtlictl llcrc
in a scarch firr rcsourccs frr thc rccovcry of ulorll anrl rrtllicll ol'icnt:rtiorr
out of orttwrrcl chaos lrtcl intrcr ccltrfrsiotr, as a wcp()r anrl ;r nrcclitint.
'l'his nco-Stoic crrlturc rcg:rr.lc-rl its philosophy ubovc ull ;rs :r pr:rgrrr:rtit,
'l'hc Stoit: stylt:
l)rcticul frrnr of krrowlcclgc, a nrctlroclology of orrlcr.
'policc
postulatcs worlri-ortlcr, thc
of this worlrl', yct is at tlic s;rnrcr
tinrc- hospitlblc to, atr.l c:onsonrrnt witli, lrtifit:rr antl tcclrrritlue: lcncc it:;

affinity, ccrtaitr appcararccs notwithstrnrlin, to tht: thouglrt of

ris,rr

d'tttt. Onc of its rnain nroral atxl tcchnical virtucs w:rs tlc prornist,
clcvclort:cl not:rbly in thc r,xtrcrrrcly infucrrti;rl writirrgs of Jrrstus l.ipsius.
of rr cotrrnrott rt-urlctttirrl ctlrir: of' 't:otrstulrt. y' (t.onslutttit) lrr rult:r :rrrc[
rulcd: botli wcre rccuirccl to crrltivrrtc in thcir s(pir:rtc stlti()ns tht: s:unr:
bsic virtucs ol lilc-concluct. Nco-stoicisrn rroviclccl ,crhars thc first
tlistinct sccul:lr cthit: ol-c;olrrrrrrtirl :rtrtl t,bcrlic:nr:c: to crbcy llL:ut rot
r

nrcrc;rbncgation or sclviturlc of-tllc will, but:rn :r<:tivc frnl o1 lifcconcluct: Ocstrcich citcs hcrc tcstinronics to tlc spirit of alnlost rclii,t1rt
zcal arrrotrg thc cxccntant frcrsorncl of Frcnch rdson tl't,tt.
By relating thcsc clcvelol)nrcrts to thc 'rcgultion-nrarria' of thc polic.c
state, C)estreich helps to c()uvcy bcttct' thc nlorrl tctrtlr oI thc lattcr's
global rcgulatory ctrclclvours, parti(:Lrlarly rclativc to ncwly rrrllanrzctl
populations:

; !lr(irt('r' rlcrloyrrrcrrt ol ;rrrth.r it1'.

[)coplc h;rcl tt bt:'r:o:<:hcrl',:rs it wt:rr:, frr thc tlsks crr:utt'cl by llrt'rrrorc
pt,pulous socicty n.l thc clairrrs whit;lr it tre,lc trn its t:rtir:rrs ;r \t.rr i $,;s
nr:rdc otr educ:rtitrg pcoplc to :r clist:irlinc of'work anrl f'ug;rlrty ,ur,l ,,r:
changing thc spirittrel, tnonrl rtt,l psyclrological tnakc-u of politit;rl,
Crcrter sor:i;rl conrplt:xity brotrght

nrilitary

rtncl cconoli<: Irr:rn.

At thc snc tirc, ()cstrcich uscfrlly rcnrarks, of thc disciplincs of'(lourt

lifc, that'All social irrtclcoursc wrs g()vcrnecl by strict orclcr: this,
13

(lovernmental rationality: an iroduction

Ooltu ()ordon
as slavery, but as a Illoral stit-lening which
flling.'()r, as Ilobbcs wl'ites at thc bcginning of his

howcvcr scrvcrc, was lt()t scclt

prcvcrrc(l orrr, ironl

I)c Oiut, 'Mrrn is not

ftt

[..,r s,,.'iety by r.rlrrure, but

by,lir.ipliti,."*

cononft

) tt v

erntnttn t

tl(' t irrly Itt,,,l.'rlt ( ollitlll( ti(ll (f "JiJ()t

d't,tt t'rcI scirtcc of polict 1s llolllclltotlsly original in troth;rtr cristctrloI6gical :r,l an cthic:rl sclsc. It colstitutcs thc activity of'govcrtttltclt ls:l
irs ew clistinctivc ancl irrccluciblc [,,rrn of ratiorrlity; arr<l it
".'ruit|
givc-s to tlrc cxcrcisc of sovcrcigtrty tlic practical forrn o[ a rolitical
p;r\t()r.;l(, 1r govcrltncnt of ;rll irr,l c".,1, frrr thc purp()scs of sccttlar
s((rlrity rn(l pr0sPCrity.
it,ut.-s of- thc c()ntcnl)()rary wclf,rrt stiltc c:l, or stl this
Sun,c ,rf thc'
"tt
sccr.rs tr) su!!gcst, bc sc'crr as origirruting with thc 1)trlizr:i.strlal. lut oltly
s,rnrc. [',r,.r,,,rlt', lt,,trt..s ,rtt lltrr.ltrl !l()vL]rtllcrltal rtiottltlity attaclt
cqrrrrlly closc uttcnti()lr to tl( othcr grc:tt itrtcrvctritrg tlnt:ttioll itr thc
history ol his topic, u:utrcly thc :rtlvctrt of-libcrrrlisrrr'
1,,,,,,.,,"..,rp...,, (;rs (rllianr llrrrc:hcll shorvs itr (hartcr 6),_louc:;rult's
rrppr.1lach to tliis sulrjcct c()lvrrgcs rvith sontrr rc(:ctt ttl()vcs in thc, sttlcly.rf
.,..1y lilr.r,,l thougirt by F,nglish-srcaking historians: thcr rcjcction of rr
,r".,:,r*ly ,,,rr.l.,r,rirtir, r.,aclig tlf tIc r'igins of rolitir:ll cc,,trortry s,rle ly
within thc, ,',r-ur,lin;rtc-s r',f r liistorical autobiography of ,rcsent-day
cc:rl<ttic scietttct:; att crtrrlt:tsis ()l tlc urrity of'ccotrotttic, soCial and
govcnrlcltll rcflcction in thc work of Acllrrn Srllith ancl his colrtcrlporir srcpticisr :tbottt thc Mrxist intcrprctation of'cightecnthl.ir.,r;
"1.1
:ts cotrvctriclltly Prcscicnt apologists of ninctceltlilib.,ali
ccntrlry
capital. whlrr is tlistinctivc, llbcit not unique. about
inclustri:rl
..,.rrury
hcrtr is his cottccrtr to Luldcrstan,l libcralisrn not
pt'rspcc-tive
F,ru.rult',
sct of doctrincs, of'political atlcl econotnic thcory,
ol
sinr.,1y,,r.,1,,,,f.irr.,
qttitrttrssctrti;rlly conccrtrcrl with the art of
thirrking
oft
stylc
l.,ut'r,, a
As

considc,re

cl as a krrowing subje ct. Libcralism can rlus bc accur.arcly

in Kantian tcrlns as a critique o.[ state teas(.)n, 1t cloctrine of'

clrar:rctcrizcci

IEAI- LIT]F]IAI,ISM
]

from thc stan(lpoint ancl prcoccupatiolls of state, whilc thc contelt ofcconornic scicncc affrrns thc neccssary fnitu<1c ancl flailty of-thc stirtc

wt lt,,v. r.','tt, l:ottt :tttlt

s('Cs

govc rning.

"

t,oucatlt se cs Arlaru Srnith's 'l'he Ll,'ealth <f'Natiorrs as cffecting lot only

r rralsfornrtiotr itt political aucl ccotrt,tllic thinking brrt also a trnsfrnnatiotr in thc rclatiorrship bctwct-n knt,wlc.[gc, atl.l govcrnnlent' For
(lrricalist thirlkcrs, pttlicc scicnct: autl strltc rctiol arc isomorphous and
iscparable,; tlic notion of 'scicncc' crtrrics hcrc atr ir.nnrccliately Pragnlatic.,.rrru..,t.ti,..,r.,, akitr, lrs Iorrcault puts it, to thc calcttlating know-how of
tliploniacy. [,or political ccotory, on thc other hritrcl, scientific objectivity dcpcrr.ls on the Inaitrtcnatrcc of rclativc clistatlcc ancl autononly
l4

lirnitation ancl wisc rcstr:irt, clesignecl to lnatrlre an<l cclucatc st;rte rc:sor
by rlisplaying to it thc intrinsic bounds oi its powcr to know. Libcralisnr
unde rtakcs to rlctcrrnine how govcrnn)clt is possiblc, whrt it can clo, :rntl
what arnlitions it rnust ncccls rcnounc:c to bc ablc to acconrplish what lics
within its powcrs.

Foucault clistinguishcs two srrgcs ln this politico-cpistcnrological

volrrtiorr. In Fr:rncc, thc Physiocratic se ct of cononstes invcrts rhc oncc
scatrclrlous licresy propagatcd by thc carlicr sc.ct of politi,Tues, thc initial
proporcrts of raison d'itat. Tltt. artifcial, invcntccl rcason ofl Lcvi:rthan is
rebuttc.l by thc proclairnccl rliscovcry that thc a[frirs of hunran socicty
colstittltc:l (asi-rturc. Socicty ancl its cconol.ry t::rn uncl lust otly l)c
1ovcrtrccl itr acconlancc with, ancl irr respcct for, thc laws of tht n:ttrlr(,
tltc atttotronrous capability of civil society to gLrcrtc its own orclcr :urtl
its own prosperity. In Physiocr:rtic cioctrinc, this vcrsiort c,f tt laissez-faire
policy is rsst'rci:rterl with spccific tcchnical proposal, ()ur:sn:ry's ccononric ''['ablc', a tlcvicc intcnclerl to pcrnrit a sovcreign tcl rrronitor thc
totality of econornic proccsscs within thc statc. IIcrc thc rulcr is in a
position to rcrnrit cconor-t-lic subjccts fcctlonl oI rrc:tion .just bccausc,
through thc 'l'ablc, thc sovcrcign crur still know whar is happcrring in thcr
cc()rolly, an.l how.'l'hcrc is hcrcr, irr Foucrrult's tcrllls, a rclation of'
aclccltt:rtiotr t;ctwccn thc sovcrcign's krrowlcclgc lncl his sulrje cts' libe lty, a
kinrl of trnsparcrt supcrposition of thc political antl the ccononric.
Atl:rrn Srnith's 'invisible h:rrrcl' rcprcscnts, f'or lroucault, arr obliquc but
rarlical criticisnr of the, tcchniquc of thc 'fablc: ir nrcans that thc
re

[)hysiocratic nrorlcl of'cc(]r()rir'sov(.rcigrty is an inrpossibility; thc

knowlcclgc intcnclccl to bc conrpilcrl in thc'f;rblc is, cvcn in principlc,
irnpossible for sovercigrr rcliably to obtain.
Of' thc choiccs atrtl c:alculutiotts oi thc inclivirlual ccononric agort,
Snlith writcs that 'hc intcntls only his owrr g:rin, an.l hc is in this, as in
nrany othc:r cascs, lccl by.rrr invisilrlc ltan,l r() I)rol()t('ul cncl which w:rs
lo part olhis irrtt:nti.,,r'"" ,,rr cnc{ n,hi. h st,rvcs tlic publit: goorl. Snrith ulso
rlrakcs it clcar tltat thc workirrgs of tlrr, invisiblc hancl arc possiblc only
hecausc it is invisillc; littlc go,rcl wotrltl lollow if :rn inclivichl,rl w,,r.<, s,,
pcrvcrsc as to attcrlpt to traclc frr tlrc rublir: goocl."" F.,,,.,,,,,1t notr:s tlrat
this thcsis of thc bcnigtr or:rcitv of' cconornic proccsscs hol<ls goo<l rrot
only lol tlrc incliviclu:rl citizcr but rrlso fr govcrrrrucnt; it is rlot as tl()uglr
thc workings of thc 'invisiblc ll;rn..l', whilc, r'crrrritritrg in;rcccssiblc to thc
corllnlolr citizcn, coulcl yct bcconrc tralsparcltly intclligiblc whcrr scen
within a totalizing scientilc pcrspcctivc, conrpar:rblc to Ood's knowlcdgc
15

)olin Gordon

()ouernnental rationality: an introduction

of thc ol)cr:rtiorls of l)rovirlcnccr. 'I'o c,rrclcavottr to coltstraitr inclivi.ltral

c.,.,rr.,,i,, :tctiols towards thi: public goo,l is rttl rttrtlcrtakitrg tro trlorc'
f:asiblc frr thc sovcrcigtr th,rli l'trr thc subjct:t: it is' cltrty, irr thc

for a lccture of this kincl. Undcr this hcrcl wc will consiclcr thcr
opulcncc of a statc.''o Lr .o,,tr"st to thc (lanteralists (sonrc at lc,st of
whose writings Snrith appe:rrs to have been acqlraintccl with), l,rrt in
conltnon with Inany of thc (larneralists' owlr jrrrispmcicntial colleagucs
and rivals, Snlith swiftly clispatchcs thc cxtr-ccolol.niLr conccrns of
policcr scicnce: 'thc propcr ncthocl oI carrying dirt f'oru thc strccts' antl
'thc rncthocl of kccping a city guard'are'though usctirl . r()L) nrcan ro
bc consiclcrccl in;r gcncral cliscoursc of'this kilr.l'." This is nor,.rs wc sh:rll
scc, tlc wholc story so frr as libcralisnr is concclnccl. llut in any casc, antl
cvcn tl()ugh Snrith rcprcserts rnoclern lcvels of 'public opulcncc' as

attcnrpting to pcrfrrrn whic:h lic rnnst,rlwltys be c,xpitsed to intltttrlcrablc

,lc,lsi,rr'tr,'"rtcl f,r. tlt.t l)r()pcr pcrf'rttlattct' t'i whic;li lo ltllll:u wistltln or
kowlerlge t:,rttl,i cvcr bc strff. icrrt'.'''['lt. trrittltlc of thc strttc's Powcr tt)
act is r'ir',,,rr",1i"t,, corsc(u(rc( of thc, lirrlitatittll of its powcr to kttow.
Kut, s6ll afcr Srlrith, *r, t,, tlcclrc thc ilnkttow:rbility ftrr trtrtr <'f the
()srros:rs totrlity: political (cc)l()lry arrn()tlltccs tllc utlkttctwrrbility for

tfic s1vr.cign of' thc totulity of

thcr ccoltotllic frr()ccss :tll(I, as

lt

c()lsc]-

(lucfc(, thc: ilr;o.r.sl[ility o-l'an rcLttonic souercgttty. Political t:cottottry is .t

ft,.,rr,,f'sc:icntiiit: knowlc.lgc of which llovcrlrllclt ttrust ttctt.ls, itr its owtr
itercst, t;tktr t:ogtriz:tn.:t:what political c(()l()llly cirtl)ll()t,lo fbr govcllnctt is t() llclctut( l tlctailctl, clctltlctivc lrr()gral111c flr st:rttl ltt:titltl'
l)r,litir.:rl ,.,,,,,,r,r,u lrssult(s tht: rolc of a ktrowlcclgc which is, :ts Ir,rttr::tttlt
'tn ttllc-,i-ttt: with' thc irt ()f govcrlrling: it calllot'
rrrts it, 'lrrtcrrrl to'. or

i,.,*.u.,r, irl itsclf c()tlstittttc tliat ,trt."

'l-hrrs thi: iltrnlcrlirrl.c urrity of: knowlcdgc ;ttl.l g,',vcrttrrlcltt which
tylrifcs rastttt l'tttt arrJ p,,,licc s<:ic'trc-t'rrow lrrlls Plrt.'['ltc rt:gulalitit:s of
ccolonic ()r c()nrtc;(iitl st'tc.icty clisplay a r:rtiotirlity whit:h is
1rrlrrnrcntllly clillr re nt in kind fionl tha( of t::rlc:ttlrrtiv( statL) rcgtl:rtion.
'l'llc ncw ob.1c<;tivity ol politir::rl (('ononry clot's ltot cottsist s,tlcly in its
rr:c:up:rtiorr of :r politically rlt't.e<:lrt:d scicrrti[it: stlrtrclpoitrt: trorc Pro-

fr,rn.lly, it. in,ruguratr,s ir l(w nr,r,le .ri olr.jtrt:tifcatiott of g,rvct'ttccl rcality,

,.vh.,sc cfjcr;t is to I csitrt;ttt: ll()vct tltttcltttl rcastrn witliirr a Itc,wly
(oplicatc(1, ()l)cl):ul<l Lrnstrblt rolitico-cristcrrrit: confgtlratiolr.'l'hc
whuj., ,rrls.,,1,r,',,, g,ru..ttttt..,ttt,tl hist..rr y of- ottl sot.ictics (:itll l)c rt:acl itt
tcrrs 6f-thc succc.ssivc topologic.al clispllt:cnrcttts,ttt,l c:cttttplic:rtiotts tlf
this liircrll problcttr-sprt.'c.

't'Iis c,rtrrlrlt'*
crttr()t, lt,,wcv.r, propcrly bc ttllclt rsttxrcl if it is
"u.,u, ()f
totl cliscontittttity itt govcrltttrortal.thought:
,,
nlonrcrt
tIoglit .,f',i,
l,ltl, ltt: ttritc frrcigrl Io Foltt:ault's rtstrrtl
rrright
otte
tIis woulrl :rlso,

rrrctIoclological lrr;rc:tir-e .rt As ,u,,trv ( (,rrclt:rtors i,tv., cnrphasize cl, T'lc

I.l:crthlt,,l'af i,,rr-r-is tot :lr ivory-ttu,cl e clifcc t,f tlrcory, lllY lorc than it
i,, ,, 1r.,,1.,,,g.,r<1 rract on bchall'of'thc risirrg bourgcois cl:rss..7lc LVealth oJ
Nutu,r-r'ir,-",,t.r,tg othcr tlrings, a colle t:tiott of argtttttctrts irr a scrics of

quitc spccif. ,,rli,'u rcr:ornnre lrclittiorls tlclrcssccl to tllc statc Slrlith, lor
ril1 [i, i,,,r of'tlr insi,lious rncl cr',rfiv racc oirolitit:ians, docs tiot clisclain
to c11t( r into prlgnr:rtic. r:lrlr'rrllrtions of prrr-ti<'ul;rr qtlcstiols <lf statcr
securirv, s(l rs thosc o{' rrrilit;rr1, lrolit:y. Srnith's l-rlirtburgh lcctttrcs
inrr.,:,,lu,,,r thc topic of political ec()t()ny:rs fllling withirl ,r trrench,,f thtr
rrrt of lt:gislltit,n, n,rrrrtrly o/icrr: ''I'lrc olr.jct:ts of'polictr arc tlc t;hcapncss of
,,,rnr,rr.l,.:ir,i.r, prrltlir: sct.ttrity, rtlrr'l t:lctrlitlcss, il thc two l:rst werL lot too
l6

nrit.tutc

having bccn attaincd largcly dcspite, rather than br:c:ausc of, thc:
cn.le:rvours of rulcrs, this clocs lot rcal that hc clocs not still rlacc this
opulcnct, or 'chcaptress', 'plcnty' ancl 'prosre rity', in prcciscly tlic srnre
spirit

as

rlitl thc ()arncralists, t thc hcart of'thc objcctivcs of statc rolicy.

()nly the nrctl()(l csrouscrl is rliffcrcnt.

A furthcr con-rplcxity cncrgcs when otrc e xanrincs that nrcthotl itsclf ,
or its rnost cclc'bratecl slogarr-folrnrrl:r, /rris-sezf ire. Laisstz-.fairr is a way of
acting, as wcll as way of not acting. It irrrplics, in Four:arrlt's worrls,:rrr
irrjunction 'uot to inrpcclc thc coursc of'things, but to cnsurc thc play of
nturl trr.l nec,cssary rnoclcs of rcgrrlation, to nrakc rcgrrlations wliich
pcrnrit natural lcgrrlation to opcralc': 'rnaniptrler, suscitcr, rcilitcr,
laisscz-f.rirr''.'" '['hc pcrniissivc nrcaning of laissez-t'air nccrls to bc untlcr'stoocl in ar activist, cnabling scllsc no lcss than in its charactcr of passivc
abstentiollisrn. Albert I lirsclirnun hus ,lruwn u contrst bctwccn thc
libcralisnls of Aclrrr Srrrith antl J;rrrre s Stcu:rlt wllir:h prrrhaps bears otr this
point. Stcuart likcns thc'nroclcrn cr:onorrry'to a watch rncchanisrn, in tw<r
rcspccts. 'On thc otrc hancl, thc watcli is so clclicatc th:rt it is inrmccliately
,lcstroyecl if . . . torrche,d by any but thc g(rtlest hlncl'; this lt:ans thirt
thc pcrialty for oltl-f:rshionccl arbitrary coups d'autorit is so stifl that thcy
will sinrply havc to ccasc. ()n thc othcr hand, thcsc sanrc watchcs'arc
continually going wrong; sonretitrtcs thc spring is lour.rcl too wcak, at
other tircs to() strolg frr thc rrrachttrc untl tlle workrlran's li;rncl
bccorlrcs rcc-cssary tr sct it right'.'tt Stcurrrt thus argucs'botli tlie
inrpossibility of ;rrbitrar.y ,rncl c;rr.r:lcss hlnrllirr ,rrrrl thc nc('(l frr f rcqrrort
corrcctivc rllovcs by thc solicitous utrtl e xlrcr[ "\t.rtcslrr,ir)" '. "' lrr A,l,rrn
Srlrith's thirrking, ()r th(',rthcl llrultl, thr';rr'r't'rt irl)l)ciu:; to 1;rll ,rrr tlrt nceti
rot so rnuch to lr.rgrcrt gov('nrcntirl t:xpcltisc as to sct;r linljt ,,n jts
incptitrrclc: Snritlr sccks'lcss rr strtc rvith nrirrinr:rl lrnctiolrs tir;ir rilrc
*hirr. capacity frr frlly woul.l huvc s.nrc ..ilirrg'.t"
Stcttart ppc;rs t() l)rcscrt liberlrl govrnncnt as crrtirilin1 ltn orclcl oi
skill rlrc,rc r:x:rr:tilrg tlrrrn tllrrt ol'govcrtrnrt'lrt by olir:r'; Srrritlr's sorrrt:what
lowcr cxptr:tirtion o1'tllr- talcuts tf rrrlcls l,,rckhan,lcclly cnrcr1cs in his
corrlnenclatiou of'thc casc atrtl r:otrvcnicnr;c ot'laissr:z^latr. (l:rtr libcralisnl
t1

( )out'nuruntal

)olin ( ordon

Irlttc:;tttlt sttcs thc Ilco Mlt xist itttrrrrrcl.rrtion ;rs ,r nrsr r)l( ( pti,rlr rtl tllc
placc of'l:rw in libcrrrl tlrirrking. l.ilrr:r'llisnr, l:.u<:;rult :nlju('s, 'w:rs nor

tliull lts lrltcltlltjvt'? I)t^t'hls: ()l( l):ly ()[]t

t rr';ttI r]lt'rli[lcl-r'nt.r'bt'tr.vt't'll S1r'tltt-t:rrr,l Strlith,,s larg,'ly oltt'o1 t.rttit
rrrr,l tcurpcr, iltl tllc it rrrr,lt'r'lvirr oblt't:tivt' lrs t'tlt't:tivcly tlrt' s;rlrrtr; but
,r,r.' ,,1,,, st.lls,.s 11,,i,'ottt of'tllt t'lt'ltctlts ttf'ltll t'trclttrirrg pttzzlt',,f'
lir'rlrlisnr, tlrt: <;onurrrlrrnlr of llow to cstlblish:r virrtrlc l,,,trn,l,rr-y bctwtrctr

1c

Iotlr

l)()r'(. ;u(l l,:;s ,1il'fr:rrlt

tlrc t,lljcr 1r oJ llt t t ss,tt \' \l,rl( .rr lirrlt :tlrl lllrrst ol l(

lr"t*.,',r wlr;rt Snlitlr's,:lisc,i1rlt'Jt'r'crnv

11(r'rir/rl rtlrrl llt,:. non-t,qrnl,t ol govt'rtllttcltt.
,.,.

((

bt,rll t,ttt oi tlttr itlc;r ,rf ;r politic:rl so<.irrty frLln,lc,l ()r) ;r { ()lrtr';(tuil
rt:l:ttiotrslrtP': if it proposcs t() t'((':tst :rn<l colstr-lr jtr r r'ul;rtory :rr't.s of st.rtt.
irtt.o rr rr','rkrrrrin;rrrtly lcgis1;rtivc frlnr:rt, this is:

\\.lly )l,lt( lll'l( liol'

lrot ;tt ;rl lrt't,tttsc of-lilrcluiisrn's;rinity frr tlrc.jrrrrrlii,rl as,;rrr:h, l,rrr lrt',,rusc
l;rw l,rovrrlcs gcncrel flllls ol- jntt'rvt'nliorl rvhi<:h yrlcclurlc partir'ul:rr,
irlrlivitltr:rl cxr.trtional nrcsrrrcs, iu(l l)c(itus(.tlrt,r:rrtitip;rtiorl ol tll,
t,vcr rtc,l in tltt' cl;rlror:rtiorl of strch l,rrv thr',rrrgl,:r r,rlli;rrrrcrrt i orrstirutcs tht'
rlrost cll'r'tivt syst('r ftr :r govr.rrrc'cl t'r',,rrrrrny,.

lJetrtll:rrlr clcsignltcs as tl('

l.rIcr-lrl tllr't, 1>r'61>lcrrrltizcs thc ulctllorls ol govcrttttl('ltt 1() lt'ss tll;rrl it

rIrs tltt llttur( ol the rcality rvhtt:h qov('rl)llcllt ll,ts tr',,t,l,ll't'ss. ft is by
tlrcir cx;rrninlrtiott t,l tltcstr Ir('tlo(ls, togtrtltt'l rvith tlrcir ilttclJ:rlt
ll<lw
llr',rlrlcttts, tll:Lt liortt:;trtlt:rlril his c:t,-rt'st',tlr'ltcls llcll' to sllow
lilrrlisr |;rs 1urt:tiorrctl histolit:rly rot so tlru.-1,,,s rt wcb of itrvctt'r:ttc
(()lttt;(li(t.iorr (rcvclic ol'lr rlirrinrrl strtc, lts lt:tc,kgt.ltrtl,l tltttsi,. to,t rtltl
rr,rl rlr;l ,',',,r,,'l, rsl\, ,,r',,r,t,s). ltttl ,ts lt l,r,trliii,ltrslv fcrtilt' ltrt,lllt'ltt;tl it ' ;t
('()lltnr.rin!l v[.( t()r' of'politic'ul jlvcntiotl. t lt'rc lit's tltc 1rrt:t' ol'l;,lrtr'rrrlt
strcss ()r tht- tllcorctic;rl origirrulity of' libcrrrlisrrl: 'l.ibcralistll ls lrot ";:r
,lr.r.;rnr rvhiclr cllsllcs rvitlr ir',rlitv:rrrrl l:rils to ittst'rt itsclf tlrcr,'. lt
t'stitrrtcs.-;rtl tlris is tllc r-r':rsotr botll lrl its polvnrtlrlrllic: t:lt:tlltt:tt:r:ttr,l
frr its re(rlrr(.1('cs ln ilstnrnl('t)t i)r tlr. ,l-iti,i,,',,, o1'r'crrlity."" 'l hc'
tllcore ti<:rl .'losurr' ,r1'tllc ,,v,,11,1. tlrc cottt.cPtiotr ol rt'rrlity :ts tht' sttt:lt< tri
;r Ptltctttiallv totrl t'flt't:tttlitiotl of politiclrl tlot:ttltlt', is thc vclv esst'ttt'of'
wil,rt libt,r'trlisrrr, ir (()ltri(lislil(ti.ll b.tll t. tllt scit'trtc.l-t.lit:t''ttlt1 ttr
scictifc soti:rlisttt, tIt'tlt,r.ttttc's rtlttl:tll.jttrcs. l'lris is tltll, o1 (]()tlrsc, to s:ty
tlirrt liltclll i,lces havc t.r t t',rl t'lircts. l1' thcrr' tt,.rr,,h,'l'e cxlsts :l tl'tlly
licrl set:ictv, tlrs is rlr'rt bcr',rusc'lil,t'r',rlrsru is rt ttlopirttt clo<:tl'itrt:. Wc
rr()w:cccl)t tll:rt tlrclc rs (ol lr:rs bccrr) trrrt ,,rllY s..r,.i:rlist tlrotrlrt,1lrt ,rlstr
,,rr',ictr.r,rlly r.xistirr1 socirrljslr'rn'1ri,'h t.;tn bc sorrrctltitrl r,rt.llcr.tiflcrcrrt
Wll:rt sonlc of'our' :u.rth,,r s ;r, t' rtn,lt:t'tl,kirrg t t,trlcl b<' ,lcst liltt cl :rs c,rlllrtitrg
,rll<l ,rn,rlvzinq thc plrcrronrcrn ol'wlrut nriglrt b<'t,'ttttt'tl 'rcal libt'l'trlisrll'rr,lirterrctl r,tht'r','t,rtt1rlcx,,li:rgt,lt;rl rttr,l t,1t'll tlist'otrccrtittg rcl:rtitlnshi rvitI r,vh;rt t onvt'iltiourl rvisrl,rnl t'r'r'o11ttizt's ,,s 'trtlr" lilrt:rlrl l)rcc(Pts.
[:our';iult -ill t:ornnlolr witlr orlrcl r'('(('irt:rtltl()ts - t,tkcs issuc rvitlr tllc
lrt'o'.[4-r-xist tlrcsis o]- ;r Lirr,l of pr t'-cst;rblislrr',1 lilrt'l'l ltlt.ttt,,tty l)ctwt' cll
l.or:kr.:rn 1,t,)itir.:il.jrrrisLrtu,lcrlr c (, rvl so< ict1', tllc sor:ilrl c()lttlt(:t :rn,l thc
s:rncti11, ol ir,lir,j,lLlLl l)r()l)('ltv rilrrs) ;r(l th(' Iolitit.rrl t'c:ottorrrisls'
jrrtl ,rl (:sllisti( synthcsis
()r(.e l)ti()r) 1 rr t-rrrrt'r'r'i;rl sor'it tt.', :r-\ ir k
r,,'1r,'r,.1,r, ci1lrrt'r'rrtlr-r'('rtttlv libc-llisrtr l)t( l);rt('s tllt' rhilosophic:rl
Ir'litirrr;rri,rr l,r'tlr. r';r1rii;rli:;1 ul)l)r()l)riiti.tt.i:ltlrPltls vltlr.tc.'lht'
fL-:l.rtion rrtr,l,lcr', l,,Prl('lt ()l lil,,'lrris,rl is ir rlo\/crtlttt'tttltl lttt'tll,rcl <:,ttl
,,trlr. l,c rr',,,,.t'1t' iil,r;t tl \\'l)( ll ()l(' i.t,t{ttzts tll:rt i|; (l()lstilr.l(rllt
('l('n('lr.\ rrlt' ilil lcss rtttrltlrlll' , r,ltt'sivt' tt;rtr tlr',rl,r11y.-t'r'ltit's lt:lvtr l;,','tt
iil)t lr) sul)l)()s('.

nttionality: tm introluttion

It is ;t totrc:t'r'tr r,vitll tltt' ;r<lcrltt;rtc tcr:luri<:;rl 1rrnl of'!l()vcnnr('r)t;rl :r, tiorr

(tlrt' frrrrr ol't'xpt'rtisc of'stcurrrt's w;rtchnrt'rrrlr:r'), r':rtlrt'r' tlr;rn i'",itll tlrt'
lcgitirrretiorr of' rolitir:;rl sovt'r'ci1rrty (:rrr,l, b;, cxtt'nsion, o1' r.c olrorr)i,
t'xPloit:rtion), which ,krtclnrirrcs tht. sIr:t:i1c: irrrIoltrrrrc t' of tlrt. r'rrlt. ,,f
!;,,,., f11 ('{ ()rl()lni( libcl'llir;nr.
Iottt.ltrtlt stlg[j(]st.s tlrlrt tllis llroclc ol-tcr:htlit.ll rt'llcc:titrl :ul,l t'lrrlr,l.rtit,n
ncccls tt, bc' crrrvis:rgctl irr 1t:r'rls ol';r frrtlrcr c:rtcgoly, .:listint-t ;rlikc f r-,,nr
tlrr'Prrrcly lcgrrl an,l thc Purt'ly t't:ononrir:: tlr;rt ol'st'r'ulity. rrrl it is lrt'l'c
thrtt ;t t trlt;tirl cli:rlcc:ticrl itrtcrlc;rvitrp' o'tllt: rrnivt'r'st' of rolicc rvitlr tlr:rt
of oltir:;rl ('(.()lorv lrcr'orrrc's crLrci:rl to l:otrr;rrrlt's ,rt'c ount.
'l'llc
lrrcot:t'ttl)r1i()l witlr st't trlity, rvitll ,r 'lrolclin ()ut'()l tlrc st:rlc ovt r
;rlr ilrtlelnitc s;ttt,rf'tinlt', is lrotlr rr lrrrntlirrg rrntl rr urrivcls;rllv rrrc,li.rtin4
plirr<:irlc ol'tllc (l:ulrcr;rlist'stutc of plr'rsp..r'lv'. l)rosrcr1f i1 1,,'
1c(.cssary t on<litiorr of (lrc st:rtt's owrr scc urity, lrr,l plr',s1r,'r'ity irr itsc]f is
rrothirrg iillot thc t.rtprtt:itv to l)ros.rv( ,nr,l lr,,ltl orr to,:rrrtl rvhc'r-t'possiblt'
cvel to t'tlltrtttcc, rt cc'ttuirr glob:r1 lr:vcl ol'cxistcrrtr'. llcrrtlr:rnr's lclislrLtivc
sr'it'rlr:c is:rs t:ltcgorir';rl c,lr tlris rrr;rttt'r rs is thc sr'it'lrr:r.of ptllitt:
AtnottI thc ob jccts ol' tlrc lrrrr.', it r'ul itr, s tllt orlr' ()1r(' \\li( h crrrbr rrt cs tllt
frtrrrc; subsistcncc, :rlrtrrrtllr( (', c(luirlit\,, ln:rv l.c t,.g.rr',1<.,1 [,1 l rl,unt.lt
otilv; but sccuritf irrrrlics cxtt'rrsion irr roint ol rinrt'witll lt'slrctt to:rll tirr.
bcrrcfts to ll,hich it is rr1,1,11,1. Str:urin,is tlrcrtiirt thc Irint:ir,rl ,rbjccr."'

llcttt.lirrl

s;ys ls

by lilrcl'n, l

rvt'll tlr;rt 'i1:wr':uc to

lr ol'

hlLvc t'lcrrr not.iolrs.

\\,r'nnlst n('iul

iry'." 1,,,u,,,,,1r l,],ls rlr,rt. 1rr li1r, r,,l

js,tls,,
tltt'ronr,'t't-sr'
trut: ]jlrclty is;, t,ltrltliolr ol sr.rtuitt
!l()\'crltttclt,
'l lrc ;rc tivc ln('ilrirl{ ol' /rirs'..:'
/iir,', rht ,l, visirrli ,rl lr nrs ol r l,rlrliol
u'hith
t

('nns:

br''ul,

st'r'rr

1rt'r'rrrit ;rllcl [;rr'ilitlrtc

r;tlrr:rl rc'11rrl;rtior, r,rrrprist s n'lr.ri I ()r(;]llr

thc scttirrg irr 1r|1'1 ol lltttlt:rnisnrs l sttity. . .rr',ll;risls r rr,,lr':, t,1

st;rt(' itt( r\'('lrtiort '"r']torr iLt( lrUlr ir Lu .irrtrrt llrt :r't r] itt, oi (lt0sC |;tlu;]
't, tt.,ttt, lt.,. (,,)lr,,r)r{ I'r(), ( \\' \ ,,1.1 rl, llrlritrri, I't,,, ( \\r \ ,,1 'r,,rl ,,'
tllis is ,,vh:rt lrci ornt s t]lr' b.rsic oirjcctivc oi-1,oy,', r',rr, llt;il r.rtiirn;i]i1,,,. I lclrt r.
llbcltr'is:t ilistcrt',1 r]()t ()nl\';rs th'r'rirr ,,1-ir,livi,lu.,lr I, llitrrrr.rtt l1' rr) r,l)l)()s('

Colin Gordon

,'f thc s,'vcrt'igtt,-brrl els() ll()w s :ln

r'rtitttt'tlity irsclf'
gt'vcrtlttlttrt;rl
ilr,liicttr,,l'1,'cltlllctlt.l
Libcrty is tllc circr.tnttlbiCtlt nre ciiLltrl tlf govcrttttrcntal ctiotr: clisrc:spcct
tlrc I't'wcr, tllc

,,lrtts,

rttttl ttturrti,'lts

,,1 lilrcrty is nOt sinrply atr illcgitinrrtc violation of rights, irut an

ignorancc of llttw t() l{ovcrtl.
'l'hc contrast irctwcc,n this ncw figurc of' liberrty-sccurity arrJ thc
sccurity of policcr is nor an absolutc onc. 1)olicc clisciplincs, cor.ri)artnclr:lizcs, fi*,,r, 1.,.rt this gritlwork of orclcr wt(:licd ovcr by tirc' agcnts
of'a gconiertcr-king i, alsc, lctwork o rnovcnrcnts atr.l flows. Urbnizti.n ;r'tl p,,licc'a.c,, Ir.ucault ttotcs, altost syllolynotls iclcas irr
,,iglrt,,c,,rtlr-ccltrlry [ralrcc. C)nc frrrnul:rtion of thc objectivcr of polic:c
*,, ,1r", ,r[,rrg"i,iri,rg tc wolc royal tcrrit.ry likc o'c g.rcat city.
l)rrblic sp:rccr, 1,ii.lg.,r,'i,.lrr,ls :rn,l rivcrs arc Protnitrctlt lr()lg thtr ollccts
.,f 1r,.)1i.. attcntioir: this physic:rl infmsfruc,trtt'c of colr'tltrc:tiolr trtrtl
whcr.by
,.,,,.,1ii1it1, is s.r'r 6v tlrr' 1,.,1i,,,'-ih.,u.ist.fca'- l)otll:rt rs tlc llc:lls
ttttttnt;rti(dli(ttl"r
t-ttl
oI
asscnrllly
a
us
pl:cc
frnc:tiorr
can
thr, p.rlct,l city
t,,rn *lr,rr,, nlcrirg cnrbraccs all thc l)roccsscs tlf hrtrlralr itrtcrcortrsc,tt
cxchallgc, circulltiorr ancl r:ohriritrtiorl withirl rt govcrtrccl popul"titln
Libcrlir,rl clisr:arrls thc Policc conc(ption of orclcr as a visiblc gricl of
:ttttttttr:onrnrunic::ttion; it affinils instcucl thc ncccssrrrily op;tquc, tletrsc
()llt()rls ch:ractcr oI tltc proccsscs of Pol)ulltioll' It I'tlttlaitrs' at thc sallrc
with
tirne prcoccupit:rl with h,, uull.,"r.l,lit,v of rllcsc' srrnrc l)f()ccsscs,

thc nccd tt, crlfrallrc the:tn iti 'trltlt:li;lttisnts t'i stlt:rrrity''

loucatrlt's rliscussion of scc:urity is ottc oi his rtr,.rst irlrporttrt sltl-tsc(ucrt cxtcrsiolts t() thc t'rrrrcwork o[,rrrllysis lte ttscs Disciplint ttnd
/',i..lt."'H(.tr(.itt\ \(,(.l.ity lrt.l.t.lrt,t.jusl ,r\,r 1,r,r.,,1, sr''lf-r''vitlent rcrtrisire
oI political powcr, l,].rr ,,, a spccifi,: Principlc Of-political tncth,r,l ancl
p."'.,i....1isti,,,.t alikc fronr tht,sc of l:nv, sovcrc'ignty irtcl cliscipli'c, ancl
.,,p^1,1. ,rf vlrrior.rs tno(.lcs oi r:olllbitratiorl with thcsc othcr trinciplcs ancl
t on li gtlr:rtions'
1.,,... ti,,.:i withirl,livcrsc iI()vcl-nlcllt:rl
scc:rrrity throtrgh thrce gcneral
of
trlt-:thotl
Foucanlt c:hlractcrizcs thc
lncl
Ir'0bublc cvtrllts; it cvaluatcs
rr.:irs. Ir clc1s in scrics of ,ossiblc

t[rough c;rlr:nlatrgs ,rf ,.,,rrr"r"tivr: cst;. it prc'scrbcs llot by absolutc

bin^rv tlcrrc:rrrg c-rrvcen thc pcrnrittc,l an,1 thc [trrbiciclcn, btrt by thc
,1r"..ii.,rti,rn of rrn ortin,',1 ,,,.,,n within l tolcrablc L.,an,lwi,lth of
virrirtiol. Wllrrrc;ts ,,ru.rcig,,tv hs rrs its ob.jcct thc cxtcrlcletl sltacc of a
terrir()ry, :rn.l ,lisctrlirr. f,,r.,rr., on thc bt,,ly ,,f thc irlrliviclual. (albcit
trc:rtc(l',,, ,, ,,,.r',r1,,'r t' l clt'tct'lli1ite ct,llcctivity), sc(lLlrity litltlrcsscs
itst,lf'tlistinctivelv to 'tlrr' r'ltscnrblc ot :r popttl;rtion'. Irottc::tr'llt suggcsts
tllrrt, f-ortr tlre cightecrrth t:ctrttrry ,rtrrv,trcls, scctlrity tcncls itlcrc-asingly to
bcr:onlc tllc ,l,,rrirl,rrlt (()llp()lcllt of'lrtt,clcrtl go\crlll('l)tal rationality:
ill
u,c, ljvc torl;iv not s.r nlu.h iir:r i?'llr-s.sl,f or itl a,lisci|linary socicty,ls
lu sot'ictv,f' sccltritv.
?.0

( )ttuernrnentttl rationdlity

: an

in\rLtduttion

Foucatlt loc:rtcs a rn:rjor sourcc of what is spccifc: ;rrrcl origin:rl in thc

libcral trcatnrtt of populati<lr -;rnrl hcnr:c of sccurity - in a,list:ovcry of'
Ilritislr clnpiric:rl plrilr>sophy, that of econonric n):ur:rs t sultit,t:t o.l itiltrtst. a
strlrjcct of irttliviclual prcfcrcnccs anrl c:hoicr-s whir;h arc l.'oth irrcrltrciblc

(pcrsonal scntirlrcrt caur()t fin:rlly bc cxplainc<l fiorn arry othcr, rnorc

fttlcl:rrltctrtll c:rttsal prittciplc)

rrn<l

lon-translr'ablc (no cxterrrral

:g(.n(y

can supplatrt ()r (olrstrain the indivicltral clctcrrnination of pn'f crcnccs). As

I Ittttlt'lrttts it: 'lt is n()l ('()lrlr;rry t() r('ils(r'r lrr ilrt t()
|.t'('l('l tl(.(l(.stlu( tiol
of thc wholc worlcl to thc scratc-hing of rny firrcr.' "'T'lri* c(rrccIri()n ()f
intcrcst f ouncls, itr Fcucault's vicw, thc ;rgunclts of- I Iurlrc un.l lJc,nthrrnl
which clc,rnolish both thc l.or:kcrrn srr:il contract thcory :urtl lJl;r<'kstonr.'s
attcnrpt to rcconcilc tllr.' social cot[:t(]t with thc prinr:irlc of intcrcst.'l'llc

postulatc in social c()ltra(t thcory of'atr itraugrrral ac--t of rk:lcg:rtiotr arrrl

rcnutrciation whc,rcby thc inrlivirlual is r:onstitutccl :rs e politicll antl
juriclical subjc(t is onc which intc,rcst car rcvcr coult(l;r.r(:(':rs rlcfritrvc: nothing can, in prinr:iple, cxcluclc thc possibility th:rt intcrcst will
tlictatc tltc rcpttcliatiotr of such a contrct. Tht- sulr.jcct of intccst
pcrpctually ()tltf-l:tlks thc scopc of thc act of' sclf-irnrosecl lirrrit.rti,rn
which cotrstitutcs thc strlr.jcr:t of-l;rw.
This rostul:ttc, of :r raclical rliscolrl bctwctrn thc econon-ric :rncl thc
juritlical rt--gistcr is trot, of coursc,:r wholly novcl notion in thr: rlisc:ussion
of libcralisr. I lalcvy irlcntifcrl thc problcrn in [Jcnthanr's philosophy oi
at :pparclt c:cltrtr:rclic:tion bctwccn thc 'natur;rl h:rrruonis:rtitxr of irrtcr-csts'which it ttribrrtcs to tllc cc:onotrry,:rtrcl thc'artifcial h:rrnlonis;rtiol
of intcrcsts' which is thc olr.jcctivc of Icntharnitc lcgislati,rr,.'t* I Lllc'uy
points to 1li;r:rancy of logic: lour:ault irk:ntifcs soncrlinll rnorc likc a
,lissonrnc:r' of'rationrlitics, orrc which aflcc:ts not only thc rrincirlcs of
subicctivc inclivirluation ancl thc foutrrlations of sovcrcignty, but also thc
processcs of collcctivc totalization anrl tllt- tlctrrrnlinlbility of govcrnmcntal actiol.
Political cconorly rnrl Snritli's con(cl)rior of an 'invisiblc hantl'
charactcrizc thc privatc clctcrnrin;ition of incliviclu:rl irrtcrcsts ancl thcir
effective h:rrlnonization within so<-icty as procr-.crling irr a nroclality
cntircly different fiorrr thc univcrsality :rntl tr:rnsct'nrlcnr:t: ;rscriberl to tht:
principlcs of law an,l .jrrri,lic:;rl sovcrcigrrty, rvorking insrcutl, Irour:rrult
stlggcsts, through a 'cli:rlcr:ti<: of srorrtrrrrtous rrnrltiplic:rtion' which
trn[olcls itr a c:onclition of raclical iurtnanctrcc, oi irrcxtic:;rblc: r:irturnstrrrrc.t'

allrl accidcnt, incapablc irr princirlc of bcconring t:<:cssiblt't.

thc

totalizing scrutiry of sub-jcct or sovt-rcign. This conccrtion of r ckrlr:rin of'

politrcal sovcrcilnty populatccl by cconorni(: subiccrs oi intcrcst is,
accor(lingly, very fir fronr provicling a cornplcncrt or a c-ornpletion of
Lockcan political jurispruclorcc: it arnounts, rathcr, to a clisqualification

of cconotnic sovcrcignty.
21

( orernntcntl

)alttt ( )onlon

tll,,lttclll,rl bcgirlrring is,1rt l',rtlc;rult, tllt'll)()llclrl ()f

frl lrlttllrti.tl .1 'rllis irrt.rrrPlrtillilitt' lrt'tlt't't'lt tllc tlolr-t.t:rliz:rlrlt'
rrtulti|li,:irv wlriclr , h,t,:L( tcri:/t's \ul)jccts of itttttt'st, 'rtrtl tht' totlizing
'l
,r,ity',.,f'tc' juli,li,'ll sor,r'r'r'igtt'. ll, tltt';ttrs tll;tt libc'r:rlisrll's ttl:titr t;tsk
tust l)(' tlr:rt .l rl.visirrg ', rr,'nr, ,lt'1rtiti.ll tlf tllt' q.l't'rlttltt'tlt'tl.tltttll'titl
to tltc
rn,hiclr <.,rrr itv(.rt tl(' 1r,,r,,.,1,r,r, ;rltcrn;itivcs (cclLrlllv lrrt'jrrcllt'i:rl
tlrt'
olrl
l
lrtrrrkct
tllt'
t'xt'isirrg
tlf-t'ithcr
t'clisott)
irrtCgnty ol- gtlvt.ntnrcrrt;rl
: ll('rr
ilto
so't'l-t'iglt
t't:.'.trlic'
tc
,rr,l.rvrrg*r,lirrg
igrrt1,,
f it.lc c,l-s,.,vr.re
t''r:ti.lrrtv ,rl-1r,,lti,,,l .,.,,,,r,,tru. 'l. itlc'til'v tltt' ct.tl.lttit' srrIjct t rvitI
tlrt.srrltjcrt,,1 1,,*'is,,rc<:r',rrlin ttt Iouc:tttlt,:t tigi,totts irrll,t,ssibilitl'lrot
rttrtl
,,,,1v 1r, r'rrrlv lic1lisr Iut 1.rl ,,ll itr l)()stcritv: tlrcrt'Irrs trt'vcr.Icctr
Liltt'r'u]islrr's

r',',,1

r''rlisnr
,,,1u,,,t 1r. ,,,.1, :r thirrq lrs ;r.iulirlict,-('('()n()tllj( s(i('ll('(. Wlllt lilte
tltllt'titt
t'tttttl"lt'x
tlt
cttstlttttioll
tllc
is,,,rrrt,tlrirrg,ltf'fir.rtt:
rll,lt,rtrrkcs
't
.l'g.vcr.rrrrr.t,rli,, rvitliirr rvlri, h ,'r.,,nt,tuit' rttr,l jtrri,lit:ll sttlrjt't'tivitv t':rn
.,1ii,.1,,,sirr;rl.rl,,r,,'l,,tivt.rttrts. plr-til :ts('('t\ ()l ;l l()r(','rrltlbirrtl

()f c()lstftILti()l
t,l,.nlt'rrt.'l hc kcv rc,lr' '"vllic,lr it r:onlcs ttr lrl,rf irr tltis ctfrrt
tltcory
rrntl irrvt.rrtiorr is, frr'l,ouc;rrrlt, thc'c'lrurtt:tt't'istit tr':rit t,lttht'libcrr
r'l

r,1-

r'lrri/ sor icf1,.

't:ivil

it'tv' is irl cffi'<:t :r

l;rtt'r
str:riilrtfrrwlr(l s),1()lylr ,,1' 1r,,liti.,,l or' .juritlitll, socictl'. llr- tltt'
[,or- L,,,:k,', ,rs 1,r' lris 1,rt'tl.','t'sst,r's,

st't

.iglri,',',rth..,,r,.t,U this tcrlll tltkcs,rll lt tlttitt'tlcrv ililtlt'trsitltr ol ttt<"rttittg'

r..,,.,ul,i,lr l,,.,rr,,,rult s(.('s rs luost rllv irt(l stll{g('slivclt'cxlr,rttrltlctl ilr
:rrrtl
A,lrrrrr [:crLrsrr's llisfr I, ,,.1 (ii,i/ Stt]i,'ry, rt rv..,rk t lost' itl spir-it
'l'ht
I.l:t,tltlt o/ Naliori.s. I It'rc, tht: tlrrllity of..,r,.,r1,1,.,,r,,rrt:rry ilt ;irqun,(.',r,. ,,,
c(()rr(rrrr(
.',,1i,',,1 i,r,r',.l,,tt,'tt.,. u'hi,:h Srlritlr's thinkirr rttril)tlt( s to rriv;ttr:
thc
gcticlal
c()v('r
t()
is
t'xtt'trtlctl
prospt'l'ttv
ttf'pulllic:
itrtcrcst ls t1('ttt()t()t

,rl srrt it'tt. l,' , ,rl\\)ll. ror lt l\ lrl'rkt s itt' ll .l ll' t'' it lltr
t itc ;'
histrtr.ir-l :rct wliit.h lrLrnrls it: rl ous ol tllt'tt l)()ss('ss ltttcl t'xt't
rlr.lrrtlcs
(wlrit'h
l:rlrour
irth,iliui,l.
tlrcnrsclvt's
c.;rIrrc.itv to oglnizC
",r,1
t:rsks ol- r.,rrrilnrrcl b,,illg :rllrx:rrtccl to tli0sc
1,,ri,i.,,1 l',1ru,r,., s1,c<.Lrlizc.rl
tltatl irr thcir
irest c',l,,rvr,,l lilr ihc,,rr), tr,,'lt'ss tittl11'1lll\':ttt,l spt,trt;tllt'otlslv
ty tllakcs its
Stl<;ie
of
spetlt'h
p()wcr
thtt
,tt"l
,,.g,,,t,
cxrTt'isc o1- tltcir ,.,,tr,'
is t. s:ry,
tl1rt
fc):
'sJl*r..'rlirrg
(unit{
rltlirat
.rrity'
hisr,,ry rur .l'its

((il\tltllljlr

,)rv'
tc i.trillsic tesitr Ie trvct'll thc t't'rttrifrglrl
,rncl ;r

,rr

ct'titrilre tlrl

'clisirrte rt stcrl

itrt.

1rrccs ()f ('(:ol()lllic cgt'tsttts

()f l()ll-( ( (,1ttnrit itltt't<lst, thlrt f cclirrg of sylnPathy

iltt'r'cst'

r.l,l,cl-,'1rY irrcl'ivi,ltt,rls

rr:rttrr'rlly csl)()tlsc thc wcll-

ci'g .i tIr'ir- roxitr:rtt i:rrrlill', cltt ,,l-trrttiolrs (,rntl t:rkc t:otllrrt itl thtr
,,.lu,ir,ir,., ,,f,rtIc.r). Ilr t:xistttr,'c ot'sot:itrtv is :ttt itrllcrt'tr.tly lrstoric
is <olltinnrlll' t(':trilg itst'll-apart.arrcl thcrcby;rt
l)r()(-css, irr rv1lich r,,.li,',t,
'l-lrc a<-tivity of
ih. ,,,,,t" tirrc clr(llcsrlv ,t.'t,r,,krrtg its owtr 1:lbl'it
g(.rvcl)('t, irs ; ()t l{:ric c:otrtpslte'ltt ,,1' tlt cv,,lvirlg s()cilrl llolltl,
i this lrisi.,ri, :rss:rgc tlrrotr1h :t lill!l('of clistirtct, corr1r,,rti.i1.l,,tcs
\( ( ltl

i\'(

.,,, i.rl itr tlls.

'))

ftiloildlity:,ut ntroluctittn

'l'hc c:irly libr:r:rls' (:olrccpri()n rf c:ivil soc:icty nr.t'<ls, Fouc::rult srrggcsts,

to bc Lttttlcrstoocl first <tf :rll :rs utr instnrnrolt c, r:r,r'r-cl:rtc ol':r tcr:lrrrtlltlgl,

of'g.vt'rnrrrcrrt. What it nrakcs r.ssi1lc is, s. to spc;rk,,rr,r.i,,l

fl()v('rlllllclt whit'h is lllr cc()ronty of tlc tr:uscr;onotrrit:, :r nlotl()(l()l()gy
wlrir:h stra,lrllcs thc fr'nrel l,ourrcls ol thc rrrrkct:
Ilotno rL'ttttttttirrt.s is, so to src:rk, thc abstract, irlc;rl,1rrrrclt, t'r:orrorrrir'1,,,irrt
whit:h prrpulatcs thc lcal rlt'usity., frllncss antl c,rrnplcxity ,rf-r,ivil s., icty; ,,,.
irltcr tr;ttivrly, r'rvil socictf is tlc (:or(.r('tc cnscnrblc ,"vitllirl rvhit.lr illcs,.
ltstr:rt t 1r,,irrtr, ,',,,rn,r,1i,( tct, l(.(.(l t(, lrt rrrrilj1,a,1 irr trrrlt'r. to ltr. nr;rtlt.
:rrlc<1rr;r

tt

ly

rrr;rn:rge;rblr:.

Oivil sot:icty is tltcrcfrrc trot tr bc trrkcrr, prinnlily or trrntlenrcnt:rlly, as

:ttt:tborigittrtl ttttlrc whiclt rc,pcls ancl contcsts thc will of'govcnrnrrrrrt: rt
is (likc polic:c, or scxuality) :r'r'llitir clc trrnsaction', a vcr:tor of rrgorristi..
c()ttcltiol ovcr tllc llov('rrrcrtal rcl;Ltion, ol- 'thc c()lll()l int.cr'plrry of
rcl:rtiolr,s rlt- |r,1r7' ,,rr,l cvcrything whit:h r('v('r'('(';rs('s to cs<-:rrc thcir
gr,r\l) .' 'l llrs Pcrs1'1.iy orr libtrrlisrn illurninatcs its history. '['lrc
trinctccntlr crcrtrlry is h;untccl by thc qucst f)r:r -ocl,/.q,.ruern'ncnt, r,
ll()v('rlllttclt whit.h t;:rn trlir:it fr itsclf, lnrirl thc contr:nrlirrg frrccs ol
rtrtt<lcl'nity, rt voc::ttion

rn<[ f unctiorr,rlity

rrncIrorccl in thc troublc.l clcrnurt

of thc social.
I fow ckr thcsc notions ,rb,rrrt t:ivil socicty shapc tht, rlt:v1111.rr ,r
libct:rlsrlr rts politicel l)rlcti(('. rrs tllc cl,rb,,r,rtir',n ol' 'nlct:hrrnisrrrs ofscc.rtrity' frl' :rr cc:onOtttic' govcrrrncllt? A stIikinglv Ie rtitrctrt trciltrclt
r[ this qucstion can bc forrntl, r(':rlv two tlccatlcs r'i<'rl to tllr: lr:cttrrcs
srrnrnrrrizcrl hcrc, in Ioucrult's I listoirr tlt, h l:0\fu, which inc;lu,lt's ,rrr
:rtralysis of latc cightcorth-c e rtrlrv nrutrtions irr polir'ics frr ser:ial
;rssistrrncc' :rncl public rncrlir'int:. ()nc t'rrr rcc ognizc Ilcr-c tllc clif crcllt
trrrits of whrtt [oucault l:itt'r' irlcnt.lfics :s t]lc rlctlorlology of'sr.culity.
'l'hr' prinr:iplcs of security, lou<:rLrlt sllgll(.sts, ,r,l,lrtss thcrnsclvcs
to ;r
scrics of possiblc,rtrtl ploLr,rblc cvcnts.'l'his fiaruc of-rcrfrrcrrcc is cvirlcnt

itr 'l'ttrgot's critir.isnts of-thc irrrnobilizrtion of publir: capital in r:liarit:rblc

fttttrlrlittiotrs. l lrc ncccls of'sor:icty rrrc srrlr-jct:t to innumcrablc circurristantial antl conjunr:trrr':rl rnoclifc;itions: 'thc clcfinitivc r:ll:rructcr of thc
frtlllci:rtiotrs contraclicts t.llc v;rlirrblr' ;rrrrl flo:rtirrg cJrrrrlity of'tllr' :Lt:r:iclcrtrri
trt:c115 |tu ;rrc suplrosc(l t., ;rr,srvcr '.''
'['hc Irrttrlr:h ((()r()rlists stt'ivc to r-t'.urst:r'ibc tlrc irrstitrrtions of ;rssist.
alli'c withitr thc t-lcnlcttl oi r:ivil socictv (irr l:clgrrsorr's ul(lcrstrn(liu1 ol'
tht tcrtt). l)ublit' lssistrtnr:c is tlrt' rrr;rrihrstlrtiorl ol' :r fcclinll ol r orltrtssiotr irltr-irlsic' to ltutnrn lltur( err,l hcnc:c c:t,c,vrl witli, if rrot ;rnt.r:rior
to, sot:icty ,ttt.'l ovr,rttn('rt. 'l'lis pur-cly hunllin rlirncnsiorl rctlrins its

lrritrrrcy cvcn in politit::rl sor:it:ties: thc.srrir/ duty ol:ssistlr(.c is

t duty o.l' tttn in.sorir,fy, r;rthcr tllln as a

ttttrlcrsto,,1 lry thc cc'olrorrrists us

dut

y o.l'.ru.i,'r:'t'
2.1

'l,rcstlrbltshlvllitltfrrlrrstri'tssisl'rlttc'trtt':trlrlc'itwillbtttcct'ss;try'ttt
ltt lrrrI,:' l'l.l)'.1"1]ll.i')],,"'
".1'.t.lt'
.i.i', i,' ',',,,,1 ',,',,''1" ,, 't"" irrr( lirr)it\
ll'
r\\l5l'tlr(('
flrt llrt"r'r'r)l
.,,,i.,ii,t,'i'u rvlrttlr t,itt tttrit' llirrr r" lrl' t'llt'rvr'
t ttltt t tr'rtr
i't'
'"'''l1
;i
''l
,','
,l'i'
I'iv''lr"l,','Fi'
rr.\t l\, t,trrril, .l
"rlllF
';;i tllt\l)\'
":""-;t'";;
()j
r( ltl'rl
trn . ri, litrlllr'll

Sur:h sr:ntir-nClrts,

t \llll

it

l:l"llj)

rt'rtl'
is argrrcrl (f.rllowing Ilurlrc illltl ltt:rgttsotr)' 'trc

tt, bc
'ectls
b.t f:iritc arrl l.t:rrl i,r;g.:. :h. ,.,.g.,riratior of ;rssistart:c
(l
ivllllr;ltlli('\'
inrtr'.rttrl itltrr,r kltl,I ol tlisttrtltitltl{)u\ F(()l''tltllv .st"i'tl 7(r('\ ()l
::lliT;";::,,:"';,;r ;,;:',,1,,gi, ,,1 viv,,, irv i''r' tivc 'rr(l rr( rrtr''rl
'llti' p""npts rll argtll]t'llt frr thc
clist;rrcr: urrcl tc 1r.,,,r,t iTt.'titt"''
tlit itrt'. by 't rtr'.'tlt"..1,:'.',
,,11,1,,,...,,,,.,', ,,r ,, l',,'iir,,iri,rg rtrt
.:l:'ll]: ""tt
:,:l;],:,i':l: *r'i,r,',,,,,t.,i,t.' tlrt'st'tttt'rtv 1''1j1'l..''..'1''rirrirrrizt'l'l'''':'ll
ll('\l(K

pl,rt,.'ri,,rr (l ill ('llilll;rl ltorllt: rlrt tlilct'tirlg rrf;lssist:tlltt'l(

*iii rcitrfrrct: i:xisting "^'u''i tics ^'cl :rl'fc.tio's' wliiltr
1.,'''.i';r'i,,,,,tu
I'"""''"""',
I'tll.r'll ltt'tl'it'tliz'rti.'ll'
l ll'tli, ,,',1 r'l,, y'""''rt
,',
" "iii'i,T, i,. li".' ,li,', i"', i.'.,, ,,,i,,1, , .' ,'. *,
"",:,'li
,'ui';
l] ::l::llr"'
't't:trr.lllit
'l
ctf'a'
iJc.
c
tllc c.llcctivc u.r.r ,rr1rr,,,,t.,. rf p,r1,,ul"ti,,''
ilotrlc r.ca'i'g frr libcr:rlisu:
govcr)rc.rr, as, :rs 1,,i.,,,i";rits..ut,
ttc:ot"'ttly' bttt
thlt Ofit g()vcrtlllcnt infornrc'cl by thc Prc(c1)ts t,iitspolitic:rl
(l()sts: :l grLiltcr
.wll
ttr
.lso tut ,,f ,, g.ru,,rn'rcut whicli ctt:.tl.lttizcs
at rrt:c.'rrlisirrg '.rr: tlirorg a l.sser
cfft.,r.t .,i tccl'riquc ;;J
Lxcrtiol of tbrcc :rtrcl atttliority'
()v.r this rr,rr,, i..i,r,1, i,., ,,l.,rnl.,tist ;r.tl (:olstirrlri()rrl F.ur,r,t,rn
bc sc(lr lrr work irr thc
rcginrcs alikc, a,,l.r;.-i;.,:i,rrlir rariolrlc.,,r'
FcucrS*c,.,1 tllt'
A'st:l'r
rtltcwal, f.r,,rlr lJc,,c,,r:r to lJ.ntrr'r a'tl
and Punish'
in
/)i'srip/ine
As is shown
prirrciplcs ..,f .,.it,,,n'tl lr'tl pt""l law'
intrirlsic
thc
itnprovc
to
cf ft'rt
(lclltrc c'tl
thcsc prtlgrlttllllts \)t rtrf tlrttl
'ttl
oI lcgal
,r.'lcqu,r.'y
thc grr:;rtcr
cffcctivcncss of pcnal l,,w ar,.l to cnsrrrc
tt'llt't'rtls
wltitlt
s,r,icry.(r,r
('(ln('r'(i,rl
itrstitrrtr.'s t. rlrt,t..ntlitiorrs rrt,r
clisc'ssc:<l irr 7'lr Ilealth r{'Notiorrs'
t.'ir:,
,1,,'i.,.,1r",.
;ir..;;-,rr;; r*,.1.1",1
r cf'rrtncrs'
f u''lirrg) ". t'ttt
of tltc 'cxpcttsc "f ltttitt; 'ut.'i
il:ll::l,
atltl
oi
putrishrrrelrt
t"'."'
f
spcct,t,:t,itt'
criticisr's uf ,r",li,in,r',,i, violctrt att,l
"t''
of
str,1arcls
of
itsclf
l,,w
'e'wwith Stcuart's
thcir enrphar,:j ", ,lr.l",rr;l;;;;.,,, t,,'t.consotlrlt
cntircrly
opcratiotrl ,"gul"tiif "Jl rcli"L-)i1ity is
trf ct'otror'it'
,,',r', ,l'u,',u-,it,'' i" tl"'

'l""r"itr of plcasnrcs
,ir;;i,;., ,'';'ii; t,,i'i,',.,r
.1.1,1,,yu,",,t .i .tilitrrriu' c.lculus
3.nra',s
^
;:rii.;;;,;;..
pu""'lh','rc .i-.tr .'pliccl ratiolality of sccrrrity'
atrcl p:rirrs

)olin ( )ordon

ir rh" ..t"""1t)'"

tltc tltlrtr of irltclest' of

iu Iotrr:trlt's,.nr.,',i't[,'t,,.t,,; lru,ru',ru,u'i'r'r'
clrrsivc :rttllrr tlf
tltlt.jttst:ls t}( lIllStf:ct,
pleltsrtrcs att.l paitls, ftttt:titltrs ltcre
itivtltltivctlcss'
trlltt'kt't cc:ollotttit:s, 1;ttt lts tt thcnlc tor lltllitit:lrl

,tlt(llti()l ttr tltt p|tcist'

It i, ;rg:rrrr il(.((.s\.tt) lr.rI tr, giv.:.,l,,r.
rrrl govcr'11tlt antl .the oltlcr
siruilriritics ,,rr,t if..,1.i,.,1'.' lr.',*,..1,' libe
lLni-sI otr
lr0r.rr.aulr's clisc ussi,,n ii lli.siip/irr,, ailrl
l)rr(.riccs o1: roit:c.

)overnnental rationality : an intrtduttitu

IJcntharn's invcntion, thc Inspection Htusrr or l)anorticon, cncapsulatcs

this issuc. Thcrc is no ckrubt that, as foucault's book shows lr lcrgrl,
lJcnthanr's iclca has affiliticns to thc cliscirlinary tcchniqucs cliaracrcristic: of tlic policc statc. Onc of thc Panopticon's iurrnc,<liatc inspir.rriorrs
catllc fiotrl thc (lrirrican nrvl lbotlr cololy adrtritristcrccl by lcnthanr's
Ltrotltcr Sanrucl on bchalf of'thc llussi;n llovcnnent, llcnthanr hinrsclt'
lol u titnc cntcrtuinccl hopcs that thc Ernrrcss (lathclint-'rrright bc lr
syrrpathctic l)ronlotcr of-his own lcgislativcr nibrtions. Forrcault cllls thc
(l:urrcralist political tcchniclrrc al ttatisation, a taking ilto statc (()rrtr()1, ()f
tlisc:iplinc: :r contilnlous nctwork of powe r connccting tlic vigilarrcc oi'thr.
sovcre igtt to thc Inirnttc re gulatiol atrrl supe rvision of incliviclual colrcluct:
'l)olir:c l)owcr lrust bcar "u,rrn cvcrytlirg"
thc clrrst of' cvcrts,
ictiols, bch:rviour', opiniorrs - "cvcrythirg tltrt h:rrrcn5"; policc's ob.jcct
is "thc things of cac.h nronrcnt", thc "littlc things" oiwhir:h (rrthcline Il
slrokt' irr Ircr (rc;rt Iustmction.' 't Ir, 1)istplirc itd l,unislt, []oLrc:arrlr pl:rt:cs
this stylc of thinking within what lier c:rrlls'a Ilistorv of l)ctail in thc
Iiightccnth ccntury, prcsiclccl ovcr by -fcan-ll:iptister rlc lrr Slllc, torrr:liing
on Lcibniz rr l1ifon, via Frcclcrick II, cove ring pc.larogy, nrc,,li,-irr.',

rrrilitary tactics ancl cr:ononrics',:rrrrl clirrrirxing in thc rcginrc of'

N:rpolcotr, who 'wishccl to rrrargc rroun,l hinl a rrt-ch;urisn) ()f l)()wcr

tll:rt wotltl enirbl( hinr to scc tle snrrllcst cvcllt tlt occur-rccl in tlic st:rtc
hc govcrnc,l'.0*
-fhat history
also culrjrinatcs, ()nc rrright rcaclily think, in thc irlca of thc
P:ttt,.rpticott. Ancl yct ott closcr stucly, both Ilctrtharn's iclca ancl sonic
parrllcl trcnr.ls ol post-lcvolutionary govcnlrcrt in Frarrcr: cun bc sccn
to nark a pro[ouncl nrutation in this political history of'clct:ril. Jacque:s
l)onzclot citcs, in illustratiorr of this changc, a rlraf l:rw on fa(tory
rcgulatiols, cotnrnissionc.l by the Illtcrior Ministry of thc Clonsulate :
it would bc, a vain arnbitior to attcrrl)t to provirlc fbr all thc clctails of
protluction through regulations issuing frorn thc public powcr. , in vicw of
thc vrierd r:rttlre of:in(llrstrial oc'cupations, thc bcst cxl.rcclic,rrt is to authorizc:
tllose in cherge of"the cr.tntluct,rf l,rbour t,r rcgulatc cvcrything that rc,latcs tcr
sincc

1t.

As l)onzclot shows, this systcnr of dclcgatcrl, lcgally nian,latc<l pliv.rrt

authority which this un,ublishctl clocurncnt crrvisagcs frl thc sphr:rc of'
cconortric protluction tlocs in irr:t rrrrr:ut:rlt'lv l'e slrlrLrw both rc;rlity ;rtrc
thc rationalc of thc Ircnr:h in,ltrstrial systcrl fr nlost ol thc ninr't.t't'ntll
f

ccrtrlry:
'['hc contr;tr:tttlrl t'cortrrttric rcl;rtion l)('twcct wrrrkcr lrn(l (nl)l()ycr is colrrlt'rl
rvith;r sort of corrtr;rctul tutcl,rgc of'cnrploye r ovcr workcr, llv virtrrc of tht:
,'nrpl,,ycr's totul frt:cikrnl in clctcrr'rinirrg tlrr: corlc ol llctorv tcgulutions,
:rnrtrrrg whit:h hr: rrliy incluclc .- us is rrost ofcrr thc casc * :r wholc scrics ol

rlisr:iplin;rry antl rnor:rl cxigcncics rc:rching

5

?,,1

wcll outsirlc thc sphcrc

of'

( t','ntnunt l r,uionality: t ittt,,duti,,n

)litt ( orlott

trf'tlttr cntrcl)rcrcllr t() cnsure 'gootl or<lcr' ;rntl st:c:ruity' (srct tt stturit)
;n()rg tlrt:'n.luss of rncrr, w()ncn;rrrd c.liiltlrcn'nct',k.rl frr tlrcir
cxrloitation. Ilw:rlcl wrrt('s:

tlrr'iltl'lt.lltt'lVt,lkitllls,'l

lLrst:rs,1,r.Politrr.,rl (,(.()t()n\r,
()f
i,,ili,r:r,,iu..'".1,,',1 tltc',rtttnisri.rrl 'rsl)ir'ttr,rs
,1,,t,,;1,,,1

A rrrirring (-onl)iuv \\irs;s nlrrcll:rn crtcrprisc o1 ;rr.if<.atior, (v('r) ()l

rcgional colorriz;rtiorr, irs ;r (()lrr'rrcrt j:rl trnrlcrt:rkirrg . . . 'l lrt.sc sp;rc.cr ,,l
l)riv;ttc ctttctlrisc arc, [ rrttr tlrt' stan<lrcrint o1't:onllllon l;rw, strictlv spcaking
illr:g;rl.'lhc_lrrw, ncvt'r'thclt'ss,;rllows thcrn, s,r lonp:rs tlrcy pr,rl,criy firlli

tlrt'tlr:llkt't

tlrr'olitt tt""')ll'rli,

tit)l liru l ('( ()gl17( (l l)\'

,,*iga,r...i.,, ,rl .l clcr irr fhe sl,hcr',' oi'It tlilttt

rlclt tlttiltcr.l,',trll ittrl

lil,, r,,l fr'\( lll)( ll ," il"'ltl"'l t "'u ir''t1" tl 'tllrl','trlr'
[rr'-''.srrl1i'itrrtlr'.
,,,i.utirt'l),'1,,,t,,,,1
i,,* i, ,1,,:ru,rr.rls.1',,' ir,,]i,,'
tL lt g'rttrrtr ol
lt)'
otllv
..lct,tilc,l (.xiilt)iilirtl()lt'. l,rrt lil-thc'rlllol-t'
,.,
(rv(l\illi)l \'rl'l 'o$tt' " tltt l1il\tll'lt(' (ll\llltrlll(Ll lll(lttrtill.rl',1
',', \
l:rtht'r rltrttr st't'k,.ttr
i:i ,r,.',,r'l,.i,,,1 .,',,',1,.r,' ,,,,,1 ,',,t1,1,,r't'r'
('()t1(ls
[:rt'rlcll
tlrc
!]()\('ltllcll
crrlrr,t'c,t,lt't'l,r','tt,1'alt'1'"'ttit tlt'tttt"
tittlr. tll rlrt;
,,, ,I ./,r,1,, 1,.,r,.. ,'ll ,""1t]" l;lrri .l ,tlrt ltr-ir"rtt iLtrrs'li' ht'trlir't i'1
lr)tl(ll
s()
tr'rt
ltt'l'c
'r
tcillls
,",t,.r,,i,t,',,t. Ll6cr''rl
t1rt' politics o1'ortlt'l '
,,,tt,.,,1, ;ts tt rcc,,,litlg o1
"tttt'ity
r'trttttrcl ' tltt'
t, lts tliilr,r,,rrr, ..',rl,,rr,rtt'i' rr'til-i, i;rl rr'tl tttlr-c;rlizttl lrY iltsItttit'tr
o1't',rlltt't'l
tlr,'iunr:ti,rlr
l):rrr.'tir.rr 1,llrrrvs;r sirril:rr-logi,:
s.vc'rt'tglt t. tllt' irrtlivitlt'rl'
,r.,1 s.r.vt.ill,,r,.. 1,,,rr.:r-i',.,rr, ,i,. lr.litit;rl
(()lstfilil('(l t'rtly l'y tlrt'
l.ltrtsc,
tiotr.
(,1tf(.Irclt(,rr-ilrl ilr:rrIrg(r ,,1 th, lr,r,.,
()l ( xl)()sl'lr( t()
srll(ti()l)
rt1'rrrlit;11
i,,, ,'tti,u. .l Prvlrtc ""t-' t '.,t'l tlrt
lJetltllrtrtt's
of'rtPPlit'tiorr,
rtrt':t
t:rtgct
Dublir. st:r-utirry. 1,, ,,r'iiliti;rl, Ictr:rl
1t'rrgtltv
aittr
rtt('t,
l):ttt.rtit'.tr
;r.
';:,:'r,..,.;,,:;lr ,,, i.,uil,l "r,,i ol)cirt('
lr:rcl
Mi'
g()v('rrrrr('r1
llritish
tltc
bv
.
rlt'liircr':rtiolr ,,,t,1 .l.l,t, *itlr rttlrs"l
.r

''
ilr tlrt llirr"ty 'rlIi".,,i,,i lr.rt,,,llt'l rllit tlt'iti"t'
"''ti"'('v(ll
tl.cs itltlectl attcst
lristtlly
i,,1rrirr.,,,,,r,,,tt'.'r lltis 'l'rv l,c s(): t()(l('rl 1x'':rl
oi
thc
to
;lly)
(,iltlit,trgh ,t,,t .*, l,trit,tlu t" ulcqtliv()(
.f'rce
('crtalrr
.l,political
c:.ttrrrtt:rt'i.lizrtti.'
,t,,1
:ri;;.rr,L r,, tlrt li6crul irrivrrtiz.tit,,tr
Iltlt-pcrheps this
stirtc fr11)(ti(rrrr, i..l..,,liuj rr,.,t,,irlv tlt:rt o1- tttiisltttttrttt.
,lif'ferc't, ;rltrit
tw.
l,,it*c.'
irirlir::,,., ,, ,.,,*Jo,u ,lir,i,,g,ris
olr
't'<.orronrit'
g()v('rrrr('rtt':
:rs
tc.cle rr:i.s wirhin lil,.r^lis,rr
lr".l.i"pping
'.irrr
Of
sct
to:t
lrrrcti<lrls
lhc t.rnc huiltl, lrll citt,rt to rt',lrtt:c govcrlllclltlll
(nirrking c(()l()ly'
..:.,,r,urri.,"lly rcgul:rtcrl stru(tr.trcs rrrltl irlstittrtiorrs

t()

tltttkitlvtrt 5tttt.t,,'* i,tt'tgt. irlr" rlr' t'gttl'tttlt "l tlrt ()v(rlllll('lltirl

('(.()llollllc
strlr(lturcs
tlxistitrg
tltlow
,n,..,rk), ancl on thc otltcr', :rrr cii,tt to
tosc tf'thc
'rarkct)
,,,*i iitr.ir,t,i,rtrs (t1,,'se t'f'.l't tn"t'r'ise ' rts wcll 'rs
ilf-astrtl(ttlre llctithltltl's
rvith ccr.tain t)f'tlic lrrrrt tir)ns ()f

.t g()vtt lll(lt:tl

thcir t;rsk of',r',lt'r arr,l se.r:urit1,; th,y,l,, rrot lic outsi,lc th".slih.ri,ol',rrl,lit.
on thc r ontrlu y, tl('y nr:rint;rin tllt or,lci lry 1,.,r,itr, ir,1
tlocilc inrlivirlu:rls.
rrrrlt:_r'.1rrst bt'r:;ur.sc,

''l'lris

r:rtcgy of ,r,wcr', l:w:rl,l ,:,rnt:lurlt's, 'rrriglrt bc c rllt.,l liltr,tlisttt,

Proviclctl tlt:tt tltlC rCg:ucls libcrulisrlr rot-jrrst ls 1r c(()lollriC for'il1 ltrrt;rs
tlrc ltrrc:tiorritrg princirlc of'powcr irr c:rl,itllist s.r.:icti,'s.' "''
'l'lris Inrpcri:tl prct:t:clcut (rn, n() ckrubt, bc llrtI plrtly::i inclir'rrtivc olthc t:trtlurirrg rtrllllixtttrc itr lircn<:ll libcllrlisrl of- <r.r-tuin stlrrt'trrlt's trl'
rolrcc :rtlrrritristrtion. Yct llrrge ls :Lnc[ Marx <lor:unlr.nt, withirr tlrc nlort
st

itfrrrrr;rl :rrrtl tlcc.cntrlizt'rl polrtic.-lc1:rl cnvi'.rrr't'rt .f- c;r.ly

t tlt -lttto situ;rtiol r()t vcry clissinlilrl to tlrc
lrrctrch r'r'c, wh.rt'l,rcrrl rrr:rgistLrtcs'c.urts rcgulur.ly r..nlc.r. lt'g;rl

trittctctrtll.ll-tr('ltllry Lrt41:rnrl,

cillrccubility or tlc san(ti()lls cxlrctccl by f :rr:tory owrrt.r's' l)r'iv:rtc l)clrrl

r:otlc's. Sur:h l,hcnorrrcn;r crlr,rlrs c'viclcncc tlc cxtcrt:rrrtl intc:nsity ol(l()l((lrl with thc itttcrclcpcncIcnct' of' r't:olronric' orclcr :rn,l prrblit or-,lt'r'
which libcralisnr inllcrits fronr thr: polit't' st:rtc.
'l'lris suggests ()rc insw('l' to tllosc rvllo scnsc t)ivitlint' uul l>unish an
trlisiorl oitltc qLrcstion of tht'st;rt.('. It is irr lact v:rirr to look 1rr tlrc lr:rucl olthc statc cvclywhcrc pullirrg thc str.ings o1'nrit:ro-rlisciplirr:rry powcr irr
trinctccnth-c('nt.rlry s.r'ictics. lut, .rr thc otllcr lrrurrl, tlrcst. l:rrgcly
Privlrtizccl ttticrO*pOwt:r stru(tur('s r()nc tht: lcss r:rr-tit;i|;rtt', 1 orlr thc
virrwpoint of govcrrrrnclrt, in e r:,rllt'r'ent gcrrcr:rl lrolicy of or-rlcr..
Iut'thctnlorr:, ii libcrrlisrrr halts thc (lernclulist tcr(lcncv towlrr,ls tlrt'
ttisation ol rlisciplinc, libc,ral g()vcrrnclt also rursucs, in lrarallcl to thc
claboration clscwhcrc within 'civil s.cicty' of systcrrrs .f' privatizcrl
orclcr, a ,olicy which I:out--rttlt tcllns thc'cliscirlirrariz:rtiou of tht: st:rtc',51
that is to say, rt locr.rsirrg of'thc stutc's irnrncrli;rtt' iltcrcst irr clis<:iplirr;rly
techtriqrtc largcly ()t tlr('org:ttiiz:rtiorr of ils,rrvl st:rll.s:rrrrl :rl)l):rrutr.ls(.s.
As Karl l)olanyi obscrvc.s, lloltli;rrrr's l)rrrroItir. prirr. iIlt o 'rrsl;r'r:i.lrbilitv' ltarl its applicrrtiorrs not ttrrly t() l)ri:i()ns ;rrrcl convi< ts, lrrri :ilso io
lllinistlics lrrcl c'ivrl st'rvlurls.

by thc itrrrrrct'se sttl'sctlttclt ilrf lucnce

f"rruu'l rcv( rsc (it"tlf'tt"t'1'ttt'"tttlof thc [rrtttt'r tt'ntlcrrt'y; I)onzclot's

oi his i<lcrr) in(:li,'rt,l, thc lirllirs
It-att.is Lwalcl citcs
.:vitlctrc,t,slr.rrrs th.l i'rp.rtrttrcc,,l the sc,.,,ll,l'
tltc c.tl<;cssi.tl of
Itl:rcltr
18111
.f
.rotir(.r .xurrr'lr'. n "'ir,rl,',rttic, cJict
(:()ltliti()lll cl tle oltligatiorr
nrtionl nrint:l-rl rights to prtv:rtc eltcfPrlsc
'.).(

( )ttucrnntcnt o.l

the sotial

'l'his rlrrl-ticr stlu('turc of

rublic orrlcr :ur,l privatc or,lcr rrlry scrve , il'
orrly irr cxtr-cnrcly sr:llcrnrttir' t('rrs, t() ('lt:trirc:tcl iz(, :r lrst lirrnl o1 'r'c:rl
27

Colin Gordon

libcralisrrl', libc,ralisnr as atl cffcctivc prrtcticc of sccurity'

'['hc rlrost olvious lirnitation of this systern was that thc govc-rnretrtal
itr tht:ir
virtucs it irlvcstccl ill thc ecolroll-ly wcrc, at best' collstraillcd
econtht
but
itsc[;
rrffcctivcllcss [,y thc, pcrforrnancc c,f thc, ccortotrly
or
rlc
poprlarion
;;;; ;;;,:;:1"..,i,,g i1,., f.,.,,r"ti,,n of a prccarious 'rass
oI
sccurity
political
,.r,ti,"-i",,r,.n,.tl,1 lr" r.i.,t i,.., provitlc "tiitlttt for thc
sittr:rtiorl
i-ltis
tlrt. st,r'tc, nor f,r tlrr. nratcri,ri st.t rrrity of tlrc_ l,oPtll:ttioll.

tt.trtlt..lt()('Xl()s(..llltll(l('rlyillg.lrr.rliryrrtlrt'lil.cr.tli.lt..r.'lt.iviIstlt.tt.tv,
uf L,,.k.'"
which C. Il. Macrcrs,,,, 1,,, tlrcc.l ," ,h" p"li;."1 pil,,r.py
is;rt lcast
cvt'ty.''c
i,.'c se'sc propcrty 'takcs cveryoltL'.,,iii".tt, sitlcc
it rrrakcs
sclsc
anotcr
owtcr .f'his or cr .wtt i,utly "'tl labour; but in

of his or hcr
thc llbour.cr a nrcnlbcr uf sc,cic'ty only through thc Ilrccliation
r:rstcr, thc ttwtttlt- of thc trlctatls tlf proclrtctiotr'

how this
In lris it,ruk I''Inuetit':'n du social,;"tqttt' I)onzclot suggcsts
irrtcrvctritrg
thc
6v
,,,,,rr' i,r lil.,cral lr,rliticrrl .iurit;'rtttlc't'tt, tt"'t''t'lut'ri

gi'u"'"'."t"t', crrrcrgc:tl itr thtr ctvctlts.of 1848 as a

t'lrrsh
f-acturing irr tlic rcIublicail i,ic,. .if tigltt, atr cxplosivc

innovtiolrs of 'cr<:onotttit,

raclir:,.l
t:itizc:rlship as
bctwccn two incontp:rtiblt: notions tf' ccotlotnic citizcnship:
its citizctrs
for
tl. ,lglrt to w.rrk, ,-,r tt ,.,blig,rti.' of te statc to clrsurc
lrs
t;itizcnship
antl
tlr,, ,rri,ri,rru,n r,rrn,liti.,rrs.,f tlcir ccollolllic cxistcltcc,
ccttrrttrnic
ctf
thc right oi Propcrty, affnllc:,1 agaitrst thc itr:rrctl violtiolr
tis sittt:rti.rr
.i,;r..,rtrip lry .,,,,fr.,,,.ry 'atiortlir^ti.,t,s.tt Wat ruacle
to tis
p;rrties
,,,,.rfj,,,,it.,n^bl".r. frr g()vcrr'rert was that 6oth
as
rcgitttc
rg.ltc11t l.torc()vcr vi.wccl tlc lcgiti'racy <,f' thc rcpu6licarr
r'tf
thc
()r
vcrrsiolr
<lthcr
,,1.,.-,lut.ly t:onrlition:rl ori its satisf;t:tion of'(llc

critcriotr of soc:i:rl right.

,l'he rncuiling uf ,lr., i.1.,, ()f'c:ivil socit-ty llct::tttrc, itl thc cottrsc of this
postsatDt,conflit:t, sulr.cct t() lcw ancl c:rnflit:tilrg intcrpretiltion-s.'T'hc
mirrorccl irr thc ulril:rtcral
1g15 Irrcnc'r Colrstitutior.rs of-quali[ccl f ranchic'

thc inclustrial cntrcl)rclletlr, liavc

t'f I't";kcan
bccn clcscribctl as intplcnrcntirg ,, rrak,,.lly clrr:rlistic vcrsion
in
politically
civil socictv, ,1.rig,,.,i t,, ttt"i"titt thc labouring population
thcir
trr
of 1871 can,
rr 'virtul ,t,,t. ..,[,r"t..r..'.tn 1848 n,l thc Cotlllnutic
attcrllPts by that
s
,,.,,tttrtcrv.iling
irrtcr'rt:tr',1
b.
1',,,.;, ,;,; rlout.jtrstly
'.*.lu.l.,l p,,pul.,ti,rrito (orstr..t: r-rcw (tlvil socicty on tlcir own tcrns'
(iovannlr l)t'ocat:ci shows ((iraptcr
IJut this s;rnc sct t,f'thcnrt's was. rs
;;,'rir,, tr.i,'lg ruc,irilizcd ;rt thC sutilc criocl by ,,thcr', bor'lrgcois fbrccs
lls lcrc vulgar
*1ri.1r.,,,., by,r,,,.,,.,,n, bc rclcg:ttc11 t'trnr Politic]l history
w.ho, fr.nr a
s: il,. 1i1,.,.,,1 'r,-,,i,,1 .l,,r,,,rrrists' ,r'tl thil:r'thropists
'r.rrlizcr
lasses rs
,lif'f't-crrt rlir-cr'tiotr, ,1.'lr.,r.ltt.,',1 tlrc t ontlitiotr t'f the pltrpcrizcil
lttitl
thlt ol- li vir-tulrl :nti-s()(:icty, ;r'stitc c,l'tl;ttttrc'itl a tltetllrcitrg
trloral
itr thc
rcgrcssivc LtrrrlCr.st,nrlirrg ()f'tit,rt terl, il ra,licl ,lcfcicnt:y
'flrcir'
alicl
rtrt:lalltatitlll
tltc
frr
i.ty.
,,.,,
,'iiil
1'
l:rs
,rlr,l Irrrr f rrIrit:

i,,*.:., .:.,ni"rrctl witliir iu,,rrt.y

on_

2i

<

uern

nrc nt

al

r dt i o

nal it y

: ttt

n t r tt d u

c t i tt

rtlcolollization of this tcrrirl wcrc to bc no lcss nollrcrtous in tlrr:ir scrqrrcl

than thcr porular ncnory of insurrcctions.
(lonflii:t ovcr thc Irtcattirtg of social rights ancl civil sot:iety;rlso nrcant
ctrtlflict ()vcr tlc rolc of tltc statc.'l-hc ccntral issuc of tllc civiI w:rrf]rrer of
1il4tl wrrs, prercisc,ly, .'c.f
rh<'. agend. ..,tcl non-ogenr]a,f- thc statc. As
I)onzc'lot points out, thc nricl-ninctcc:lth ccrtury, thc supposcrtl hcycl:ry of
libc:ralisnr, witnesscs not :r withcring away of' thc qucstion oI rhc st:rtc.
bttt all uttprccccle,tttcd intcnsific:rtion irr clebatc ancl stlugglc ovcr thc stat(,
its chrtics .nrl its rlangcrs. 'l'hc P:rratlox hcrt:, if thcrc is.'c, is cusily
t:xrl;rirrccl: tlrc gcrruralizcrl anxicty anci contclrtion ovcl' thc question ol'tlte
.sfftr coitrcitlcs with a collll()l t't'r'ogtritirrtr ol thc rlcrnisc rlf rt,son of stutt:,
ol , r;rtiorr.rlity irrrrilrsit t() rll('sr:rtc'\,r('r'i(rns. flris is,,lt.r'itlt.tlly. rror :r
.lonl;ritr whosc analysis c:rn bc grorrnclctl irr a thcory of thc strtc, or irr ;
vicw oI thc 'bourgcois stltt:' us thc sulrjcct of- nlorlcrn Iistory.
l)otlzclot rcrrl;trks on a ccrtairr noticcablc parallclisnr, cuttirfl rcr()ss
thc battlc ovcr sor:i;rl rights, bctwccn libcral-conscrvrtivc an<l rcvolutiotnry Marxian attacks on:r Frcnch statc pcrctivccl at this tinrc as a
crushing,:rliur burcl.n ()r rlc soci:rl bocly, onc which, cithcrr through thc
rcvolutionrry supl>rcssion of intcrrnt--rli:rry boclics' (r;raf c:orponrtiorrs,
rcligious cotgrcgations) rrrccliating bt:twccn tlic incliviclrrrl citizcn anrl thc
strt(, or through thc par<:crllizution of pcasalr pr()pcrty by bourgcois

itlllt't'it;rlrtt l,rws, t1ly1'izts tllt \tru(tul('s ol,s,rti:rl r'trrrrrrrurrity irrltr,r

of :norynous :rnrl irnrotcnt inclivi<lualr.'" ll,-rtlr in til4iJ n,l 1871,

nrass

Marx intcrprcts poprrlar rcvc,lts in f:rarrcc as (anrong other things) rcvolts

of'civil society rtgailist tlc st:rtc, n irle;r which has bccll cnthusiustically
rcvivc,l ill rcccnt yeirrs by scctiors of'thcr Frcnc;h anci llrirish lcf. Fronr
tlrc l8rlr lJruntttirt to thc c-ritiut'o.f tht: (otltd Procrinnre, rlc l:rnguagc ,rf
Murx's trcatrrcrt of thc statc is c.nsistcnt in its violerrce (a violcnt:c
rvllich is, pcrh:rrs, thc nr:rjor rlistint:tivc fc;rturc of Marx's vicws in tllis
rrr:rttcr): ;r 'supc:rrratur:rlist :rbortion', :r ':rr;rsitic bocly', lu 'inr;ubus', ;rrr
'cxcresccncc of civil socicty' which illicitly strivcrs to clctach itsclf'fronr

its social basis. Marx not orrly rbstains fiorn, bLrt txprcssly prohibits,
lrnv gene r]lize cl thcory of cxisting strtcs: urrlikc caritalist socicty, which
t:rttt bc irnrrlyzccl ;rs :t uttivcr-sul frlnr v:u iouslv rctulizccl in :rll <:ivilizcrl
sor:icrtics, 'thc "pres,:rrt st:rtc" cllrngcs witlr t lrc:lr courrtry's b,rr.Ir'r
"'1/t,'r.r.,', sl.rtr'" is tltt:, littio.' '\t,rtt.r;rt( .r rl,rj()t ((ll((.lt l(,
Mlrx orrly in thosc: r:orrntrit's (lrrrpclr:rl (c'r-nlrrry,rrr,l [,r.lrrr<.c, lrrrl lror
]ritiriu, lloll:rltl ,rr tlrt'tJSA) wlrcrc tlrt'prolct:rr.irit is crrlltrl rr,,,rr ro
u,rrl tlitit::tl blttlt's u,hic'lt a rratiort:tl lrotrr'14t'oisic hus prcvroLrsly lost.
'l'hc signifc:rnc:c o1' stitt(.s ( ()l r('llitcs with truscs of' thr' ()bstru(.ti\)r
trl- nontr:rl llistrrric1 pr()gr(.ss; Ivlllx's l:rngu:rgc so powr:r.frlly oxl)rcss(s
tltc scls(' ol- tlle pcrvt:r'sitv, tllr. intl'insir' ir-rrrtionallty, of the
st;ttt"s cxist<'l(:c, tl;t tllc'rrrctllocl of'llistori<::rl rn:rtcrirrlisln sccnrs, irr
;19

)olit

to its owti brclkirr1 lttrirrt'

()olrvcrscly,if'M:rrxsllarc.swith[)ltillcol.(lo.1wrr'.t(.CItliliJc.rtlftlrc
c()r1rsc.rrt.f :rry cstccr t)r
virru.'s r.rurc.f civl ,;,.;;;r,ti,t, is rot.f p.tt'ltti'rl
tltt' tt lt:titt oi
its l,rt:t'tlt tll,tt;tt lt t. l'ttt l"' "tt" ol ilr ('( rr.ry,'rsulri'r.rtt'lv t.' I'c
,,., t"*i, ,,r rtr'..

r:orrf

rontitr

it,

:rlrcrrcly closc

:i."1'i,:;;,,11,,i ,','i',ii.:'.',,,;;,,',t',

'I
l)rrIis (otntl'.ttrc' h'rvirrg
tlic ..rlvcrrt. ,rf .,.rtt,ttt,.tuirt ,lt i,,ty. llt:
,rca6s.rpt:.,, ;;fi,,;; powcr by so.icty' .r*l rli-ssirat.cl tc
.f Ict:tccl rc
tt''tt'tttt thc irtttlgrity of
sPttriorts llysti(ltlcs t'l 'ttttt "tlnrinistrati""'
rtlll

rcsc.,lvccl irr

tltt'cllrss str-tlglt'catl
sociCty:rs.tllc Ll.ti..,rilrl lnc'clitlrtl irr wlrit:lr
ll'
l'ttiotl'rl
tll"st,
'rlrtl lttrrll'ttrt *'ty"''
tlt.t
itt
tlrr','rrgll itr tlrlttrtrlt l't'rrcr
M.tt.x.s
itl
1., l,t'liltrll.l
tllt.t.t.i:.1 \tr:tl(1.,1 lil,t'r.rl-trtt'lli;tll t..ttltltt.tll'ttt
irr lris visit'tr trll..ss,r'rr,i,rlly.
I,.rr.,,,
rlr,,rrglrl. tlris rrr:ry t,,i',,.1,,,..
clrrss str'gglc withirr thc
r.'r*rurist s.<:icty th;"'i; lt; ;"t"1,"t'tu' lrr tht:

ItlhliL'llli

ll
\\' .,r,rLt',s 1r,'r1, r,' sow. rc,)(ls
t:,.,
llrc l.tt ttlt- wlttt lt' ;l\ l(tl( 'ltlll (lri(r '
ovt'rt tltl (r()lls(li()tls tlt'grcc ttr
to tlu.lc thc Mrxirtn'.'ri,tqu.,, is the quittr
ul,li,riurrs.tlrt'y :rr;ry.bc ,.'*','l: ,1cc''cr
which, ,r libcrl ,.,i,;;r'ii)(;;..u.l.
by Mrx), tlrtr Pr-,rptrsititrlls. oI Politit::rl
st,,rtir ()t contr.lclir:t.ion ,rr,.,iu,,r.,,1
iltl"" 'li''rt'ly !trt'l'lt rl'ti7( 1ll(' tlt tt'rrlti( ( ()ll(llly ,rrr,l tllt ir illt,'i;tl'"rt'rt'

"1,:.ll

l:':::,'l'':'lllii,;,

rr:rti.ttrrl *,,u,,,t,,tt"'''i ' 'l'itltvtl'lilrt'r;rlit'irr''r,''rvttyl'rlgttltgrt't''

r'1.r1icicrr.1 . t:^f it:rlist r..tiot:Ilc
rvcll ;rpriz,,tl .1-its t.,' 1"t''ifttitv"l-hc
Mrrrxi.:ru vicw'oirrt' bc
.t g.v.rr'rrcrr rr:rv *.il, ii,)rrr ,, s.,ierrtil.i.l"lly M:rrxist te.r'ics .f'tlrt
j'c[gcrl ;r t.'clrr'lcrtelly irrt.lrcr-t'1t otc: ,',,,,(:1,'':tt
tlt,,lt r.cfrtc this .eecli'g' F.rr<;attlt
c;r1,it:rlist sr.r(. r.r(l ,,',,rtrfi.t, ,',,t1,.r.
or
to u'ltctlter thc 'juclgt:l'"t" ittl11.. tru(
rlr.rcs ttt,t of'l:r ;rn t'f ittit"t rts
trr
lt'git
(l,ru( r',,1 ,rll,'witru its *tt1'1"'tirrg
l..rlr,,: rvlr,rr 1r,.,1,,,.,,,*,,,,i i-,t'.
ly
t
l'tlt"r'rt'
lti""'t;llv.j"rrrri'l'tltlt '
l,r((lrr(l( ., .,,11i.,..t,,1,t''fr''' "itti'llttt('l|ts
ttl
tlt;ttlc
l' lt"ut bt't'tl
ittttttv:tt<lrv rrtl still )crsistillq
'"ltjt
('()llst l tt( t sttt lt l-ttioll:tlt''
"
tlrt' rllitl-rrirlt:tcctttlt-r:ctlt'ttry
lrlt:h tli tllt' ntltjrll- (()lltcstc(l tt'Lnrs tlf
is a['f cc:tt'tl lly lr
st;ltc'
l)11)PCl'ty' right govcrnlcntrl t risis - sot ie tv'
,,1.tr1,tt'tltrtltt tltttttlt:
5...tt(.l(.,.,,1i'au,,,,:,,,,lt,,i.rrg.rl', ,,,,,4r,
1'.,r1,,111,1
lt irrlr;rrt l(tt't'llt t k'
A. l',rs,1tr,tl, t',,,'ttttt""i'' *rrglt 'rt '1.'.'t'll.'*i" think.r'' thc "rrc
rtrliotl
irrfh,.r'i,,1
"i
ncctls rt, l,,ok to ,,,i;:,,'i.r, ;i,,'i.,,11u

tlt.rtlM.tt.xllrtlrt'trttlst1,t.t.s.'iellt.llIt(-iP;ltiotls.,f'thc'rlirc<:titlrltliis
tl,c (ic.,*, trisr.,.irrr an,l lil,c.rl
;illl:.:i;:,i,";l M'',-l^1,,,1,,.r,t,,,,,,ry,
trct"l t.w'trcls what lltr
.etrtrrtist l..t-cllz tt"t ttt"' ttt'l''"1"t,lristor-it:rrl

itt [)rrtssi:r lts tltc

tcl.llS:l.stlt.iltl stlrtt',; hc l.icrvs llrc gtlvct.ttttrclrtlrl 1,rt.,lllcrtt a crvil sot:icty
h:ls yt't to 1rt't:olllt'
cxistt'tlt t' ,ri,,tt '..ttttt"tit: *t"'itty"rvhiclr
trit Jrtcr.t l'''trtv sl't'irtl-{s f..trr
Slt'tr,
.r 's.t.icrv ,,, ,,,,,,.-,li,ir.ttriti1,i.'t Ii.r

tlc clrrss st'ugle'

lt.'
'rrt'tttts '()t
()l'(rstilt's
lsttiti./t); ]tl.
l.ur thc sulvivrtl ,.rt .,t l"lt''it' "rrtl l-""t"t'rrtr'tl 1"'litv
lr;rtit'trel evtl'lttti.rr fr.tll ll
tll,rct,'ltlt'cl
trrt't'lt'l:ttt
st.tttt
tilc
,.,r1i. u1,,,rr
:r lrrr.k ,ri' ,,,,.i,,1 tr,r,r,u,r.tlt',

( )out:ntnental rationulity

()ortlon

l,v

rvlrit:1r

It)

tttt intrrtlut:tittt

stlcicty of'cstatcs to n socicty of classes. (Sorrrcthin rrf this sccnario frr

thc st:rtc:rs alt ttttuvoiclable particirant irr soc'ial cvolution latcr'(ur('rg(:s irs
tlic ob.ject of Marx's appalltcl rcvulsion in his;rtt:rr:k orr tlrc (;crnr:rn Social
I)ctriocrats' (iotha l)roglarnrnr:.) Scveral rf thcsc points h:rvr. a rclcv;rnct,
cxtcncling bcyotrcl thc'ir clistinc;tivcly (crru;rn coltcxt: thc vision of'rr
libcral statc :rs rc:tivc historicr parttlcr in thc nraking of'<;ivil sor;icty; rrn
cxicting arpraistrl of' tllc innt:r c:onsistctrr:y of- thc s<tci;Ll fabric:; utrcl,
r,',1',,,,,,,,rt strrkirr41y, rr r,rlrlirrg,rl'rlr,.,1rr,.sri,rn ,,J rl,rss lil-rl,rrit,rr .rs

lrart of thc st:rtc's :rgcnrlu - :r contliti<)r, or( rrright;r<l<1, ofi tlrc st:rtc's
scr:u ri

ty.

lcirrhrt Koscllcck links Stcin's notrblt: l)rcoccul)atiorr with lorrg-tclrrr

politir;al proglosrs to a brorclcr- rrutarior in thc historic:al scrrsibilitics of
Ilis tinrc. Wc tlotcrl c;rrlicr how tllc yrroblt:nr olscr:rrrity r:xtcnrlcrl ()ut f()r
tlic rolicc strtc ()vcr thc sp:ur of';r sccular'pcrpctrrity. llrrt tllt: tllinkt:r's tf
tlrtr (l;rrrrcrlist cr:r still hrcl rct:oLrrsr: to thc notiort,.f historiu t.(istr(tt uitr,,
history as thc tcachcr of lifc: thu rccortl of past cvr:rrts sccn:rs l rcl)(rr()ry
of itrstrttctivc cxrrtriplc ,tn,l rr,,.'c,ic,nt f or nrlcrs. With tlic F,nlightcurrrcnt,
thc Icvolutiotr :rn<l thc ;rrlvt:rtt of thc icL::r of rrogrcss, tlicrc crrrcr'3t's rr
ll(w Pcrccl)tiotr of plcscnt cvclts as following:r tnrjcc.torv wllir-h is br',th
r;rclic:rlly unprc<:cclcrrtccl ;rnd c-onst:rntlv:r<:r:clcrr;rtirrg. I(oscllcck (lLl()tcs
'l'ocqucvillc ot tlis pcn:rlty of pnrgrcss, thc loss to politi<:al cf lt:c:tiol oi
thc' cliclrctit- r(s()tlr(r('s oi liistoly: 'As tllc l):rst ccascs to illulnirr:rtt' tllt'
frturt', tlic rlrincl lllovcs frrwarcl in rlrrrknr,ss'.t''' At tlr,, sanrc rlatc, tllc
()ontnunist il,anltsttt spc:rks ol thc 'cvcrlrstilrg ulccrtrrintv rrtl :rgit:rtion'
t;lrrr;rc:tcristir: oi tller bor.rrgcois .p,r.lr.t'n Anrl yct, irr gr,rrtr;rl, Mrrxisrrr
c,rcclits

libcrll thought rvith littlc

shrlc

of'this spirit of'ulr::rst'rrntl

trnrrr:rtlritrtv.

'l'ltc

pt'oc:crss of cl:rss firrnration is in f rr:t vt.ry f rrr frorrr bcirrg frrci;lr tt,
thc lrrcoct:tt1)tions ttf'libt'ral govcrlrcnt. ()n thc cortlrry, llrc tut.stiurr
trf clrss, as thc problon of-rtlrking :rn inclustri:rl nrrrkct ccorouy sot:ially
lrossirlc, bcconrcs, fonr tllc llor.rlgcclis roint of vicw, an css(ntial l)art ()f
thc politics of sccurity. ()thcrs bcsirlcs Mrrlx aclclrcss thcnrsclvcs to thc
rrti(:ulirtior of thc opcn spar:ts of intlustlj;rl sociubility with thc closcrl
sIur:t's of- irrclrrstri:rl cliscilrlitrc. llv titc littt(.l l);rl of' th<' nirlctct.trilr
c(1tttlrv, thc rclcg;rtiotr ol rr1rrr'tvlr.ss l:rl,ctLrl to ;r Ioiitic ll 'st:rtr. oi
nutttrc' llas bcconlc :r rlcrrrollstl lrlrlv urrt.'r,,rl,lc cxIcclic.lt. ltJ.18 rulr] l87
nltkc sl)cct:ct1lrrlv cvi<k'nt to :ur ;illxiorrs borrrgcoisie' t]rt,11,u1,;r'l
rt,1rlcs.'tttt,,l by tht itrr[iscilrlurc, tllc lrs,rcilrl inltor()rrv, o1 tlrr' lrrrrr1,r't izccl
ttrb;ttr Ittrtsscs. l-llgerrt ctftrrts:uc:rrltlr-r'sscrl to thc rc(ollsttu('tiolt ol tlrr.
popul:rtiotr of' tllc r,r,rt rtr:t:t,rrlilr!l t() :r nro.lcl oi r:ollectivc ('('on\)lri(i
citizcrrship: tllt'sot:irrl itrr:ot'por;ition ol tllc rvorkirrg cllrss rrs:rn clcnrcnt rf
tlrc bocly politit'. 'lhe plor:css o1- pror'trrlirin tl,rss 1:rnrr:rtrotr bccr',rrrcs
l

rrii()l vcct()r- of bourqcois

c:lass ,t.,,rg1,'.""

3l

'lht' t:nr:ountcr ()r tllis

tr.r'rulr

)olin ()ordon

lrctwcc:' libcralisni a'rl socialis'-r is,

i' its way, ',r .lcss. subtlc ancl

prcccclitrg rclationship with thc

than libcrlistrr's
reclorrbtably
",,.,big'.r,,,r,
w<,rltl of' l'oliz
tlcciclirrg stagcs of
I' Ir.ancc, thc'l'hiLrl lcpubiic: was thc scttirg for thcthc
srtr'c clttcrtit'tts
,1,;';,;;:;?'i;:r,,, ii.f"t,li. b,'g"u its lifi cc,nfrotrting
h.tl Scetr wrcckccl itr
:iuu...ig"'i'"" *nltt' its
of'
l.'isl^turc elct:tccl by Lr'ivcrsal
r.,u...,lgn
'rt-Jccessor
'"tt"t"'i"g
i' rc ,l.al ,,,.,,r,,-]*, ,.,i,r
1ll4g,
'.litical
.lclcr

thc
lit.,1"tt itltolcrtrce .f'
(r'alc) ft':r'cisc, -".i'"
cotrtcr.nPorlry
A
,ritu,i,,i .rr.r .t privatc crltrcprcnetlrial clcspotisnr.
,thc ,lru,*irrg ,,,.,,r,.,,r, Sctwccn ,al ls votcr .cl .rr.r s
*.i., .f

in thc.f:actory' hc is utrclt:t
workcr. ln thc 1;.lirigl"'ft hc is sovctt'ign;
f'ro'r thc cxat''lt' of
'1'r;0"';''';^:iil,' 'ij;tii{crt,l,lic tlcp;rrts, l''i'*''u"'
tc politic.l la'guagc of,rights:
thc Scc:.rrcl lry ,,r,.1r.,*i'rg .,.,,r, tc, ,,rtsc,t
I)trlarltti.ll .f'I Ittt':rlt Iigts'
its c.rstitrri,r,, t."f.,,i,t, ,r,,r .',1,r.ri,tg tc
f,rt.lul rcpLrblit ,rt. ('()lrfr(ilt:ttitrll
Irrstcretl tircrc is ,,,, .,f {i,, t ..,, .,lirrriir.rt., ihc
.lc'r'rtrtls bctrcfrcti.'s
ctwetr' intlivirl.al .,.1 ,t,,t", irr wich the t-or'rcr
..,irigh,, u'clcr fr.,at .f tc cxtrcisc ,rf'his
f_o* th,: 1trcr. i, ,rr.',r,,r.
.fc
.n,i .f rc ri'crc(rl (crt.ry wittcsscs a
,,;.; ;ig,., ,.ight t,, rcbel.
crit'rgc, 'r qtrrct lcgal
r;rclical rccasrirg ,rl Iilr.r^lir'r's
tct:hnic:rl nettrtrality is' argu'.litico-i'riJi.-.il
,..i,rluri,r,, *h,ri,, cliscr.ctitn ^,t,1'"ppt,r',t"t
infltttlnt'c'
,rblv. ,r tll('.tsllrr'trI its strlttcqic strr':trgtlr atitl
""llir,.' ,i.i*'','.,,,i'ri,i,,,' ,,tr','. i"ll"' r" t lrcr t l'v tt'rr (.ic r-r''trr t'rrl'l
'"t.,ur...rttist'
il ,rttrcwork oI tlattt'tl rigt es :l'
le lrg.cs, irrr:ri'li'ate ,.'
is
tr''rrlstcrl'lt'rltt ol tltt l'1v7' trl whith thc st'ltc
,'toir(',rt ,ivil *,,t.
rc
":r'
'llttr,rrrt,,,liar, rs tliss.lvc.l; law r.w lct:t'rr.rcs
,r"."."..,..rr,1.
:,:lT
tlf soc:icty At.the sanrc
hist,rrrcallv rcltive cltantti()ll attcl trxprt'ssi<ltl
iuil ancl c:ritrtitlal) ari.1 tlrc lrultrlttt
ti'.l.l., 1-,utl,,1..g,.1 tl'...'),y (.,.1,.,ri,'i.t...tiu.,,.
i1'h'gy) (lll( \ti(l th1 t-orrrrt]i]y lc5
sr'it'ttt't's tl'ry,lt,'l"Hy' ti"'i"t'tttgy' 't-r1
1l
errrl'hasiztttg tttstc't(t,rts cv,t^t,..,r ,rf th., ;Ltonontor.ts illtlivi,lrrlrl will,
irtt,,.,,titt."f" t""1 gtt"ttt'rlly pr.blc'tttit' clt'rt"ttcr"l'hirclly'
'cscctlt, bc-.rwt.n ,r. ir.rt.l,,i r,.,,. .rrJ,in,livi,ltral, llw arlcl sociology
'ittt,t'rtttctli'rccliati'g
tr,gctltt't'\triv('t(),'"t''tttt '' r"vt'ttt''ltlt lt,F'l 't'rrrrs l:':..t1: .l- M'rttrit't'
ris ls thc l)tlrltrst
.Lr.v h,r,lit.r' srr'l,r.t.:rriil ,u tll,' i{cr',,lrrti,,rt:
- t,ritil'tl'..,rrtrtrt'rt'ial.
lr\rir.ri(,r'
ill,,,..:i,:l,l.],1;',,;t,i,.il,,,tir,'ri,,,,.
tcxturc ,ri r:ivil
ernPirical
thc
r.r1,
prolcssiorrrrl. puliti.ri, ..,ligr.,us - rD.,kc
tr,),;,',1,
rigt; tc scat
s.cial
s()tlrcL-.f
I,t.^.1, iu,,it"i""it'tc is 'r
rrtrcl a
ctrtcr'risc;
.r
trtsk
t
crtaitt
,.,i , i. ,fat t. fb'nclitrg 'rr'rtlrtr'itt" 't''trti'rl
(()lltr'l\t\
ittstittrtiotl
tllt
rrl
rl'ilitv
r oltrt ltrllr' 1" '11
l',rstrrl.rttl,l. ,t pri',rt
orily
thc.1,lr.,r,.,r,,l' fiii',rf its rrrrlivrtlrral t,,",,,lt.rr; tht'i'iliviclual the
to
tltlrks
'u,it s :r citizctr
through
rigilt
tuttltt t t1'
- 'rlltl
lrccorttt
""t ,,5lit:rti,,lls t. it rtrc logic.ll;'
atrtt:l'ior,t. is ot'
t.itizclt's
tltc
i'sritrrriLr.;
rt'lc' as ottc
r.lativizctl
ilr:r
t'1t1\'
ir..',1,-il'ltt.. tlrrt tlrc st:rtt" t.t'' 1gures.llcr-c
thc !''nerol
frr
lrcts
rvltith
irrstitutrOrr iul()tg otllcrs, tltt'scci'rl illstittrti,rlr
:l

ittrnntntl ration,lity: tt tntrtlntiot

intcr(st, rrncl :rcc:ordirg to thc plinciplcs ctI piltlic scrt,itc.

'l'he '['hirrl lcprrblic tratrsfrrns thc strii:tly.juritlicrrl lcl:rtiorshilr

l)ctwccl incliviclul aticl strttc try c;onstrut;titrg an :rclnrinistlrrtivc l:r,,v rvhit'll

cxplic:itly rlisptnscs wirh natural right. 'lhc i:itizcn is ,r.r.rrlt'cl rhe
('tttitlcrtclt utlrlcl' this law tr corrpcrsati()n iol tllc ;rt:t:irk'llt:r] irrlrrgtrr('rt i)v tlic st:itc of llis or hcr priv;rtc intcrcst: u,h:rt tllt' t:it izt'lr is
,lisqLr;tlilc,l f'onr cloirrg is to inculpatc tht stlr('lr tlrc lcvcl of its
sovcre igtrty. 'l hc juritlical sclf -liluitrrtion rilcl 'sc'lf--r ontl'ol' of tlrt'
('xc(ttltiv(' l)()w(r is bulanccrl lty thc rktsigrr;rtiotr t'1-.r.r.utljr' of 'govt'r-ntncntril l(ts' wli(l ;rrcr inrnlunc to lcg:rl ,hallt.ng..' IIris .jrrlirlir:;rl
rcs(rvc :rca oi cxc(.utiv.r powcr is, l)otrzclot srllllcsts, thc cltralifr,Ltiorr
lvhich - in tltcr Frcncli situation - r.alc.u]:rtions of sct:urity rrrrost':rs:r
c:otrclitiotr of thc rolitic;rl [clsibility of a libcral clcrrrocnrr:v.
'l'his sitnultlncotts rt:lrtiviztlotr of stit(:rncl rnclivitlrral is lct:orrrplnictl
1r.,' ', tr"* itttcnurtior of thc opPosition bc'trvccn tlrt: |ublic rncl tllc
privatc. Sociologir:al thought:rncl soc:irrl law regarcl thc pr-iv;rtt'rlorn:rirr.rs
l'virturl'Public sphcrc. Authoritv in thc spht.r'r'triIliv.rtt crrrr.r-lrrisc;uirl
l)rivirtc irrstittrtions is assinril:itcd ro, rr,l (partially antl inrlirc<:tly)
-juridically intcgratccl witli, thc 'pulllic-scrvicc' prcor c:urarion of tlrc
strrtc. 'l'hc discirlinary 'privatc law' of' thcr f-;rcrorics ls irr p:rrr subortlinutcrcl to tlrc lrublic Irorrrs prescribc,l in hcaltlr,rn,l slfcty lcgisl.rtiou,
in p:rlt ()pcnL'(l ttlt to t:olle<'tivc trcrgotiutlon with organizetl laborrr,:rn,l,
frr thc rcst, unclcrwrittcn in thc intt:rcst ol public orclcr as ncccss:rry
blrrnch oIpublir:1,,*.t' At thc sanlc tirrrc, thc rt"t.',,r,,* l'olt'in in.lustri,il
security as thc provitlcr of wr',rkcrs' rcciclcnt insur:rncc pcrrrrits it trr
ctttulutc thc st:rnrling of its privatc t:onunc'rr:ill fi,rcnrnncrs as:L ncw kinrl
ol'1,ublic institntion'.
'l'llis ne w politic,il
.jurisrruclcrrcc rcorganizcs sorc of tllc b:rs<: tcrnrs of
t:lrssical politic:rl tht:oly. Thc (l.ockcln) rrirrci,lr: ol propclrv, with its
pcrturbirrg c()lnot:rti()rs of irrcrlur:itllr: prr:rogativc, is now rnaclc subortliruatc to thc (['crgusonian) r:atcgorv o- intcrcst, whic:h irr tunr is now
,:onsiclcrc,rl itsclf in :r rrinrrrrily c:ollcctivist pcrspccrivc, rrrcrliatc,l tlirough

instittttions artcl assot:iations. Sot:irrl right now bcconrcs, in thc tcrnls of

thc Clcrtn;rtr.jurist .f hcring, the st:rkc ln,l lcsrrlt,rnl of';r <:ontirrut)u\ l)r()( (':,s
ol't;rrllcctivc strugglc.'' Whilc tlrc right of'r ivil lcsistrrnr:r, is sulrl,rcssccl,
tlrt'riglrt rrf soc:i;rl strtrgglc ttl rt'tr,tilittion is crrrlor-sc,1 us nt.r:t.ss,.r'y,,rrtl
t:vcn obligutory. Itr tltc I;rant:c of 190(1, tlrir r,,lr.jurrrtit,rr txl'rr'rsr's tlrr'
politic:rl r:rtioll:rlc of'a t-cginrc whic h ,rr:,rcpts tllc lolt' ,,it,r-g;rnizc,l lllrotir',
whilt'nrobilizing;rrtttt'cl t,rcc to supprcss rvorkcrs'nrcctirrgs: :r r,rliticrrl
itrcorpor':rtion of' tllc

c:l,rss strrrgglc'.

It is llso the bcgirrrring of'the cntl of'rr c:t'rt:un itlt:rr oi r:ivil soc:icty: thc
historrcll poirrt i'onr wlric,h it bcct,rrrcs,lc<:rr:,rsirrglv l,rrrsilrlt t,, rhink r,I
t:ivil socictv

1s

al;utot()nl,,tts o.'lcl rvllit'lr r:onf't)rts;ur(l cxpcricnccs thc

3l

( ;t\t,t nilt

nttil t,tli,,nlily:,n ntrJitit,tl

()olh (ordtu
is trot llcc;tttsc socicly is swlrllt'wctl
stirt( lis lrrr rtlicn. inr:ursivr ftrcc.'lhis
\l'll( l('rtlltr' tllt 'rttivitits .'l1, l,y r,,ttt'',tr.'* ''u'"'"'l t'l tltt l()li((
IttHilt t" :l((ltllr( \()l('lllil)F ol tllt 'ltrrsity 'rlrtl'
.,rr,,,',tt.t,, lllclttttlv' r',,,-'i'i"r
l'v lil"r:'l tlrirrk'r' t'lr tltt' "lri"t "r
::;;'lil:lii' ;i];"':,i;'
tls
sot.ictv or_tlltl tllrrl-kt't. what cttillcs
g()v(ril11cltt, rLrrrrcly r:onrrilr,r.c,ilrl
t'ry^1,
6e
or
liqrritl:rtio'.
a
tarr
t. tirk ol this ,,, ,, ,.;;;;;,,i.,i,r,,, retlir:r.not
by tlt",ltttt].:ll:1:ll]..1'1,.'t't*
it
thrrt
is
Iroccccls
,r1-libclll govcrrtntrrt
()ut oi ll r:IlllIC ol cxtrtrctltls sotlr(lcs'
l.,r..rrl ,rf- rt,,t., ltut lly thc itlvt:llliclll'
'fhc
statc of thc
.Ut,,',., ,,i,,.* ,-,,1..t'l' th. strttc
'iitl-nittctcctttlt--t:clttury
lllitiittllll atltl tll.tistr()tls' !llV(s wiy
cttrcc
at
,rs
r:r.isis, v:rri.'slV pcrieivccl
cliscnglgctl, ititervctrtiotlist rrrltl
t() . statc wit: is ,,r.,,. ,,.-tiuist lntl

tlttttt,tl.
.
!
, r...
.l.hc trt:w clisc:illliritl tlf socioltlgy, l)<lnzc]clt .fgu('s. lll;r),s .r.t rt.rlytic lllrrt
tlrc lr;rsir ftt' 't 1't.ittt il']t'l lt *"ltltittlr
in tlrr, r,,w st.rtlt.nlt.rrr Iru ,,..,uurg
'l'c ctltrcc't .f'
's
,,,,,,-,,i.rir/,'

,.,f-tc libcr.rrl ricllc ,li rr.'st,rte

,,1,)ri,r, ,i."clopc:tl r.,f D,,.r.r,"it',,

agr'rrr/r,.r,,,1

",,'.1

,,1"1.,.',,-:rrccl

i,'ro

;r

political

cLrt

tritrc

ibcs, i' r:o'r'.titir)' .lrcl c()rrPic6y l)ugrrit artl l.., ir,i":*..;., r.,rcrsc.r
irrstituti<'', rt fr:ttrlew.rk atrcl

thtr
atlclrcss itsclf to 'the: forrils ol thc
to
is
nrocle t-,f sr;rrc irrrcrvc,,,"rii.rr
sot:i.tv itsttll"'So/idtr-rlc' whit:h
s.cirrl .ntl, ..tlt,tt tlt'" il" "tuttu"t.f
:rPProaclirg rt tlotttitrtrt
'.1r. il:.,,,rr,'t sorcthiJ;
thc [;r.a't,,, ul ,1,. t;i;

lrc..turiry

*itl, tl,,rr.i,i.,'irit,,,,,ri,t.,.f

i'

, irir libcral ,,,,llictivls,tr of tlir: srtrttc cr:t)

iclc.logy (rot rurlik.
sor:i:rl
a s.rics.f raclic:rl in'ovri.rs ir
(lr(ltrrir!{
;;;,.i ,'f,i,r,.,.,t ratio'alcisfrr
lrrsit'
l
l",l'tv '5
.r(1.iris..ilr(rr. ,,,,i;i,;,i;; oltt'tr.'it,',1
socic:ty, it is ltlvisrrltlc lso to
.,ivil
wlth
,,.
v:rluc of socialisr "rlri.,;."ri,r,
tcrtrr's itr-srrtrtrtrrl vlttc'
i..ltt tttt"cl thc hist.ry <'f this
'
t:ivil s.c:icty s u 'tralis:tctiorlal
F.uca.lt's (:ol'ltclt ,iu ,lr. (:olcc1)t .f
irtcrlrcc'-.rI tiic ga'rc trcrwce'.!{()vcrn,]).l.I;, ,;;,';;*;rling of thr: 'r.bile
r, tlt., ,t.* tllivcrsc ol
mcnt lurcl govc,rncc, tr", ,t, altplCst.vcrrlc:ation
'Tlc
soc]ial'clcsig':rtcs a fielcl of
what I)orzcl.t as .,,iIi';rt;:ociil'.
ti,lr'l1'"t'ttittg 'tlw''ys withirr etttl rtItrtt tlrc clist'rt'prrtrcit's
$()vcrlll('lt'rl "t
cach of'which comcs to be
bctwecn ecorlor.r.ry "'"1-;t;:t;ti' riciplcs
prc'iutlicc to thc othcr' so tlat thc
cuvisagccl il.t tcrrr-rs t-tf its ir.'cpic.nt
ccltres on tle effort to
politics ,,f pr.',pt'i; antt"J'', tr.cv.,iiJgc')
t.,r tltcir'cci'r.i:al c.rrecti.tr'
ist^blish p..,orl,iu ft'11.''ttk'' ;'ft"
tt"t" it"lf is uo lorrgcr at stakc irr social
'lhrs is ,, ,iru"it"t'iit"
tcir guaru'tor of
rclati.'s, l-rrr, :i,,,rr,1.' ..rr.r,i.L tc' a.rl 6cc.rrrcs
of' pc,litir:s is ,row lrcr so rriucli the
,..i.ii.;'1";1.';:r:;';,,";;-,
o*c
j.ri,it,.,,,i.r,, of st;rrc cti.,.s tcr g.vcr'a6ility of tc social. I-Icrc is
of
t:haractcrization
uf tl,.''1r.,1i.,., statel tt' t5c
ki'.1 of relcva'r:c "f t,,t,fy
-I.1.,.'
iclcntity
ittltlrc.liatc
,ttl
1,.,1i.." st'lttc- lltlsitc.l
thc lrroclcrtr s.itrtatiotl.
socicty': rwcrtiethcivil
,,i
tr.,ty
bctwcc' rhe srarc',,i';,i"'*i*,t.
i,icrrtity irr.rt atr istl'r.rphist', atr
.c1trlfy llovcrtlt.l.tt postulirtcs 1ot ;'t

illtilttattt syrtrbiosis bctwcctr tltc r::u-cs ol'govt'rrrrucnt:ul(l tlrc tr':rvrrils of :r

socicty cxrosc,l to tlrc c:rnflicts ur(l <:riscs of'tllc libcr':rl t.r',rrr,rrrry. Ilrc
sr:lf--rcrc:r:rtiotr of sot:icty trrkcs thc fr',nlr ,,f-:r <::rt,rlout' ol'problt'rrrs ,rf'
govcnil(rt.
l)urirrg thc e arly clcca,lcs of'thc twcntictlr ccntr.rr-y, the rrrorlif it'rl lt'g:rl,
g()vcnnlcrtltl ;truatul'c of c-rrpit:rlist plotlrrt:tiorr is r':ruglrt rrp in.r
nrut:rtiotr of cconornic: r:l:rss rc.l:rtitrns, rraurcly thc "l'uylorist' t r:urs,rt:t rorr
by whit:h tlrc working cltss t;otrr:crles inc:rc:rsctl lrrothrr.tivity rrrrtl tlrt'
ltbrtltclttrltrltrtrt of'tllc syrrclic:rlist rlcnianrls frl sclf-rn:rn;r!()lrcrt irl rctur-r
ftrr ittirrovccl wagcs,in,l working cotrclitions:rnrl ;r rlisrurrrtlirrg o1-tht.,rlrl,
t:rtrt:ct'rtl llltrtltocls of f :rctory tlisciplinc.Tt' T'llis historic trurslt.tion llas bct.n
intcrprctcil by sotrit' ;rs rn;trkitr4 a rcfrrnrist stlcrnatt' of'thc t:l;rss struglc

withirr tltc lrbour pr()ccss, c()npcls:ltc(1, howcvcr, by l shifing of'tllr.

tcrrrill of'strugglc to thc srhcrc of tlc sttc:rn,l tllc issucs ol-sotial r-ights
:rncl thc social w:rgc, vchit:lcs (:rt lclst inrplic.itly) hrr rrrorrr r.;rrlir:;rlly
iusrrrcctronist ob.jcctrvcs. ln rlrlfcrcrrt w:rys, tlris :rpprcciltion of (.v(rts
sccnls both itrccrntcstablc and prof-ounrlly rrrislc:rrlirrg.'l'hc rLw g()vcrnnrr:trtal systcrl whir:h culnrinrtcs in Kcyntsianisul ;rnrl thc' wclf;rrc
stltc is in.lc.id charactc rizc,l Iry l.. r',l.,r,.,,t .,,rrt.nti,)n at()l!l all Politicrrl
ftrrt:t:s ovcL tltc ntartrtcr in whir:h tllc strrtc slloulcl l()st l)crrcf(.illly fulfil
its socittr:conttttlit: vot:rttioll: ;t clcbute pulctu;ltc(l by w:rr.nirrgs ll'orrr botll
left;rutl riglit, nourishccl by tht'r:;rutiorrury totalitari;rn lcssorrs of'thc
(cntul'y) ugrrinst tlic rcrvcrsion of that vo(;rti()r'r. Ancl yct, us l)onzclot
poitrts out, thc rlr;rnratic:rrlly corrlicting tcrnrs in whir:lr this:rrgunrcrrt is
pursuccl stancl in lnvcrsc proportior to thc rclativcly narrow b:rntlwirlth
of effectivt clissctrt ()vcr tlc arljustnrctrt ,rnrl rrlrnacnrcnt of tllis strciocconorni<: systcr.

In

suggcsting th:rt tlrr: socit:ty

wc now livc in llas bt,c:onrc, l)rc-

c,nrittctrtly, a 'soc-icty of scr:ulity', prrrt of- whut Ioucault no rloubt hrrs in

rrlind is tht ottr llovcrlnrcrt itivolvcs

stl1lcturcs govc-'rrut(lt:ls:t l)racticc

l5

14

rlistinctivc circuit of irrtcr-

dcpen,lcncc bctwccn political secwty ancl -soia/ suurity.lt is rnislcacling to

envisagc thc dir-ncnsiolr of'tllc sor--ial rs ther statc's antagor)ist or its prcy. In
rrroclern libcral socictics thc social is, chorocteristically, rhc fclcl of govcrnrnclltal scc-rrrity r:onsiclcrccl in its widcst sorsc; thc rcgister of govcrn.
llcnt forls, itt rctttrrt, thc strrf;rcc of itrscrirtioli of'thc scr:ulity ,rc,trlcnrs
ctf socicty. A ccrtain vital tlinrcrrsion ol'tlls siturtion is nr:rskc,l by tlrt.
rroclcl oIit totrl :;ociopolitic:al systcrrr (bcrrigrr or otherwisc) within whirrlr
st:tc:tctiol pclftrrrrs:ts rt rlcternrinccl scrvo-ltrc<:llanisrrr.'['ht'r;rttolulitl,
of sccurity is, in louc:rult's rcrlclcrirrll, :rs inlcrcntly opcn..r:nrlccl orrt.: it
clcals ttot.just irr closcrl r:ircuits of-crontr'ol, but in cllcrrlations of'thc
possible arrcl thc prob:rblc. 'l'hc lclation of govcrrrrnolt with whicli it
corrcspt-rttrls is not solcly u frutrctional, brrt also:r'translr:tionlrl'onc: it

of problcntatizatiol,,t zolic Of

(irti;rllv)

op.trtr

( ltt't'nntt n!l t,ilithrltty. ,tn intr,'Ju, tt,,il

)olin ()ordon

:rrltl cvc:rytbing
ititt:rlrlay btltwt'ctt tlic cxcrt:isc of 1tt'wcr

.bjt'ct 1,.sr.l,rtcrl l';v

""i,i.::jiTi',lj,,ilJl; ro rt,(. so,,(.rvhr ,,*,'.lithir:
rcgirnc, of gttv'rtrtrltiPlc
of:
tllt,or ir:s of thc stittc tll( p(r'sPC(.tivc
.rr
rrtr.ysis oi-:r
f"
r.6ritl
"t'
,'rtrtttt'tttrrlitl": tlris ptt''-t "ltiglti "ttut ,s the
rvhic
g()v('.1rcrt
.r
r:rrg. r,l- rlistirc:t ,,,,,",,r'' ,,: 1ii"1rlut,,, .1 'r,r.lenotionl 1'o''rtt'iary lirlc
of- the
,.,.,rltributc towrircls thr' iCl;rtivizrttion
rllight be trtrtlll.'clt:J thc
thest
rtlottg
tv
lltot:csscs
soc'it
bcnn,t'ett st:ttt'lttlcl
il tlrt t xl'l.'tirrg
irriri,rrrrrg rrrr.\ rrt 1,,iu,,'r, i,,,ti"i,r,,t',,rr,l,,,g,,,r,r,rrirrls
ttl
sttt i'tl lrvgit'rrt'
t
t:
1"""u 'ttl"
,rrr,l ,lt lirrirrg "l llt u it'" ':""ttt"''l .t''tks
"ru,rrk, tc r:.ll.r:ti.l ,,f rt,rttti( \, ctt.)i tlrt c:r.ssr't.clir:irrc, s.c.irrl
:rrrrl

arrcl
cliff:rerrt li('rc:ics:rlril t:xpcrtisCs' |ublic:
",,,i;,,1,:i,,*y.,,,l
Icrtilizirrg itrt..rplrry 1)ctwccr
itr,lttstti'rl
irsrrr',rttr':
,,,tir.r
I,r.iv.trt..rlikt.r,,i,,,i,,,,
t'l
rrl
,,,, i,,l,,gv,,,',1 1"u.1"""'''1'y)"tl" i'"'1""'i1v
1::'l.it.ttliorrs
ttf
s'"t'cs
nrtrltiplt
""
t'wtr
tL''ir'
'"UU.l.
' "i"t'; tltt""it"''
g()vcrlrtr('lt t() sct r t;tt
g;rtiotr
tlt'lt
ol
ltlr
lrt
rrt
,t,rlt,''itu, tllt' 'lit'l'l t
l'.rr tlv ,rut()n(rl(ll\ ,,,;:,;;;,,'.
1i,",,i,,i1,"t 1,riv,rtiz.,rti.' r'rl thc 'ctrcwc'l
,.r,.
l.:l,i:1,.,;,:::i i,
il sociul srrrvic('s; tlc frtrctiotr
.stlc:i:ll
r.,r,.,l,ilirrti,,,, .f'tlle u,rl,ur,,,.u sc(tor
:rlr.1 lal,tltrr lts
of.t::rlital
tlrglttttZatl()lS
t() fcl)1.('sClt:ttive
w1l.sc
'tc-c.,1-.lccl
i"' tlit"tt'iit. tli:rl.guc witl'^ tl't statc' 6oclics
l,,tLtttcrs' crrg.gccl
irlstitttti.trs
g.vcrtrirrg
lr'cti.rr us (t. use r.l,lr'luli..l.llcl)is's- ,,pt t..,.,,)''t
to-lllc stiltc lIPfrrlttls'
rcsts oll thcir positiottirrg cxtcr-ior'rc.l
st.tc ,ri aif,rrrs still bc cullctl :r frrrtr,,f

L wliat ,.,,r,.

,,,,'",1'is
-l'lic:
ftllt'wirrg'
()rrc
utrtl tetltrttivt'illswcl rrriht ltt thc
rorrgh
libt.r:rlrsln'?
()vcl-'rlltl 'rbovc tllcr
irlc,r itr ll()vcrll-llcl1t tu"i"' ^,l,r,r,,rr,r,lita,
lrlfil'rcrt ot'thc libcr:rl
flttntls

,,,,,1 scrvir-cs, w.sc .xistcrlctt

c()r()lli(: rrkct i',r
rlrtitltrality ttl thc
tlrc clrrssic. liitcr;rl attrillrtiorl of:ttl.ttttoll()llc)tls
6c,rwt,cr statt'
irrcrt;rr:c
.r r.r.t.rsrirrg.I rc
ot-r:ivil str.it.rv - irr'""ttttl'i"g'likt

tt scc.t'tltl-ortlcr n:rkct ()f

itt ,ttt'i"tt t.lf
It l,cc.t'es tlrtr rt't5iti.t.rf ticro;li.,'i.i,.,' *".r'',,',1 ,.rui.",. . itiz, tr. ,,r
iltttr
1'l,,v.. t' 'ttt'l l"tt'ltlt'l '
li,cr,,lir,rr r,, irr,1.li,,,r,l tlrc iu,livi,lrr,rl

;;,,,:;a;s
tv
'r.,1 s,rtie

tlris ttrlrrkcl ganttr'

l)ASSA(F,SIl{()M(llvll.s()(llti'fYl'()'l'llF',so(llAI-MAlKL'f
ltltlt:ltltlt hes sit1, is sirlrttltatrctlrtsly
.o.t f:i'rli'g i''swcrs to tlc
of
i;;'.,;' rJiuiiu.,l, .i'rl frr a s.c.icty or |oPul,tiorl
(lucsrror .i,.vrat
atrtl
posing
of
ways
o,.'u,,"t'J t" fttu""t"1.,lt' llitlt''clt
intlivi,lrr:rls, ,,, t.,,''."ri
witll tltrc lttltltllct" Ilc.c I
lrlts"t'crittg,tt." tlt":"t.,lt"'t"tt1"ttt 't"l tt'cxist
trl the sc t1iffcrcut
u,ill 1,',,,k :rr sore ,i.,,r,: c()rtrbttt()rs' tcc...structi.trs toge tlcr, llicy ca'
r..rt,.,,,,,rrrcl tcr.'i,1Lr.s.'l'ake'
.r.rcrri

Mt.,.lelt !l()Vt,rlll](,1t1rl l.:rtitlll:rlitv'

b..t irrtlivirl,,,,liri,,f ,,,,,l t.,t.rliz-irrg: rlr.rr is,

rcrhaps bc rca,l ,rs r:hlrrtt'rs irr:r gcnc:rlogv of tlrt.wt'll;rrc st;rtr' ;rrrl of

co-liirc rrr lisnr.
lrr his lli.stoire le h 1,/i,', ncrr1v two rlcc;rrlcs rri.r to lris lct tLrrt.s orr

libcr:rlislrr, lottc:rrtlt hrr,l <lc,rit rvitll thc cfi:r t ,rr rhirrkirrg ,rb,,rrt rll,'
tr(ltttll('llt of- tllt illsrrlt' of'tllc t'glrtt'urth (r('lturv's t'r,tccr rr witll rlt'r'irrrrli
;r fl-rtt o' sor:i:rl r:itizcrrshiP ;l)lrr()l)ri:tc t() :r l)()urg(.ors |olitit:rl ,rnrl
t'c:tllltttllic cttlrtrrt'. Atlltlrt I:t'r'gttsott's notiotr of't'ivil so< ictv ('rl l)('r,',r,l, ,rs
wt'h:rvt'sc('r, :rs llcing r.orrc.crrrcrl with tlrc r;rsk o1-irrvtrrting ,r vvi,lcr
politicrl frarrtcrvork tll;tlr tllrt( ol- thc'.jLrritlrc:rl sor.icty ol t:orrtr',rt t, r',r1r:rlrlt.
ttl- t'ttt:ttttt;issing inrlivirlrlil ct:onornit :rll('lr( v witlrilr :r govcrrr:rblt' ,,r,1,.r.
'l he lrcw Itlt'nt:tl tncrlic:inr, t,l thc sanl(' cl u,[,lrcsscs thc prolllt'rrr o1'
grorttrclitr a p,rr-l-lcg:rl jur-istlit:tiorr ()vt' r crs()trs wh,r t'oul,l rro l,,rrg,.r
.rtr t'|1;lly lrt tli:1','it,l ,,1'tlll,,rrgll tlrr. 1',rl;,, -'t(.n)n)(.nt ilririrrrti()n\ ()l

lltc

ruicn

rtlQmt.'lt wlts otrc of the crglrtt't'rtll (rcrtulv's

Nilrt'tccrttlt-t (-rturv rositivist nrcclicitrc is thc he ir to tlris cf'l ort ol- tlrc.
Iirrliglrtt rrrrrcnt.' ' ( )ttt' tnoclt'rn (or(r('l)ti()r o1-'trt,nnlrl nr:rrr' is ; ('()rstlu( t
rlrrting f'rrrr this cr:r; 'its conr.cptual sp:rr'r'lics l()r witlin tlrc s1r:itt.ofn:rttlrc, btrt itl a systcrl whiclr iclentifcs thc -sr,rlls rvitll tlrt'srrlr.t,t't ol-l;rw.
'I'hc :tbtrornr:tl pcrsott of-rncnt:rl illness, 'l sl,rrvly ('orstitur('(l
prorlrrt:t
r(l)rcs(rtirg thc rnythic'll unit,lt ol'tlrr'.jrrlirli,'rrll1, incorrrlrt.tt'rrt sLrl!ct't
r.l,ith thc nlrrtr wllo is pcrccivt'rl :rs pcrturbcr of'l gr-orrp', crrrc.rg,:s irr

(t()tljultctiol witll l rcw stylc ril- public scnsibilitv towur,ls tlrc sor:i:rlly
irrr:gul;rr'. Ioucrult r()tcs l()w in tllc r:ivil socicty rrf'tlrc fr'st I,rt'rr<lr
rcpublic, whcrt, tltc trutrsp;rretrt rcalnl of prrblic opiniorr is institrrtccl :rs
thc scat of sovcrcignty, thc Iolitic:;rl c:itizcrr is c::rllccl ul)on t() ;rssrrnrr., rrr

tlrt: rl;rcc of tllc bur-car.(.ncy anrl rolict' of'clcspotisrn, thc c.onlirinc,I rolc
'tlllttl ol llrw' ltncl 'nlan of'govt'rnrrrcnt'. 'l'llc l)()stul;ti()r of-:rn intcriol'
.lorltaitl ol Ilerltll nornts p;tr:rllels :rncl prcslll)pos(s this prorrrotion t,f ,rrr
,>f

alcrt public. scnsoriunr of r ivil vigil;rnc:c.

A.nrong thc nrost activc sLrbscqucrt l)r()l)on('rts ()[ this stvlc of tivir'
cottsciclcL niight bc runbcrc(l tlic 'soc:ial cc:ononrists' ,>f'thc frst lralf oftltc tiitrctccntl cL-rtury, tl,1l,,s, t,r,glt'r'tccl corrtril)uti()r t() thc polit ir';rl
thouglit of e:rrly inclustrill sot'icty is cx:urrirrlrl in ( llr:rPtcr'7 lry (iior,:rnrrrr
Proc;tcr:i. Sor:i:tl econonty is :r cliticluc of irolitit:rrl t.(()n()rv. '1 ,, ,,rrlrblt
thc wcaltll-<:rc;rtirrg nlc't'llunisnls,,ithe cct,nrrrrry to work, it is not t.rr,,rrglr
to rctlr()vc thc obstlc.lcs of'obsrlcrc privil.'gcs,rrrtl tlrc r('strictrv('olir it,:;
ol trrercantilisrrr. It is (in onc sctrsc) sor'ictv itsclf , or tllt'-oil/ lrr,rblcrn.
wlrich rcrrcsclts tlre nlrir obstrclc to cr.onorrrir progrcss: tlrt' vcr y
cxistctr(rc o[(irr;rlrotltt'r'sctrsc') un ec:ollorrric socicty, of thrt frrnl rrr t:,rrlc.l'
which is:t rlcccssary conclitiotr frr l-cctlonl, is sorrrcthirrg whrt:lr has yct t<r
be rc,rlizt,l tncl tu;tclc se(ure, ncl which, us tllc social cconornists rrrgr.l(',

*,.,u.r,,,,.,.u,,,'i

36

corstlurt

cttclc;tvortrs', Irottr';tLtlt writ('s hcl'r','t,r;rcljLrst witlr llrc olrl jrrritlicrrl n()tir)rr

,rf thc "sutl.1r:c:t of'l:rw" thc c:ontcrrrror:rrv t:xrt'rrrrlcc of'soc:i:rl nl;ul

1l

Covenunental rationality: an introduction

Colin Oordon

of prolc^tari:rnizctl
clililor bc rc,alizccl nrcrcly through thc institutitln
'titt lt'tt"'''1,"p"-i"tlu'ttirl soliclaritics .f tc 't"rr
;;;r.i,t.ri,r,t Proccss.
of soci'/ donger' r.t<''r' orlly as
c()rc t() ltc pcrccive cl .t tht pt'*" .ft"'-'-'
bttt also, ancl nrt'rc pro,i"^^"frri.rr, 1rlnli,i..l trcat.f r'iot ancl seclitio',
zonc of'turchccketl instinct
t"u,r,tly, ,, tlt. ,l.ug"r of atr rllti-s()cicty' 1
thc Irce circttl;rtio' of'
inconrpatiblc *irtt ,,uti'"ti"i f"ittg' biocking
wclfrc' 'fhcr unaitlccl
l:rb.ttr ancl caprtal *1t; is tc sirr '1ul 'o' of liblral
,.,-,"k. t hottto etofltt,ir,s.rt ,rf tlrc
logi<: .f tc ccono'ry i",rr.rr-r,rin. ,o
.rcftlsal to tllktl thc
^;; clcficit of illtcrcst' lris
Maltlrtrsiall partpcr,s .1',nni.
;;i'l'cing''t' lnclcccl' tc pcrs.ttality a'cl
frot' L'errury
a'.rong t. p.pulatio's
nrc'tality nf ..on.,n.,i'. ,.,^', .^,r,.,,r, tr i'rpl",rt.-,1
'rssrlrc
politic'rl tcchnology
oI thc Poor cxccPt ,t' P';;; ol a broaclcr str;rtcgy' 'r
.,f thc 'tlengcrous
.i"rif"J.r to fonn, .,ui of the rccrrlcitrant nrtcril citizen'
,'i,,r;r', s()lctlillg lnorc thatl ccotlotrlic lllatl: ll sociil that crirrrc is l
''lhtrr-c is a str",tgt p"'"tl.x hcrc: if it is <'l;rirrrcd
h.'w is it p.ssible to s:ry that thc
1rh",t,,rt.:,t,,,t *ittt "'*"i 'tti"t.,gy'
cctrttlry, tlc
cri'rirr:rl as ' "r,r.i.i ,r.,,,,..?"flily thc micl-rtinctccnth
as bectr
istory
a'cl
;;;i;i';;''';:,,, .,,,,lift"tiion of 'oti"'y' rirturcrcgarcle,d
lcss as
nd
lcss
rurncrl insiclc our. r,r]rf.hi",ry, thc insarrr:,rrc
casurrltics

l'ore ,s

,,f p..'gtt'J''i"tl """lt"r livi'g' ""tl n""c

M.clncss, Foucanlt wrote itr Ilisroirt de h I:ole:
rtrd

thc

,lctritns.f's.cial cvolutioli.

bt'.:tlllrcstlrcstigrrrataof:rc:lasswhic.hh;rs.llrtltlorlc.ltlrcfornls.lfsocial
(\)'(('l( .f'lictt;rtit'rr
,.fi.1.,'.",,i i,'l,, ,i ,l,.i'',r.,,r.i,'i'rul,. t, t, .1'ltil,,r,'l'lri(;rl rr'.rly.'is,'f l'r,'ttr,
tir'r.'trit
rlr.
ilr.,',,gli
.(.,rrrr.\ ,r iir,,rit,r ,i;;i,;",,
itsclf
'l't'"lrc'
,'iil'lil',:.,i".i'i,y,rr,'r.',.ir'.il tr.rrrcl't.l,tlittr'rtirrtr.r"t"lly
rrar'c 'f thc
tiic
in
cc'.tlttctctl
tti"i'1u"
f'r.ttr hist.rY, L".t"i;;;':'""''tl
t,rrlllrrrrltlist tl :.tlv;ttirrtl ()l tl( s|('( l( \'

thc bcginnings
Pasrlnrrlc Pascluino (th,rPrcr l2),rl.rccs
*itliilt tltc s;ttltt . otrjttttt tttrt' ot' tltotrglrt:

of crinrinology

erchaic rcsiclue s
of'sot:ial cvoluri,rn.ruil by virtrrtr of its pr,rgrcss,
or.ttpacc'i an'1
*hn,
ncl
g.u,t],,
cn bc itlc'tifi.,l .,r,',;;ri;;',it,'i.'',i"i,f '.rals
cxistctrcc thc
their
ly
.,,,1.n[..
lclt bchincl l)y th,, pr,ipcr l-t. uf cv()lutiorr,
*ltt'lt
,,,.riy tirrr, iiorrirrg "lt tltt

In

t.hc rrirlst

Whilctlrcstlcilcctllttltrrists.liscclvcrtli:rtthetrtilitariancalcultrsof
habit, jurrsts bcginto (ltlestion
inrercsts is an instillccl rathcr than rt tratttral
lr"rii of crirri'al law' Thc
thc .'tilitar.i:r' tc.r.y',ri',",.l.r",rcc rrs rhc
to thc fct tat t6e criminal'
failur.c of ,ltrcrrcrr 1i"titfrt.", is:rttriutctl
to normal nlcasrlrcs of
bcirrg an ipso f.,j..ttt "u.,.,.,r,,1 bcing, is in:cccssiblc
juridical founclation
rati.rl trissusi.'. ir. ,,,.i"1 .u,rrr"., thcory of-thc rtanifcstations of a
thc
of st,cicty ir ln.r.t.,,ttl'' 1"* i""'* sirtrply unt uf
r'rust co'tributc to
crir'i':rl'jirispru.lcrrcc
riri,r.i.,,ty ,.u,,,i.,1.'--r,,.icty;
38

the servicc and clcfcncc of society's vital inrcrcsts by aclapting the law to

thc dictatcs of cvolutiorary progress. Thc crinrinal is not n erring

individual but a specimcn .f a clangcrous biological
a scparre
'rilicu,
racc. The task of justicc, as social defencc, accorclingly
consists on this
vicw trot so rnuch in detcrrcncc as in ncutralization ancl prophylaxis. In
this rcspcct, social dcfence joins hancls with social cc.nonry ancl social
hygicnc.
Social clcfcncc has anotller rlroclcrn coroll;rry: social sccurity. ()rrc: ol
thc conclitions which Franois Ewalcl suggcsts has rrraclc p.ssiblc thc
tnoclcrn worl.l of 'sociopolitics' within which thcsc stratcgies cohltit is
tlrc crrtry i't. s.cial thought of thcpilosophy of rsk (scc ch:rptc' l0). lisk,
cntcrprise, progrcss ancl nroclcrnity arc gcncalogic:rlly intcrclcpcn<lcnt
social irle as. Thc constcllations the y havc f'orrnccl arc ofcn, to a
rctr.srcctivc gaze , paradoxical oncs. c)ne of Ewalrl's r'osr striking ap('rus
is th:rt risk is a capital, not l sririt of capitalisnr.'T'hc vcry tcrr's'risk':r',1

'risk taking' :rrc pr.ducts of irsuranccr tcchnirlucs. 'l"hc i'surcr 'takcs' thc
risk oI thc client cntrcprcncur: capitalisrrr's Fausti:rn claring tlcpc,n.ls on
this capability of taking thc risk o't of- risk. Iisk bcc.'rcs i, tlic

ninctecnth ccltrlry, rs F,wlcl sht,ws, kintl of .'lriv.r..s,

cncyckrpaeclizing principlc for thc ob.jcctification of pt'rssiblc t:xpcricncc
- not only of thc hazards of pcrsonll lif:c ancl privatc vcrrrlrc, but also of
thc colnnrotr vcrturc- of society.'fhc rhctoric of daring uroclcrnity ancl its
risk-plcclgecl soul sccrns, or tlis accorlnt, to h:rvc bccn rnobilizccl in thc
ninctccnth ccrtr'y larg.,ly f<rr thc purposc of cxhorting thc working cl:rss
to aclopt thc bourgcois ctlic of individual lifc, conccivccl as arr crrcrprisc
which proviclcntly rcckons with its chanccs ol dcath anrl clisblcmcnr as
'profcssional risks' of hunlan cxistcncc. IJut thcsc iclcas ol pruclcncc ancl
clttcrPrisc thclrlsclvcs 11{rgo a consirlcrablc nrutatiori at thc hantls oI
Irrtcr ninctccnth-c-cntury jurispruclcrrcc.

I)aniel I)cfcrt ancl Franois Ewalcl (chaptcrs 10 ancl 11)stucly thc nodal
rolc playcd in this story by thc problcrn of industrial acciclcnrs (a topic,
alongsiclc tlc strugglcs i' thc priso's, of i'tcnsc conccrn in Frcnch lcftwing politics in thc carly 1970s). Icacl alorigsi<lc Ian Ilacking's parallcl
cpistcrnolctgical survcy tf statisrir:l thirrkirrg ovc-r thr: s;rnrc rcri.tl
(Chaptcr 9), thcir chaptcls [rr'( \r'rt :r riu.. of a c.pc;[-r;rkin
nrutatiotr of rnctapliysical iclcas r;at:rlyzctl ;rrouncl thc nrickllc ol- tlrc
ninctccnth ccntury by thc tcchniclrrcs of insurancc: a statistic;rlly
groutrclccl conccptiotr of'socirl c:rusllity, a irhilosophy of t:ivil law rs thc
rcrlistribution of .soaa/ ris,[, rathcr thalr t]rc rctribution of'plivute culplbility, antl a novel rrorion.f farrltlcss r:ivil rcsponsibility. Michel
Fottcattlt, in atr irnportant essiy on thc notion of-thc.l:rrrgcrous incliviclual,
has sugg.stccl that this lattcr irlc:r r'.y als. havc hclpctl t. r'akc thc
crirrrinologists' ncw prcvcntativc rloctrincs .luriclically fasiblc:
39

()ovtnunental rationality : dn

)olin Oordon

ln:rratht'rstr:tllgcwty,tlistlc'pcnaliz'ationtfc:ivilliabilityof'fcrctl^rr'nrotlcl
Al'tt'r 'tll'
1,,, ., ., tr.tl l.1v lr,rrttl ,,ll tltt i,ltlr "f tllt t lillrirl'rl itltllr()l'(;l()gl\ts
ll ll.1 'l
rsol'llly'
titllitt'tl.l)(
t
.l
'r
*ir.,',. ., 1r,t,,t t rilttill;rl .t 'ltgt tttr'ttt
(. r(((llstrtl(t'
rt.liffi,rrlr
wlti.lr
,lr;rirl
l.r..isrrr,'l-,,,,,,r,,1
lrv
i,.r.,,, *1,,,.
i'rsclf" a
ca.ri.,s

" l"irk?*'

'roeility,

,, i,tt,'r.,1
.I.hr:

:r'tl is,

p:rrri(.rlrly ftigfr i,ri."'"t-,,,ii,tti,t,,l

ilrsltr:ttl<:c tcc:hnologics
conr;cpt of-sOcial risk llrkcs it possilllt: icrr

c:atl bc Prcscttttrtl as
to bc ppliccl ttl socilrl problcms ir'' " wtiy whit:h
()lrt of'thtr
s.litiarity'
,.t,,i"1
,,,,.1
justicc
crcrtivc si'r.lralrc.usly ,if r,r.'i.l
.f rr',crf l'e as thc
,ru".,,rl ,,rcrgrhs ,,tl,l. i,rrur,,r'r.c t.'clirri.ltttr is its rtsc
witll rcc:ottrst-- ttr
can,lispc,nsc
whir:h
i,l.irri,,,,l l,,,ri, f a lt.,r'r oIsccurity

uttr(ru(:t()n

st:rtt'is thc only institution within socicty posscsscrl of'tlr:rt rlcgr-ct. ,rl
soliclity rccuisitcr in a proviclcr of r;crtain kinr[s of insur:rnt't', it tlrcn
frllows that thc continrrcrl surviv:rl of thc sttc will itsr.lf bcc.nr' :r

'l
1,ct:rrliarly sor:i,rl inrrcrative . hc cxistolc:r- cf insurnr:c is, s I-,wrrlcl ruts
:rtt ittsttrattcc agaittst rcvolution. 'l-hc corrcsporrrling politic:rl princ:irlt'
o1- solitl;rrity, sh:rpccl by ittsut-;rtrccr l)ricticc rncl rclllc,l :rs soc:ioiogicrl

it,

thcory by I)urkhcini :rncl .rhc.s,nt' fbrnrs rhc <:.re of thc hist.r'it

govcrlllt('llt.tl t:otttpt cttttisc irnrlctrrc'ntcrl in Fr:rnc:c rrtclcr tllc 'l'hir',1
lcrublic: ;trotttrtl thc trtrn ol lllc r:e ntury. ()thcr st.llol,rrs ll:rvr, <1,,t:unlt'utc.,l
tlrc shaping l)rcs('rr(c of-sinlil:rr:rrrtl ;rrr:r)o;.trs iclcrs in Iritish olitit:s:rnrl
:rrt i( ty ,,1'tllt s;ullt ltt'l'iotl.-

colttitlu()tls sttrvc,ill llcct:

of itrtcrcsts
rr I'rrt Jcgltc to tlrc solitlrizatiotl
a
l:lvt'ttritc
tls('
to
dll
1trasc
wc
w;rt
otiics
tlraitl
l.strr:tllt:c is .tlc .f tltc
(('rrI'r\r((l witl

lrtsttrlttlcc t:olltribttttrs irr

,'l tlr. jtttirts

,,',,/ ' 'i;;:;'i;y,

'

l'..' r,',r,,1 , ilr,tl

'' lu/;/"'i'y

tlrr.'rr'qlr

',rli,llrrlty

scictlcc of policc'
i.lc which Iouclult notcs :ls char;lctcristit: of thc
:r trcw
'trlctt
end thirtgs',
-t:tlttircs
tlic tlistinr:tivc (olce rr with govcrnittg
clotrblc
a
t.
;ii;,.';rri,rtt 1t..". 'soli,l,,.i,1'-tl.'tough thi'gs' corrcsPorl(ls
As I)rrnicl l)ctcrt poitrts ortt' 1t ts tllc
1rr,,,,.rri of social caPit;lliztiorl
whit:h first (llt(rs ilt()
workcr's own lifc, ratlicr thn liis llrbtur l)()wcr'
-fhc frrrlls
((.()tt)nli., fi,l'lrl t',i ltutn'ut titpitul'
c:rirrilrrerrCial c:rlcultrtiL}n .ts .rll
t,f socirrl scclrrity c()lccrll
,.,- *.11,,.. r.,ith which rhc.ncw irrstitutions
wllit:lt arc c:apalllc of
thcrnscvCs lu.c l)rcciscly thosc lrrtnlrtti asscts
s.rvc t. itrsttrt: t.sc
.1"rt.^tr,,,t"';rs ri.s,lr.s, *iil.,,, prctttirtt.tts whicll
s.vi'gs i'
.,,iri,^r, proviclc,,n.l[fi.,i.,,t.,lr*lr,r.l frr st.ri'g
'r.lcturia'
t,rrit;rlist ;ttti11liotts'
'ihcapprchcnsiotrofst"'iall:tws,of:rspcciiit:allvsociologcalortlcroi
a'ti laSc'tlr law'
,,,,,,r,,iirf,'i, .nc .f'tr: rrcr',r',litions frr s.,cr,.l lcgislatio'
hu'ra' c'tcr'riscs, rlr.rr
If.s.c.icty is i, s.'rc ,.,ir,. ,h., gcrre r.l s'b.icct .l
within thc
tc trrrrr of thc i,t.i,'l'itl ttt''ttt1"i" "'J l'bt.,ut rc1;rtiotrs
t. rcgulatiotl solcly
.lu"rtrrlr. carl 1() 1u,rf.. pl,rrrsibly i...,t''ig,t...l i'law
,,l't.rrrIloyrrcDr. l ltc f r{r{rt'ssivt'
l.,y ,lri l)rivrrrr. l,r,,uirl,,,r^,,l rllt. t 'rrtl,rt.r
right,s
,,L,rf,.'r, through l,,ilr.rrtri"l lcgislution of 1,r',rte.tiv.
-il':-..vntO"tt
'c'l'rrgi'g
tc
trrrlrltl'iti.lt'
l).rrzclc-,t',
ir.,
1r.,q,t",
,,,..i'.rui,.,,r, ,itruiii.r,'t*p""tt
oi thc r.otifat:frirl/ itl thc tlcfinititrrl oi
sl:,hcrc ,'f thc 'rl'frlfi''l'tt' tl"
ttt whit;h Iriall
thc crtrployr',',,,,-,, ,,,,'u,'ttt't"We Itlove f rt'lll ll sitrt;tfiotl
to .t,ri.ttt.itiotr irr whicll hr:
.lcfjncs liiilrscli-,rs ,r \\,r.,t.kcr crrrrf-olititlg cal.it,rl
k ()r ll()l)'
ts etr ctttlrltlvcc ol'soc'it't)' (rvhctlrcr ttt lvrrl
to lt'rtvc
\\,irilc trrs r,,.rr,rr,',,f.,,,,,,,t,i,,soci;tlizritiolt is still tlcsigDctl
,f.cc, .i ,1i,..:,, l."r1,,r'si6ilitv frr r.rr'irrg rh.- cc:.'or'y a'c1
,,.,. i,,i1'
tt'-tttu'ttl b1' sot:iet1' s te takt'r tlt'risk
f,",,,,,,,..,tg tu,',rk, ,ltt ut".tt'tit"'
[]rr if thc
:r rew g.irrr.t('(.ot ser'u.it' o, thc stlrtc.

,l.hc

tlirr'qi 'r\

llSI()NS Ol Nl.l()-l.l l LlAl.lSM

IIr his Oollt\gt'clc lrrttrcc lcctrttt's of- 1979, Fouc:rult firllorvctl his rlisr:rrssi,,n
o1'tlrc libcr;rl lrt of'govcnuclt :rs irritialll, plopounrlccl in tlrc cightccnth
(t' rtury witll a rcvit'w of thc post-wrrr crlrrclrts of thought whit:ll
I)rcscrt
tllc nrost r,lic::rl chlrllcrrgcs to thc systcnl of thc rvclf:rrc strte, solr('()f
rvlttrsc tlt:rivations lllvt' bccrr outlirc(l ebovc. Fotrc';rult tlisr:ussctl nco*

libcr:rlisrn irr thrcc l)()st-w;rr \)vcstclrr

llnitcrl

St;rtcs rlttl l:rallc:r'.

+l
)

rit's: 'wcst (clnr:rny, tl(

A gr'ottp ol'.jLrrists:ttltl cconontists \vl() r':nlc collct:tively to bc kn,rwl

(l'r't,rrr tlrcrr. p:rltir:ip;rtotr itr tlrc'.joLrrnrrl /r) ;rs tt ()rloliltrr,l/r,rr pl:ryc,l ;r
srgrrilc:rnt r,rle us ;u'cllitccts of'tlrc lr()st-wlr Wcst (ir:rnlurr statc anrl
:rttril)ut('(l ,r rrr',r,cl govcnllrcr)trrl rrrclinirrg to tlrt' lrlca of';r nrrrkct. llor
thcnr, thc nlrrrkct is no longcr to bc tlrougllt of rs bcing a sl)ortalc()us
(;rlbcit Itistor.ic:rlly r'orrrlitiorrc<l) (lr;rsi-iturrl re;rlity, rccogrrition of'
r..,'lt,tse cxistcttt;c t onstl rtins !()v('rnnrcnt to tllc plcti(r(' of'/rrl-s-rc.:-./airc. 'l-hc
tllarkt't is tlot:t lr:rtural sor:ial rc;rlin';rt lll; ancl wllat is int:uluLrcnt ou
gov('rlll('llt is ttt cottcluct lr pr',lir:y torv;rrrls s()('i('tv such that it is possible
1rr:t rrirtrkt't to cxist ;tntl frnc:tion. Ijol tlrr' ()rrloliberalut, thc olitic;:rl :rrrrl
t'ct,ttt,ltlic ,listtstcl's rrf rt'r'<'n( u)c'lr()r\i iu-('not to br':rttriiLttccl to:r fllrrv,l'
('()ttl;(li( ti()tt ttt :r lllu-kct cr'rlront1,, 1i,r', u,ltilc tllc nl:rlkt'{ is lot ;r Iatrlrltl
lrlt,'tt,rlttctt,ttt, rlt'itlrcr is it sLrlr.jt't't to rrn csst'lrti;rl logrt:r) rrtolrtlcrrt: ir is
tlot thltt libcr';rlisnl lr,ts Irc'r'tr tricil ln,l frurrl rv;nrtirrg irr rno,lt'r-n ( r'lrr;rrrv
it ll;rs bccrr 1run,l rrcxpt'(li( lt :Llr(l lot bcclr tr-tt'rl.
ltl Ailt'tlltttc'r's t'lrlbl-\,,rrlit rt'l,1111]..', the'sc tlrinkcls ('()r('('l)rior t,l tllc
t)l)('l \| t( (' ol tlrc' Itl;tl-kt't ,tll,l tllc ;rrtiflcirl g:rrnt' of its r'onlPctitivt
lct',1,rn lnlttiorrs:rs tlrr'lr'ilrtiIlt.of-:i Possilrlc nt'w,|oliticrrl lcqitnr:rr.y.
l)losIcri', Irottr',tttlt \uqg('sts, Il:rs rr nlt'unirrg irr tlrr.Wcst (crrn:n stut('
rvlrir'll is colll,;rr',r1.lt'ttt tllr. lnr':rlirrg lrl Wclrt.r's I)rotcst:ult (.irl)il:tlists,,t-

irr.-,,,1/,,r,,,j',,..,,,f.r,

.[l

t orurt

Oolin ()ordon

Oot,erntnental rationality : an introdutiott

prospcrity is thc cnginc firr

worlclly wcrrlth :rs ;t In:trk of tlivinc clcctioti:
,,.* it.sis of c'ivil
(.r(i.rior, .rt .f.r,,.iu;;i f.fi,.,,f ;r'riliilati,,tr, ,rf',,
,r,lltt'sitttl ill(l l)r(t\|('( tivt st'vt'rt igtlly'
this
I:trr tlrc ()rdoliltr,r,tlr,nt,,tr" ,rr,,,,.'p.,1r1.,tt of- soc:ial Politics.withirr
btrt thc

thc crcollotnic, tlic nrorc aclvctrtttrous anorg thc Anlcric:rrrs (llour.ault

looks in particul;rr at thc iclcas of Gary (. lcckcr) prol)()sc :r global
rc,lcscription of the social as a forrn ol thc cr:ouornic.
'fhis .pcrati.' works by a progrcssivc c'largc'qrt of tlic tcrritory of
ccorrolnic: thcory by a scrics ol'rcclcfinitions of its ob.jcr:t, stating ()ut
frolll thc Irco-classical lcrrnrula that cconolnics conccrns thc stutly of'rrll
bchaviours involving tlle llocation of sc;rrcc rcsourccs to ;rltcrn:rtivr.
crlcls. Now it is proposccl that ccronollrics ctlncerns all purposivc c:onrluct

tll:rrkct'
fr:ullcw,,rk is tltlt tllc ,,,"i-"t'i"l cffccts tlf'thc cc:otttlrnic:
(tolllPCtitiol t. lttlrcti.tr itt
,",i-.,"rrfr",it.iu..,ffi.,tr,rl-r,r,,i.,,y.'l't,_r,tl*blc
irrsiitutior''al .ntl .jrrritlic:rrl
thc rcal w.r.1, . .'"rr^i,, f.^,'.,*,rrk .f p.sitivc (;('l
lll;lll rrt 't-lilrt r 'rlisllr'
Wt'st
ft'l llls it l ( (ltlir('(l: 'r t ;rrit;tlist 'ty'ttt'rrr"
hr:ritagc .f Max \X/cbcr
I;o.c;rult r.r.:rrks, ,,"'jr-'*i,lti,r thc s.ciologicrrl
Marxi:rn critiquc of'
in rrt:t;cptitrg, albcit ,ruly ttttit'ly, tlrc justit:t: of thct
l:ril.rc t() ttke :cc()tl't
.li,,rri,',,i p.,ii,i,,,,l ..'t"tt"'y i" 't:g"'J tt'.tht'l'rttcr's
,.,1 thc rnrrkct. (rrpit:rlisnr's
of- tlrc lcgal rrilrl ir,rtitt,ti(.,.l,,,l li,.,r.,rri,r,r,
.tt rt brorttlcttilt{,.f-t'trrtr.'llll:,:l:i::::]l so :rs
;;,,t;,.,;;i r,,ruiu,,l ,lcpt'n'l
ltistoIit: (l()lltil[j('lci('s- Not
to trlakc l)r()ircr ptt.,u"it"tt lrr thcstl systtrrne
is :r rrcr('srr't'rstrttt:tttrt'.f
.',,rly is tlrc:jurirlicul ,l,.,;;,,it,-,,,, ,,,1,,,' ,,'r,,r.1.,1
irl thc rlanrc tlf thc
thc ct.otrOlllic, )ut:tl cc()n()lilit; g()vct^lllcllt.,,,tl,ltlt'tctl
killtl .f'lcgirl .ctivitrrl' 'r
rt",1., lrrtlst :tc:t:tlrtl 1l ccltritl ""1" tt' :l lcw
't:otrscitttts lttltiotl tlf- cc.otlotrlit: right'
l
,l.herc is lrrr irnltlrtlrrr..,.,.n:i',.u.,..itltr hcre irl tlte rtlccivtltl libcral tltrtitltt
ll()st (ols()llillt with thc
,.,1-tllc 'rulc, ,.,f lw' as thc ftrlrl of gt',vcrtttttcllt
cigtccrrtlr (rcltllry tl(
w,rrki'gs ,,1 " ,.,r^.k.t .,,,rr*.,,rry Wii.,.."r. frr tll.,
ilttcl'vclltiotr (/tlissc':Jair'" irr itt
lrrnr:rlisnl Of lrrw *,,, r, ..,,,ir. i,,. tt,ilti,,t"l
l11 cxlcls1vc-ltlrl(llcll
ntore P:rssivc scnsc), thc ()rr/lr/ir,l/,'rt cttvisigc
.f c'tttcrprist' 'rs ;t
glrr-'c
tlic
t.rtllc.
,,,.,1u.1,r,;,r,rir,rr *itir rr v.cuti.tr t.
tc
of .,,.,,.1.,.,, rlif lrsirg tr,. crtr.'rpr.isc-f.rrrr r'.rug.'t
;r"; ",.;;. stylt,
()rrc ol thcir
irc:tioning.
of
so.ial fabric: :rs irs g,.,.rr,tir-.4 p.i,,,,i1',1,,
a
u..,,, ltist,rw, sig'il:'ir:arrtly tcr's . tis policy
nu'ibcr_,
'i'i,'iitrr-ri,',,1r,Alcr,,rr,lc.'
,viral
that thc wholc cnscr.nblc of
lc

or
rr.oposcs
1,olir y,. .l
thrj pur.suit ,rf u r.engc of dif-fcrcnt
,ti,r.t,',r,,,l
bc
lifc
i'tlivitlurrl
"s Iti,.,i
It,,. st'lf'. his.r cr profcssiorral
.rrcrrriscs: ,, p.,rru,,;r'-l,,,i,rtr,u

ctc., a[( all tct bc ivclr

;rctivtty, f:rrnily, lrcrs()nul l)f()Perty, cllvit-otttrlc'trt,
poiicy'will
tc ct.s rr'cl str.crur..,,rl tl. c'tcr'risc-f.rr.'l'his'vital

;r;,;; " proccss.,1"1...,,,i,ru.,1 .ii,,"1 a',1 c'lrur:rl v,rlucs'within

tt-I-"rtl'uu..,rlt

p.i'ts .rrt, lltist.w's tIirrkiug hcrt scttrrs rtlt'ost to of

its ttwtl scccls
1"-i"t'i1'lt t.,l'tntt'1t':i" t'c'trt.
rtu rttltrtissi.tl th.t lhc ti.l.',r
.f, thc strain .I
r.nakc

c()'trrclicti(),,, ,i,r,.. ,lr.

,lrt' lritrrl.tolitik (s. t vtrt ativc

(t rttl'ttl p<'ltty)-sLLrl.ls lll

sttist ((lit(:ltiolr .,vhich clistlngtlishcs tllt' west
cff't:ts of rrrarket
I'rIgc 1,ert ,l.rig,t.ti'tt' 1'"tt-i"it' tlrt' tlisaggrcgatil!l
c()nsi\tcllcy i\
raclicrtl
r
tnort'
,1,,rr.ii,i,',tr ,,,, lt. ,,,. i,,1 i,,'..1y. Att 'rltogctire
tl(
ot'k 'rl
|(\l-w'lt Altlt'riclttl
rlt,rtltlt'rtt',1, I .ltt ;rttlt trrggt 'tt' irr tllc u
(hiclrgo.
whe'rtllx thc wcst
(l
(
(
t
sr.hrr.l .1'trcr.,-libc',1
'" ..,..,",,"rir,, ( tltl
.f
itr tc
tt'rtlttt:ttrtl
(cr'r;r's 1,r.,r,t,urr,l ;;;,,;t,tt,trt .1'tltc ,,'ci'l
'etrte
+l

rrrrtailing stratcgic choices bctwccn :rltcrn:rtive paths, nreans ancl instnr,

rrc11ts; or, yct rnorc bro:clly, all rational cttndutt (inclurling rationl thought,
rrs a varicty t>f rational concluct); or ag:rin, finally, all conthr<:t, r:rtionul or
irr:rtiortal, which rc,sporlcls to its cnvironrnctrt in u rron-rantlrrlr f:rsllion, or'
'rt-cognizcs rcality'.
Ilc'no'rics thus bcconlcs an 'approach' capablc i, prirrc:iplc .ft.dclrcssitr' 1l1. tot;rlity ,,f hnnlltn ht'h;rvi6rrr, cl, r's11ctl),, fr crryis:rgirrg lt
ccthcrcnt, purely cct>nomic nicthori of progr;rnrnring thc tot;rlity of'
govcrllrrctltal actiotr. Thc nco-libe ral hrtttttt cLt)tu)tni(:us is both :l rc;tcriv;r'tiotr
ancl a raclical illvcrsion of'the t:c:ononric: ;rgcrrt :rs conccivccl by thc

libcr:rlisni of Snrith, Ilunrc or Fcrgusorr. Thc rcactivatior consisrs ir

positirrg r funtlanicntal hnnran ficulty of'clroi:c, ;r principlc whic:lr
clP()wcrs ct:tltrotrlit: crtlcttlation cf.fcctivcly to swccl) :rsitlc tlrc :utlrop()Iogical (tatcgorics antl ft':ttncworks of thc hunran anrl sor:ilrl st:icnces.
Fotcrrult shows this c()r\cqu('rcc t,nrcrgirr3 vcry strikingly in lrt:kcr's
ccononric :rn:rlysis of crinrc arrcl c:rinrc prcv(.rti()r, wliich rn:rn:rgcs to
clispctrsc crtircly with thc rsyclrologic:rl or l,i.rl.rgi<::rl rrcstrrposirions
corlrrrroll in this tlornain; licrc /oro ('(:()notticlts drivr:s out thc nintc't:thcctttrry httnxt uittinoli". l.ikcwisc, tlc (rtcgory of ordcr is clcthronctl f roni
its rrsual ruling rolc in lcgal thought, bv beirrg rcrrrtcrrrctctl as nrcarrirr;.r
su1tply ot''law-abidingbehavio,r/: tl:t is to s;ly, of'a conrnroclity whosc pricc is
tlctcrrrlinerl by r lcvcl of cflcctivr: social clcnlantl. lleckcr thinks that it is
rcason:rblc to crlcul:rtc the quantity of crinrcs which it is worth a socicty's
whilc to tolcratc.
lJut thc grcat clcr:rrturc licrc f'orrr cightcrrtl-ccntury prcc:crlcrrt is
that, wlrcrcs llont() tL'cnttnitss oriirrllly lll(alt tl:rt sub jcc t tlrc sringi ,,l
r.vhosc activity rrrtrst lcnl:titt ltcrrcvcr ulltorrclll)l( by gove rnnrcnt, th('
Arrrclicarr nco-libcral horno t'Lonotttitus is nrmi2tulahl,, ttan, rl;rn wllo is
Icrpetually rcspottsivc lt Illorlifr:lrtions in Iris cnvironllcrt. [r( olr()r j(
g()verrlcrt hcrc .jOins h:rnr1s rvitll bcllrrvi()urisnr.
'l'his is cttrly
1,,rtrt of thc story. Anrcr-it:arr nco-libcr;rlisnr ,rls.., cl:Linls ro
cffcct a rltrt:isivtr cnrtc'lutrcttt o1- thc ccorronlit: un,lcrstrrtling i,f lrunlrn
work, hclc ;rgain insrirc,l by its r',vr:r,rll vicw ol cr:onornic lc:tivity ;rs u
,listliluin;rtil, ,,r.' ,,l ,,v,,il,,lrl, t( \ollt( ( \. fllt' ;rl,str,rr r ,r1,111.,,i.,' ,r1
laboul in inclustri;il socictl,is not, rrs Mur-xisnr sul)poscs,:r rc:rl cf-fcr.t of'
,13

Colh

()ot,ernnental rationality: an introdukn

()ordon

tlr'1sctl l)y pt)litical

tlic logic o1 t:apit1, l.ut r:rthcr :r nrispcrcctit)lr rti'rlysis t'i l'rltour' alr
1""ittl'"'tunt'"t" io^lit"tiut
,,.:,,,,rlrtv's f :rilurc
":,
work fbr r'c workcr ,)c''s'
11,,,.i,,,,'.i',;i;;;,.,if i;';, tlic workcr^'.rcs..rr:cs
oi skill, aptittlclc a'11
.f
.ct:.rrlirrg to thcr 'co-lirr"r,lr, thc uscr
crPital' to trbtait
''i' ;l*_ *n'kt''' htt'tatt
corrpctctcc *lti,,lt ."";P;tt;
,,,;,,i,*,wr,i,r,,,''sr';il
'J,:lll,::"1,:]l;::,;:1,il'll,,ill;'l,:,'ll;:l,i:
i* rr,rr(' ,'1"\iiliii.:,';,;;,i;,
rrv. ( (rr-r( rr\.

()rr)()\(.(l ,,r

trriIrrrt'lrt',ll(1.'ll

()l
J( tltlir('(1. (1rlll(l('lt

i,i

,. . ., ,,,1,

tt'u"ttt"rtlrt'rl stirlrrrli:
ir ,lct'irlt'tl 'rs ;t trt;tsito thc
utl"t';
'tPltlit' .]tttt tl]'ly
rrrtchitrtr fr' ttr p'ut"t:tit"t t''f' "
'lti'
tiorrs As
,r, ,,,,,,,r,,,li.., r,r,-.,1r,, ro lltt' Irttrltt.:11,t "l's'rtil;rt

()l

itv( sll(

lt ll tl( l'r'rvisitrtl

ttl

.'1.

-.'t1'ttt'1tf1'ttt'

,rlrtittr,lc
r.ftrrr(., t,tlut..rli.rr. t.tt.r. Irt.,,'orli,.;rll)i,',,rr
I,r.orlut.tirrrr

whi.:h, frr cx:rniltltr' t:onfcrs

,,r,c ue.,-lilrcr,,l ,lrink.i. 1r",r ir,,,r,,,.1,.r,,ti,xt
l.gical cliscortrsc.r
rc.,,1.,,i;i;" ..,t suclt s.tisfrc:ti.trs rts

.rr its

rl'r' r''
*,lak,,,t,rrt (;ilt1rt.torr.irltrttlrrrrltrttit.,ll1 l't'lll its'
*t,'i. i, t.r.,, tll,. p.... rrll,,r ity ,rl'lrt'irr itl*t l''tr'rltlt

'.sscss.r rrl
tlrt.,r1,1'rt.tir,titril

(..1r\.r1.r. tlrrr.,rlrl,.
thc' inclivi<1rr:rl pt..cluccr-tollstlllcr
()w1cf . Fronl this 1r,ri'U ,rf viCw, thcrr,
.f hi'rstrlf
nur',.r; ;,; :tir;;;rir,,, 1,u, t'c crrtri''rctrcttt.

is

i, 'ovcl ,.,,r.

,rr herscli.

lltlwtlvtlr().llclISScss(.Stltcst'sc:htlolstl[.rlco-lillcr,.ltlrouglrt^ll.ltlre
tlr,rt -r

.t'sig's

'ct'-li6cr.l
cxrcrr .f thcir. i,,flr,:,i,., .l.,. ,,,. 'u.15.:r
to pl'ry 'r p'rr't itr thc liJt'ol scvcral
r:rtionelity of govcrtlttrclrt is bcgirrrling
s('(ltllitt't
V/t..rr.rrstrtit.trr.r. r,r'i,',rirr*iir,,.i,tt1'1.'irr.li,,,tt,'.itrvtrttltl
tl ttt't*' rtt" tttplttyrtt
lt'ttt
t'l
r,.i'r (,1 tlr. tttl,.slt.., t,,f ttt'''ttt'' '"1" 1"''ltili.tu
r,r tl,t ttr'(i.tr,'f tltt'
*

, l;,,i: if,,J,,,f. .,i,,1',,',',f,,, rj,,,*i,l.i,lil'rrr.i,'rr

as r( crt(rfrisc t'f .,ncsclf
i.,livitl.al ,,, .,,,".,,,,,.i:i':,;,, .,,..,.'r.', lilrc'rilts
(:ottirtlotlsly
otc
'rlways
i'r1,lics rr.t rt.rc ir',; ,.;r'i, uui,,
crtrlrloVctlirr(;rtlt"rst)tll:ltotttetrtcrpristr':rtltlthtitislpllrttlitlie
ftrr thtr
.1,,,ri,',..,r,
1,f"i;t"; i,, ,',",t . .r.lc,.1u.rtt pr,,viriotr llutlratl
(.()rrir,'()rs
tlwtr
r)fcscrvtiot.l, r-c'r.,l.cti,r,, ,,i.1 r.c.'st^rc:tit,u,,it,,trc',
((rrrrr('(ls 's th('
1,,,',i :,':'ir';li. ':,',. ,,1 ,l', "11'r'lri'lr r)v(tr)rr(rt wlrtr'.. .rs i' t't'
rlr,,r
rr,r,i,,,1,1.
..,\i,.i;'r1,.'i,,',1,,'l,,riv(. F{r(.(.(1. rr ir
1970s, thc 'rig't to l)cr'irrr('t
t'r'
r,i
,n,.
I,,1
"r.,utri,,.,...t
,r.rr ,,.u-rirr.,l,,r
i't. ki'c .t' itlstitttti<'rnal rcality' its
rctr.;riui'g' ,,, lr..,r
of thc'trcw

l:1,',,

lrcrrvilv ()l tll('totlfribtttitltrs

tcr'llnicrrl cL)ttclt l,^"tlittl
t't tllt' "'lt wlritll
(('lltl((11'i''
tll'lt
.ttltLrt'
"l'l('(lll(lll(:
1'.111.'1,,1i,,,1
sclf--

"
st,ttlltitltizt':tl)tltll(l('wrtlr

,i,,i,r,,,"

scll-qir('llcss ""tl 1"t1'"'rtrt'c with

s.'rt' r.ulturrl r:ritics

ie ll'-prcse
1,1,, ,,, ,,.rr,i,.,,,

Ji.lqtl.,s.' its tl(' tri].llr1,ll i,i

rr;rti.').

w-:rt

bc
,...,,.,_...,''...,.lirrg rr"rc,ssisl.l.l L;tll pcrlr.rps

rrl
'ttltt lttrtt''gtti'rliz'ttiotlthc
.llt1.,',lr''rrr'ltr:1""'l ''l"tI
rtcc:otliP;tttit's
rvhich
ncr.,rttrtl i,lctltitr"'"t 1'tt""t'tt lcltrtit'rls
lrt
.'i
'
L',,,ir',,itll {l ll( ttt' ''tritl
titutlt)|l('llts is tltc Ilrovc which Jrrc:qrrt's
(ll.scll',,11i.,1 t,'tltt"

1r1

l)onzclot cle scribcs in Chaptcr 13 towarcls a rnocli[ic-.d corrr.cprion of-sor:i:rl

risk, which shi[ts t]rc cnrphasis frorn thc princirlc oIcollcr:tivc inclc:rrrniction of ills ancl injurics atrcncianr on lilc in socicty, towartls a grc;rr('r
strcss ol ther incliviclual's civic obligation to rnoclcrrtc tlrc burclcn of risk

which hc or she i'ipr>scs.n socicty, by participati'g, f.r.x:rrrrplc, i,

I)rcvcltivc hc:rlth-c;rrc pr()grarrncs. ln l)onzclot's terlns, thc shifi frorlr
cotract t() status in social wclfrrc rclations bcgins to go ir:ttr rcvr.lser. It is
not that social guarattccs rrc annullccl or thcir nrcchanisnrs rlislnantlc,l,
but that thcsc hcnccforth beconrc, us it wcrc, parr ,rf cch playcr's
stakes ill thc garrte cf socioecotronric ncgoti:rticns. 'lhcrc is a kintl ofgorcralizccl floating of currcncics. Even thc irlca of: progrcss, that
gtlaraltcc of guarantccs, loscs its ovcrrrchitrg virtuc. 'l'hc notion of'tht:
s.cial bocly as a collcctivc sub.jcct co'rurirtcrl to tlc rcp:rratio'.f'tht'
irrjurics suffcrccl by its i'divirlual nierlrbcrs ivcs placc to a ..lc f.r thc
st:tc as a (:usto(lian of a r:ollcr:tivc rcality-principlc, rlistribrrting thc
clisciplincs of thc cornpctitivc worlcl rnarkct throughout thc intcrsticcs of'
the social bocly. Thc st:tc [)resents itstlf as tllc rcfrcc in un otgL)ilrl{
trrs:ction in which onc prrtlcr srrivcr ttr cnli;rnr:c the valuc of his or hcr
lilc, whilc anothcr cndcavours to cconornizc orl tlc r:ost t.,f thlt lifc.
llobcrt Castcl in Chaptcr 14 shows how this rrcw rcginrc of i:onccrtccl
action u risk prcvention is capablc o cxtcnsion into :r prospcctivc rrcw
scctor of socio-cnvirotrutcntrtl intcrvcntiotrisrn. ()onrptrlcizlrtion uncl
aclrttinistrative rationalization ircgin tc, rnakc, rossiblc frr thc frst tirnc,;r
'rcal ' govcnrrcr)t o[ roprrlation which, by co-orclirrating appropri.rtc
forrlrs of cxpcrtisc ancl asscssrrent, is capablc of- itlcntifying :rll tlr.sc
incliviclual rrembcrs of socicty who can bc clecnrc,cl, by nranifcstir.rg s()r'rc
conrbination of a specifiecl rangc of 'fcrors', to prcscnt a signifcanr,
lbcit involuntary, risk t. thonselves or to thc co'lrnrnity. Thc classic
techniques of carccral and tutclary In:uagcncnt of'thc clcvlrnt or asocial,
clcvclopccl over th<: past 150 ycars by psychiatry ancl social work, bcgin t,t
bc displaccd by a forrn of nr:rnagcrncnt basccl inste:rrl on rron-custoclial
gniclancc, Handicap (clcfincd in :r newly cxrcnclccl scnsc) scrvcs as focal
category for the rationalization of individual clestinics. Following rhe
prcccdcnt of llritish wartinrc achicvcnrcuts irl rnnbilizing prcviously
rteglectcd sourccs of nratipower, a nrtlo(l of risk nrnlril(:nrlt is cltrvisccl
which consists in contrivitrg Irot spcc:ial sp,rccs of ncutralizing r:ont,rinmcnt for the abnorrn:rl, but special circuirs c,f protectcd rnobility fbrhanclicappccl inclividtrals, within thc grcatcr genrc ,rf tlic socill rrrrrrkcr.
I)aniel ncf'rt notcs i. (llapr(r 11 h.w, ir thc clcvclopnrc'nr .f' tlrt'
tcchniques of itrsuraucc, dif'fcrcntial rncthocls oI actuarial analysis rrr:rkcr
possiblc thc subdivisiotr, otlt of atr insurablc ropulation, oIvarious specific
strta of 'nrarginal risk'. C:rstel suggcsrs that 'nrar.ginality itscl[, inste acl
of renraininli an urlcxplorcd or clangerclus tcrritory, can bcconrc n
45

'14

( )ttp,l rtttt(tll)t. tttt ittlrttht liott

(:olin Ottrdon

()rg1ttiz((l z()lll

witllil thc social' tt'w;rrtls wllicli

thosc l)crsol)s

will

bc

lll()rc c()llPctitivc ir,twrrys''

,lirc<:tctl w. arc i,l"'"p''i.)tt tri ftlllowing
tll],"t''""'
i* irr tlris
rrr'rjority
l.vt t: ,r rrtrIgirr'r "r'lh'rrrJit;r1'l'c'l'
: ').".1]i
ctlros of
tlc'
th'rt
tltt rv;ty
iur itrp()ssil)lc prospcut, tt'pttittlly giutrr
tlov'ttw'tttI

,,
(()ltiilll((l r(.tt.tiuilts is ,,r1,,rl,ltt,t.ltlttit,ttittg ''t"t"t'
llt'c i' ()( il)(l('('\l t(
g(rv('l'l;lclt
lt
lrr
ril,,lrijty. llrt Ir'it'lity
"tt'-lil"'t'tl tltt' rtr'tss {)l
l)r'('\( rrt irr
.,';rt'i, i,, i,,r,', , ',' ,rl,'i1""t '"t'l 'li't''c
tllt'rlttt'tl'ttivt'
'irrr(li(;r's
ltc,ttlrit'vt'tl'
-irt
,r givt.rr srrr it.ty. wll..rt.thi:,l)l,.i.ttivt'(';llll(l
tliat is t. s,y' rt
a'cturtttutrity's.luti.tr:
r'"gli'lt
;,:;ir. *It", i, crrll"'l
t. r:r'rt';titt
dcsisnc
il::,:;J"r,,*'"i""i .*r,in'rc'tal i'tc.uc"'ti,)r
risk
l,i glt 1,r.,,,1,,,,,tt..tttt'tttit'lls of

Ir()tl(lAUt.',t's l)ol,l'l'l(ls
,fltckirltlstliptllrticaallalysisl)l.cSctc(litrtlris\'OlLlllLarcl()tlialllcor
tllovc'ttrcttts, trattsf'ort' tc
rlcsrg'ccl to irspire u..i *,rti.',r.w 1,uliti,,:rl
lrr tlrt'
(rtlt(llt.tgttt.'l'ts t'1 1"'litit'tl tltlt'Lrt' ()r g('ll(r'lt('ttt:wt.1'l"t'ts
lp
lrt
ttt,tst'
Irt. .tl
1'olitit:rl
.r g,rrriz;rrirrrr ,,t ,,,, i,.,1,...'i,.t.'.1,,'rr rv,,rrl,l
thrls ltcrlt'rps trtrviJirrg tllorL
rclitics,
t.rgt t() gr:rsp,,.,,"' l)rcsctt
irrr,,girr,rri,,n...l.t thir woul
irrfrr'rctl 6asis f.r ;;;:,it:,,1...r,,i,," ,r,.1
lt *''ultl bc iair to tlti t'rrt'
rrl'cacly bc rrrort tl"i" " tri.clcst scrvicc
tlcltwitlrstlltltli,,g.t'"....,,ttlaI<ltislystlbvcrsjvcilrregcwlriclt]lasoft..trt.'ccn
llY tlrit L[trr( llt
l',tt,,'',t'lt'-1ti'iltttt'f itu' rlrt i'lt.'rt l'tlt lt'lwrtttl
lr'('\( ll( rl .,l
tlr'rt
tlrc i'l'"r'
't lcsh t'ftrrt.f
1f ',4,.r'k ;rlr.vt'.,i1" ,,i',i"""'lt 'irn1'ly'
tit'cs
.ttr
-:rc lot wilclly
tougt h,,s t,,5c r.,,,,,1'i, ...r t..'cicrstaucl
wisclonr'
politicrrl
at .clcls *.itl, ,,.,u,,, i,,,rr, ,rt t'.,ct lvc,l c()lltllllPorlll'y.
articipatcd'
'liglttly
rrlbcit.'cs *lri.'lt tl.'l-y '"r""t 1i't"' clrrit'toit"ut
:r clistitctivc critical a'd
r'rl r. whir: thcy ,rri rrif ifr. ,,i,l.., ,.., corir'i5utc
cclgc.
ltralyticll
'fhc phobic rcprcserrati(,' .f a
"":i:.r;;;.
,,r politics h,rvc ch,rrrg..'l.
titct sat'et til'c t'clc the
i'
p()tcltilly ,.r.ti'"1 i"""t""' *ftttfi
"t
,.l.lressecofrrrllirlliti:cls.lctal.lcttllttr.ls.loscsitcrctlibility.(ovcrnnrcnt
ch'rllcnging.thc. ri.gtlites antl
itsclf assurllcs tllc dist;.r'trse tl critirltl('
llrivilc-gcsuf..l,Iu..k...1soc:icty.l,r.ltllist.st.,icxplrn.lc..linclivicltralautol_
our trtors '1o not
l;,"; ,i ,;:r-,rif,ii., 1,..,,,,,' .lcc:r.r..l r,,,,'.rsti.r.

,,rr,1 c,.,'sc,*rcnces ,tf tcsc

surc rr c()rrol ,rr;:r;,,r;]l, ,ri tc v:rl.c
, r..rrclusi.r, t. tlrawillg ottt
,:li:rugcs. t ,l'"ll li,.,rir,rfr.rr licrc, b1,.w.y,rf
r.,f'l',r,r.,,,,r1r', ()wl l:tcr philtlsctphy arltl
s()rc ( o'r((.ti.,,r, lr,,,rul.r ,,rr,,,,,r
llis t:tltlllrrt'ttts tllr lltllitit:lrl trr;tttcrs'
is.,rn cv.il in itscll, but
l,.rrr:ault r,,i.t iu ,,,, intcrvicw rh:rt rorhirg
(()lsc(ltlc"tt tlt"t tlrin-gs arc always
cv(rythillll ir ,l,,"gt"'u', with thL'
t'c ossibility of coing
lirr'lc t. l.n wron;, iti "lt., tht tltcrc i' 'l*''y'
46

l;',t l( l,t( \'( r'l tllr.. 'il, t ,lir.trlt.r ir r r,.l 1,.]lt, t.rl,l,.. l lr..,1rj1i,,
is ;rt,.r,ve,llv ;r s()n)( \\litt l)('ssini\tr(., lrut ,,1r,, ,rr) .r( ttr ist ,,rrrj.') 'l'ltis
stitl(tl('1)t iits ill rvcll n,itlr lour'rrult's t,,rrrurr.nts in lris tlisr.rrssions ol
ru,t,l, ltt !Vt'sttttt frt'llr',,,1 .,'y.,,,,,,.')1. l ()(.:tlt ilt'rric,l t[:rt tllr, .,r,r,]fr.r,
sl;t(' is t'itltt t :r v;t jill)t ()r ;r in( i)i('nt \/('r'si()t ol'tllt' llorlt r rr tot:rlitrrr irrrr
(ol l';rltv) st:rtt', St,rlilist. llrtiornl s,rt irrlisr or f:rsr'istl ()l tlis l)r)irt
s,rr1

lottc';rttlt s('('n)s t() lirrcl thc'r'r'ititrrt's ol'rrt't,-lrlrr'r:il rhinkt'rs

tlr;rrr r'onvill<irrg, ()rr

tlrt'otlltr lllrr,l,

lik,'l

l,rt,,'k l,'ss

lrorr,.rrrrlt llso lrun,l,onrt.,,l'tl,,.i.ruv

polit:v tcrrrIr'nrics ol'l;r'r'r'lr !()v('l.rlr)('rt rrr tlrc l!)70s (rrrrrlcr.tlrc.
'ut,l,,r',lt't
rcl';irrrc whit;1r w:rs:rt tlc s:n('tirlt.t xlrtr.illr(rtirll rvitlr nco-libc.r,l rtlcas)

t() l)r('s('lt :t tlltttgt'rotts tlt'r.r, t'l,rb,r',rtiolr ol-clot:tlint's ttf-soi'i;rl ,lrl',.

tlrrting f-ottl tlrt' trirrt'tt'crttll-t'crtrlry lnt('(('(l(.nt.s ,l: tlrc rvclf:'t' st,rtt'.'''
'l'lrcst'vtcw,s w(.1t rvith;r rlistinr:tivr.
lroliti<:,rl :rttitrrtlc.to rc:rlity.
I:ottt';tttlt,ttlvc,t:tt'.1 irr r,rlitir';rl tultulc,r l,,rvt'r't',1 tlrlcs|].1 ()f ;(.((,1)t;llc('
of'11ovt'rtttncnl;rl ;rlrrtsr.s, l,rrt llso :ul ;l('( ()nl)iur],ing rctlrrc.tj,,l irr tlrr, ]cv,.l
r,1 olitic:rl lrer-rtttoi:i (p;rltir'trl:rrlv pur;rrroirr in tlrc sr.r-vit:t'o1'r't.volutiorr:rry
rrrilit;rrrtv): tlrt'li''r (.rrrl h.|t') tlr;rt tlrc cxistrrrg sr:rrc,-vill linrrllv slr,,w irs
tl'rtt't.ol,rttrs:ts rt poljcc st:rtc Ilrrts, ltr,;rgucr[.6r:rIility t rc'rt.r'vt'..t1
lc lrsc tlrc Lrrr:rcccpt:rblc irr rvll:rt :l( tuilly cxtsts.
Irott<;tttlt wits, otr(' rrriglrt s:iy, sullr'icntlv rt'spcr'tfrl of' thc llistori,:;rl
cf fi't tivclrt'ss of libt r-:rlisn ;rs :ur :u t of- govt'r-lr(.r1 t() cli.,ul,t thc libcr.:rl
(,rrtil M;rlxist) rriqhtlrr:rrt ,,l .u r'\'( r-.r.\l.rr\ierrist lrrr,l r[cstit. tt,rrrlr.cv
rvitllirr tllc st:ttc'. Althorrgh lot ('rlu()ur-r'tl ol rrrininl:rlist :ulrrr< hr,*lilrt.r,rl
rrrtlivitlu:rlrslu in tllt'rr;llucr of'Ilobr.r't Nozick, [,our.:rrrlt tlot's sccrrr t6
ll,rr"c l,r'c'tr (rrt lc:rst) irrtligrrt'rl l,t'tlrc l)r'()l)( llits of-lilrcr.rrlisru:rs:r frrnl ol'
krr,rrvlt',lgt'r';tlc'Ltllrtcrl to llnlit l)()w('r'br'p1's111ilig lj()vcnnrr('nt of its
()\\lt ill('itIi('ity l1' tltc ttotiorr o1 l.rt'r'rrlt r,l'l:rrn,:rs tllt';rrtllitr.ctur.r'rrf.L
rltrr';rlist sot'irrl sll:rr:t.;"' ,,,r,1 l,t, tllc ( it'rrnn rrc,t,-libcr:rls' w:ry of- r.orr,
ct'ivirg thc sot r;rl nl;rlkt't ;s ;r giur(' o1 1't't'rlonl sustlrirrr',1 l1, g,vr.'r'nrncnl,rl
I

:rltilr'c lrrrtl invt.rrr i,,n.

lis bsrr: olr.jcr'tion is to thr' plojct'r (rrco-rbcr:rl or sot.i:rlist) t,f- :r

srt,rt rrtrtcccl

I.ilrcrtr's

fcctLrn or
;r ;r,lr

ti(t .

rr
T

,lt.llritivc lrrlightcrn('rt:

lrc libt rtv ol nrcn is r,'r'i r;rssrrrt:,1 bv tlrc lrrstittrti,,rrs

,,tt,ll.,rvrtlr,t.l, int,.lr,lt,lr,r,r.,r,lrr((

rlr,ll I,r.i,sllr,rlnl,,rr.,ll,,trl,,.,

lltws .t,l i1)\tituti()ns :r( (lu1t( (,rlliil)l( oi lrcini lril rr( il ,ilr,rnr(1. Nir lr.r,rtlrt
tltcl .ilt'rttttbign,rus, lrttt rrt,r,11 l,,,.rrrr, 'lrlr, rrv'i: *'lt;rt nrrrst lrc r'.r, r,.i:,,.,1
. I llilnl il ,,rtr il( v( r l', lllr, tr ll irr rlrr' \til;( lltr, ,,1 |,,. r,, r,1,.rrr,.,
tltt'txcrtisc ol lr'r',loln. ['ltrt 1,,tr;rr;inl(( ()l lr',,1,,nr l, ,,,,1,,,,,.'

LJtrrt'lt:rirrtr,, lr,,rvt'ver, rlircs rrol irrrplv rrlrscrrt.c of

ri1orrr.:

I t[r. llot sit\/ tl:tt .l)()w( t, l)\' its n;tutr', is ,rrr ill; I s:ry th;rt por,vcr, lry rrs
rrlt'tltlttlisltls, ls itllllitt (rvlriclr is Irot t() r:ry tlr;rt rt is;rll-lrorvcllrll,,n L]r,'

(()iltrr'v). llrt rtr]r.s th;rt lilrrit it c:rrr nr.,,'t.r lrt,srrlfirrtrrtly r.i1t,rorrs; ro

t'/

()olh

( )ot,ernttcnll

( )onlon

raon,ility:

Ltn

ntrolut lion

lln,'Af'tcln'o(l't() Mir'll,.l |,ru,.:rrrlr, 1,r,,,r,'

, llr iglrr,,rr. lrrtrr. ,. J.l5ll.
5. "l hc Subjct:t:tttrl l)r,,,vcr', irr Ilubtrt 1.. I)r'r'r,frs ln,l I':rul l{rrl;in.*, r\,fili,/
l:omauh, llc,ontl .\trutttrltsn,nl Ilutu'nutits, llliglrtorr, 1()l2, rp. 221 ...
lr. I tlisr:trss tlris irt '''llc Soul o1'tlrt'(litizcrr', in r\'lir Il'r't'r, llritirrl,lit,,ttttl
,1. I:rttt'rn1rt lo:irLlrcss tris otrtt itt

,,ri./,r/(,

,l-lrere is:r kintl ol ssvlrlr,,.,rr

.lilrislr.ir) t('lirtcr

F,rr.lcrtrtlt,

of l)cfh:ll)s

tliirr)i\r' \\li'lr I'l'"tlti" t"

\ll
'l' r, ,," ''"tl 'itit "1lI ( rlrtlr{)l
r't l r
lllll)( llt t )l' rt ( (}llt til( (l ill tltt
( ()r)v( I f( ill lri' rllrrlklltq 'tl"'ttt {('\
rr r".''t r'lrrr'::lll',l '1''"k
i.l:::,i,,1:,il ,;,; ; r,;,:;;',i',;." ll::,':"':, '|r
't(1''"1.

,,r, r,i r.rr

,lr, rr,r'

llolunt,, c,ls. Srinr Wllinrstc;rurl Sr'ott ..islr, l.otrtltrtr,

l()117.

rp..().

.116.

7. lirlrclt IJ;rtlintt'r, 'Au:l,,nl rlt s rnors'. i ,\irld lu,,ult, I!tu htsttit,lt l,t t'ttt,,.
Svtos, l);tris, 1985, . 73 5.
8. I:trtrrrc Ilru:ru, ,ll,i.rol /'1:,l tt lrnst:( palitiqtt , l',;p,,,ytt ri, 1?il,'/ir,ri, ]',urs.
1966, rr.

l(r011'.

t,r,rsilrill,Y :l' 'tr)

:]1,,),;,',,,,',,,''.],1iil ,i lli,
()l
lrvlrilrilrtv ol:t t:crtltrlt tlt:
tl(
conrlitiotrltl
t() tle gtrr"'rttc'l
1't: t'1"t'tl'lt' t. lc crctli'lc
,r;'y ttr tttrtt rtcc'tl' i" t"':i:'' t;

lorrr';rrrlt, 'lutn, L,', tlrr'\, ( j. l,rrtrt l(,nt(olor,r'it z, '(lhristrrs-l'isr'rrs', ilr

'/'lrr Krnq's 'l l,o \Jolirs,
r. l(r4 -()2.
10. lorrt:iuit, '()rrults ct sirrl_ul.rtirri', r. 24(r.

,rrwcllilstll('ll()v('rllllg:l('r(r-'tllctrtti,ottt't-rlttiott:rlitys('('lls'lcrlyt()
il
bt'rtttts of :t tt'chtriqttc trr klrt"'v-1()u"r\
t'x,'t'cr.l thc rrrcrt'ly tttiil"'i""
rtlttl
,1,. r..ti.rrs bctrvcctr 1"''t"'r
Ir.rrc:rrrrlr's cir.li(.r. ..1,'t',.,;;*",,1,,,,,.
tlt"t i'1t:.s r 'rrc g. r'r'itli'rttt
i"ttfltt
ti:
kt,,u'lt,l[{c.
(:()t('cl)""""i' 'i
rl:.:1"' 'ttt'l .trr cxistitrg thrrrr
f""i1'''
,;";-, "ii,i.rt''t't
''*isti"rr.
'r"l'''
r('c('rt ttl
ti.rs .f'()urs('vcs, rrry 1)c 'rorc c()'tilrllclt' sov(.rrr('rt ']]tl:tifl,i]rlc
t.' 'r
1'..t'i"t"
wc thrrrk.'lhc two tltl"it:t:;;';t:t
"'ott'ltttt.f
*ttt 'tttt't'"' 'rtrLl llrt' gt'vc'rttctl
cotltltlt't': l,ct'ltLtsc tlt' rt'latltltr llctwt'ctl ttrottqll
l irr wlritll
ltl'tttllt
lllt
lt ''tittg t stlttt'
l,r\s(\. lo,t 1't tlt'1rr t v' t-iltt
rtr tlrt'
()rrt
rriglrt
lj,"ir,,ii
,,l,i'r',',i],,r,'.,,,.*illt,,* r',,,.xi.t.,..,,1'i,",r'.
[;trtlt
'rttlt 'rs lr kintl
,ri tl,. l-cl,,ti,rtr Oi'g0vt'rttlrltlrlt lr

l1

tr.,r

(()ltse(ll.lctt ltc:illltl

ofllrtlrl.jLrclo(tlr."guui,,,',).ttltlrcc.xtt'trttlrlittllcg..,vert'c.l:tt.ccltgltgctl'
ltl-"vititrttr ol'gttvcflll-rclttr
in tlicir inrliv.itlrrrrlity, lry tlt. ProPositiotts.rttl
',.",ii.,,r"1i,.y rtrtirrr,,tely tcrr'.rff';rir:
g()ver.t'rc'r,,,,,k., i',r'1.,*
'.litit:s
to cthtcs'
bcct,trtcs, itl lt tlcw scllsc' lllswclalllt'
lcft'ttt'ttltl
'logit:
of'thcr
grrvtttluretlt:rl
lrr 1981 lottt.ault thought tlirrt 'r
l(
itrv"lvitrtl ' \\''ry li'l rll' g()v(rl('(l
lrt ,lt'v..'l,t't,l t"' rtt* ki'l[ t'l'lr'tsi''
tlt'
ttttlrl'liltrc:c
t'lr,r,ork tvitl !l()vcrlll('lt' r'r'itllittt "tlt'."i-""utit'll
t' 1v"tk witlr 't Llt'vtllrtortrl'li.1r" t'rl "trrr"'1"''rltl ttt"'ttt"ll l)l"l)l(-l\'':
.'"t gl"l''rl r(\(lr1'trr(( ()ttt r'ttr srtrrttlt:rtltt t ' 'l L'
( v( r llilrk rll'tr rlrt tw() () ttt4t
",,'tt,i,t'l'li'''"t'fttl'"it.','""
i'",
,.
f,,
,rrrtl
wr,r.k
lrr.o.:lv
'
<lis,Lp1,.i'rccl. llut wc havc 'tr
l::'1,,';,';;.;.',,;;.,-r..,u ,.., ,,,u. 1,cc'
;;;r;'t t. thirrk tr"t thcv wcrt' :tb'tt*lt'ttc'l'
N()'l'l;S

,). Miclrcl

. Il). . ,. 25 -2.
l.l. louc;rult, Lcr'ttrrc, (lollrc rlc l'r'rrrrt:r', 19781 l)rrsiuirro. tllis volurlr', l,. l()().
l.l. M;r.x Wcbt'r, 'l'hc lLt'l.grott o.f Olina, Nt'rv Yrrk, 195 l, r l(i9, 181 .1.
I'i. lr'ictlrich Mcirreckr', ll,hi,n,L'llsnt: l'hL'l)oL11'r/ lirrr:orll'l:t,tt ,nt,l it: l)l,nL'n
Iloltrn I Iistory, l.onrLrr. 1957.
1lr. 1.rx \\'tl,, r, (),'ttl l\otLt)tttt lltsirtl, i.,rrrrlt,rr, 1927.
l(r. l);rstltr:rlc I);rstluirro, 'Miclrr'l I:orrr';rttlt l()26- ll4: I hc s'ill to kno,,vlt'tlqt ',
1

1,

l:cottttn), rl.Sr,ci,rl,

r,ol. ll, rro. 1.()7

1(1.

(clil;uL ()cstrcicll,

\ri1r.Srilr-rrrr rlrr/

Iiul, ,\lolun .\ttt', trius, l). Nlr'l.i:rtock, (rrrbri,lsc, 1()8.1.

17. ()cstrcith ibitl, p. 157.
18. I'lrtrnr:s IIotrbcs, I)t Oit,t 1.1., in r\f,l tut (:i[i.u], l]r'ighton, l()7,.
tlrc

l(). Atl:urr Snrith, If irll o/ Nriors, (lrir';rg,r, l()76,

2{). /irl.. p. 178.
21.
22.

1lrrrl.,
Le

p,

1t. 177.

2{)l.

cturc, (ollgc tlc I'rncr', 2ll M;rch

l()79.

i.1. Scc louc:rult's ,liscussit,n o1-ths roirrt irr '(lucstiorrs of-lVlctlrotl', this v,rlrrnlt,

751'f'.

2.1. Atl;rnr Snith. /.'frlr{'s on.lurispnr,lur,,',,,1.

Stt.in, ()xfixrl, 1978, l) 3.i9.

J5. 1rrl., r.4l6.
:16. l.('( tur'('. ()rrllirgc tlt lr'rrrrcc, 5
.17.

:fl.

ll.

(1.

Mctk, l). l). l:rrlrrrtl, lt. (;.

April l!)78.
llrcrt (). I Iirschnr:rn, '1'l' 1lssion\ ttill tlt( lrrtrrr. l'olitirl .'lr.qrlrrort'
Otpitalisttt ln.ltrt: its'l'riutnplt, I)rincrt()r, 1()77, p. tl(r 7.
, p. 87.

1rrl.

/or

llid., t. 104.
.10. Mir:hcl l;our:riult, 'l lrstolv ol systcrrrs ,rl 'l lr,rtrght, 1979', tr.rrrs. ,f arrrt:s
llcrrrrucr , l)hlos,,plt, anJ .\otl Orititsn r,,,1. il, n,,. j (l';r11, l98l), r|. j55--6.
2r).

Inl., ,,357,
(.'rrr/r', l).:r I, (llr.
-Jcrctttl' llclltltlll, I'lt'Oit,il

,l

ll,,1.

I-ccruc, (ollge .lc Itr;nt c, 5 Anl

I ln,l

1()711.

rbl

):ivirl llrrrlt', 'lrttist n llttn,ut \'lllrt', ()xtrr,l, 197, llook.. l,..il(r

l;ilv,v, /Trr' ()routh o,l l)hlosoplur,l ll.,tlnlistn,l.rntlon, 1()72, r. I li.
('(tur(', (ollg| rlc l'rntt,'1 Al,rrl l')79.

rbi
L( ( tur('.

(ollgt' tlc l'rrnt t,

.1 A1,Lil 1tl7!t

( ]ttvernnu:ntil

rationolity:,tn introtlut:tion

( ltr/ir ( lor/ot

79. (iiovanna I)rocacci, this voltrrnc, p.

/'l
lr4ithcl I'orttrtttlt' //irl"irr'r/''
1[i/ ' r' 4]5'
,14. /l,r/., '1j5

"1,1.
,1.1.

/;"/rt'' 1r;1jq'

l()/'' |

ll2.

'rn,l

',1:J;I

Lu' ,uul Psyt:hiatry, 1978, | 16.

84. . (llraLrffrtr, 1-c.s rr.s.surarrrc.s, /r,rrrra.s-sri ltar trtiscnt, lur n,tnir,l):rris, ll114, ,. .l).

(litc(l l)y Irranois lrwalrl, this volurrrc, p,207.

ll

II

l'r'9
,, il,,,t,'.t "ll'u'' 1' It'rr"
1t)'1'7' r' l'10'
ll"'i;''""':i
fi,l. l(rrrl l',,rrrrf i'
'"trsfi'rlr'tti"'rl,lt"t"tt'
t"'/'"'/""/it"'' ()'iirti'
l"'t.'lii"'
Il""'"'1
iii't'"i'i""
(1.
N1;rtirh.rt"t'''
l].
::r.
"1
)ollzr']rrl I 'ittt"'ttliatt r/tt rrrr il
5(r. ( ll. -Jllt tittt ' l
57. Il,i/., (llr' I
58.

'

l()(r')''

/1ri,/

irt /lr' /ir"t Itttt't'i"tt'il 'utJ

t"']l';'
'tl']l'l' 1" " '"r"'r'rrrr
'llt I:ist ltrttionl
'lll,. I l''lll)(ll'\\\""''
t:i"it.w,it irt lt;1', itr
61. I(:rrl Mrx,l,irsr r,1,ii',,,t1'tri
l')7'l' l' -:l
'l,r,rnr tltt
,utl .,lltt,ll.rnrrorr,l:u,,rrr.
,,,'il,:-,,,,.: r,,.,r,,,,,1,;i1,,")''';.:i;,ll.,,'iii'1,"1:,1]',:',,l1,l,llll,,]1,,,,,,,,,r

5().1/rir/.

(,tr. l( rrl M 'rr"t

rirr'1rr'. "1

\tr( i:rl \lt( \Lirrll Lt'

(,\

l iii
lo. r\, I. I.l'rrr.,.rv l'rql. Il'
/r .\trt,uttil:.q,.,,/,,.l,rii, lttt /,,itu.
[
k'
11'l'
l(""
'r'q'rrrq'ri' '/'ukuttlt'
ii, ,,,i, ":i'

: f:*ii, ill',lli:,,,i:i:':i l,ll'l:,;l'

*, l:;lltU:l:i;,.ll};:5;'ll',',o,',,
,tii I|"'l'*"rtlr'l'rrrl'r7' ' 7r""'
I 1't

t,t,. t'l'. ( 'lr' 7 rrr'l

,1

1i,;i;;,,iJ:",i".,,1, orr:r',, r

("'lrrrrr,isr r\rr,rift'sro' i"

iJ,

'l:i'lc'lr

I)onzclot, "l'hc Povcrty oiIolrtrt:al culturc', Iolo,g,.rrr/ (,'()rs.i()r/s,('rs.

e,'1.5. \'ig l()7().1'. Hl.
lJ6. ( ll' lrovt:, 1tp. 32-1.
87. Notrrlrly Mich:rcl lr'cctlcn, ,lJrc Nr, Lihu,tlisnt, ()xirrtl. 1978.
uB. Ol'. rrry "l'hr: Soul of'thc (litizcn'. p..141-, :rrrrl A. von liistow, Il.clt tnl
,,lntu.,ort, l-u,lwigsburg, 196., p. 36, l2.
(). '()n
thc (cnc:rlogy oi I:thics: An ()ve rvicw of'Work in I)rtrgrcss', intclvt'u'
fl
w,itlr I Itrlrcrt I)rcv[rs ntl I)aul Iurinow, t 'l'lu, ]iouttutlt lLt,ilo, t,l. I);rul
Ibinoq,, Ilnntnrlsrvorth, 1!)86, (rclrrintctl i'orrr 2ntl c,iiti,,n o1-l)rcviirs ,rrr
llbinou,, op. cit.) p. -13.
90. '1,:r stntt'gic rltt Iotrrtoir'. No.,1'/ pf.,ttt;t, J59,2ll M:ry 1979, p. 57. 'l.c
r-itron t t lc lurt', It l\lon|:,21 ()r:tobcr 1r)79. p. 14. 'l ht' titlt' o1 l;ouc:;rult's
Oolli:gc rk'lirncc l('(trlrcs 1rr 197(r w;is'll 1,trt,l'l'rr.lr.'l;r sor'it', jn
Mir:hcl [out';ntlt, 1?.ssrt ,/,'.s ,,,,ss 1970 82, l);u is, 191J9.
91. Ilolre rt l;rrlintcr. 'Au n,rrr ilts rrots', i \.ithcl l:oucuilt. (int histotrt'1,: l t,lrit.
Syros, l):u is, l9l5, p. 7.1 -5.
92. 'Srrc:c, Knorvlcrlgc ar(l I)owcr', i'l'fu l:outult l?cultr, or. cit., r. 24Ii.
().1. 'lrrrrtilc ,Ic sc s,rtrlcv,.:r'?'. 1.r' llorr/r', ll M;rv 1979, pp. I 2. tr;us.
.J:urcs
Ilcnratrcr:rs'ls it usclcss to lcvolt?', Ithlosoph,aul Soti,tl ()ritilisn, Srlirrg l()Bl,
|35. .|actltrcs

r /,, \r,, r,, '',,l,ll: Ilr:':::;",,r,','i]l;*''','*,',',,ir\',1.1, ,1,

1"rx "'iir"l ' iri"rr')
t'l) lrrtlL
1'" ":'''i" 'i"
'rrrrrr'trl
"'t'
.5'[' .f;rrrtrrrrl' 1979'
r' irr irrtirrg'."r'l 'i,,,i.scrrt,rri.rr',
1,,/,',,,,',,
/.,,, 1,,,r,
lrrr"rltl'
t'it
ittt
It
,-,,,)7,1 5.

,'i: ll1li

I);rsqtralc I):rstlttitto, this voltrrrrc, p.242.

83. 'Abotrt tlrt, .:rtnccrt of'thc "cl;rrrgt'rorrs ilrllvitlu:rl" irr lgth t:cntury lcg:rl
psyr:lri;rtly', trans. l;ur l:rtrclot
J,rtrc (ouclrrn:rtr, Inttrnliorl .Jounll o.l

rI
tr l'""' \. 1'rr ll t r'rl'"
t"],,i'. """ 'r lrrr
l'r-'r'
rlr'
l' l l
" , ,l, ,,'1,, 1 .,,,,/ i',u,,./,. l { ,r .r"rr''* "r
.17. Mr,.lr, l l.,,rr, ,rrrlr.
11r
Il,:',']. ll]ll,,' / ,'rr"i"''r'/rr ' 'r'i/ 1'

l"

155.

80. l)usqualc l);rs<uino, this volurrrc, p.242.

u]. Ili.sroir de h l:olk, yt.399.

'11

irr

J'' 1'pixti'l,rs

./

9,1.

p. l-9.
'ist-il ilonr' nccssairc rlc Pcrrscr?', LiltlrtttiLn,.10-.11 M;rv 19tll, p. 21. tr:rtrs.,
with n afcrlvortl, by'['lrtrrnas Kccnatr:is'ls it rc:rlly inrlrort;rnt t,, tllink?',
l'hilosoplry ul Soci,il Orititivn, vrrl. t), n,,. 1, Sprrug 19t2, p1r.29-40.

'

,ri'.i1,ri,"'i'1..1:,.1;; Mvcr'

l,ll :'lll'l,l i,,ilJ",'f ,,11

l* iill'.l,lj"il1l:;
:Ul,:lll::':li''i'll;;1 'll.l::i'f: i ii;i
r -r , l';,,ii,T,,1'.
r)r,,zcrr,,.

"

";

";:;';

1:',J.,,ili;.1.'lil;,1:i,li,'i,'il,',i"1],1,1",,.1",i'
ht l.rtr.Lr Y l')tli

ii'i', ' i,r I'rlr'rttt 1' /' t'',rr'

-,1'

'lil ,,,,'',,',,
;; l;.lit'|i:illi:''; l,l:
r'r,r"i'"'/li rr.i:{':r'''""
,, i:illl;:'l';:'l'jii:",
''t
'l)rr
Mt'vcl
r
irr'
'lr"it l"tlll'
l: i'.i '"tt'
v"lrrrrrt ' l' 17 I
tlris
l'u'"
1"r
i
.1tt'
'
,,
;,
tt"'i' h 2"
L'tt'tnt't'tt
:iji;':,i:i,',iili,i,l:

'/
7'l. Jacr1ue s f
"rr"i't' thrs volrrrrrc'
7li. lecqtrcs l)otrzcot'

1l; ill:1,''l;,j:T.,1,,,,
7. ffj5lrirc

tt' tt

/r,lrr,

17

'

i i, rr,/.ri,,i

I, '""'l

J5

s"'iI

'

Sr,r rr

rv. r rrrrtrrr,r.

| )t rrrsr

lr

l()7e'

:t'i;' l'16'
51

50