Submitted by: Anna Andrea Pauline B.

Pascual

I.

What is computer?

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the

ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send
email, and browse the Web. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting,
database management, presentations, games, and more.
Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information.The
termcomputer is derived from the Latin termcomputare, this means to calculate.Computer
can not do anything without a Program.it represents the decimal numbers through a string
of binary digits. The Word 'Computer'usually refers to theCenter Processor Unit plus
Internal memory.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user
and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives
the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and
non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.The basic components of a modern
digital computer are: Input Device,Output Device,Central Processor. A Typical modern
computer uses LSI Chips.

II. History of Computer

A Brief History of the Computer
Computers and computer applications are on almost every aspect of our daily lives. As like
many ordinary objects around us, we may need clearer understanding of what they are.
You may ask "What is a computer?" or "What is a software", or "What is a programming
language?" First, let's examine the history.
1. The history
of
computers starts
out about 2000
years ago
in Babylonia (Mesopotamia), at the birth of the abacus, a wooden rack holding two
horizontal wires with beads strung on them.

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2. Blaise Pascal is usually credited for building the first digital computer in 1642. It
added numbers entered with dials and was made to help his father, a tax collector.
The basic principle of his calculator is still used today in water
meters and modern-day odometers. Instead of having a
carriage wheel turn the gear, he made each ten-teeth wheel
accessible to be turned directly by a person's hand (later
inventors added keys and a crank), with the result that when
the wheels were turned in the proper sequences, a series of
numbers was entered and a cumulative sum was obtained.
The gear train supplied a mechanical answer equal to the
answer that is obtained by using arithmetic.

This first mechanical calculator, called the Pascaline, had several disadvantages.
Although it did offer a substantial improvement over manual calculations, only
Pascal himself could repair the device and it cost more than the people it replaced!
In addition, the first signs of technophobia emerged with mathematicians fearing
the loss of their jobs due to progress.
3. A step towards automated computing was the development of punched cards, which
were first successfully used with computers in 1890 by Herman Hollerith and James
Powers, who worked for the US. Census Bureau. They developed devices that could
read the information that had been punched into the cards automatically, without
human help. Because of this, reading errors were reduced dramatically, work flow
increased, and, most importantly, stacks of punched cards could be used as easily
accessible memory of almost unlimited size. Furthermore, different problems could

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be

stored

on

different

stacks

of

cards

and

accessed

when

needed.

4. These advantages were seen by commercial companies and soon led to the
development of improved punch-card using computers created by International
Business Machines (IBM), Remington (yes, the same people that make shavers),
Burroughs, and other corporations. These computers used electromechanical
devices in which electrical power provided mechanical motion -- like turning the
wheels of an adding machine. Such systems included features to:
o feed in a specified number of cards automatically
o add, multiply, and sort
o feed out cards with punched results
5. The start of World War II produced a large need for computer capacity, especially
for the military. New weapons were made for which trajectory tables and other
essential data were needed. In 1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchly, and their
associates at the Moore school of Electrical Engineering of University of
Pennsylvania decided to build a high - speed electronic computer to do the job. This
machine became known as ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator)

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Two men (in uniform) being trained to

maintain the ENIAC computer. The two
women in the photo were programmers. The
ENIAC occupied the entire thirty by fifty feet
room.

6. The size of ENIACs numerical "word" was 10 decimal digits, and it could multiply
two of these numbers at a rate of 300 per second, by finding the value of each
product from a multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was therefore
about 1,000 times faster then the previous generation of relay computers. ENIAC
used 18,000 vacuum tubes, about 1,800 square feet of floor space, and consumed
about 180,000 watts of electrical power. It had punched card I/O, 1 multiplier, 1
divider/square rooter, and 20 adders using decimal ring counters, which served as
adders and also as quick-access (.0002 seconds) read-write register storage. The
executable instructions making up a program were embodied in the separate "units"
of ENIAC, which were plugged together to form a "route" for the flow of information.
7. Early in the 50s two important engineering discoveries changed the image of the
electronic - computer field, from one of fast but unreliable hardware to an image of
relatively high reliability and even more capability. These discoveries were
the magnetic
core
memoryand
the Transistor
Circuit
Element.
These technical discoveries quickly found their way into new models of digital
computers. RAM capacities increased from 8,000 to 64,000 words in commercially
available machines by the 1960s, with access times of 2 to 3 MS (Milliseconds).
These machines were very expensive to purchase or even to rent and were
particularly expensive to operate because of the cost of expanding programming.
Such computers were mostly found in large computer centers operated by industry,
government, and private laboratories - staffed with many programmers and support
personnel. This situation led to modes of operation enabling the sharing of the high
potential available.
8. Many companies, such as Apple Computer and Radio Shack, introduced very
successful PCs in the 1970's, encouraged in part by a fad in computer (video)
games. In the 1980's some friction occurred in the crowded PC field, with Apple and
IBM keeping strong. In the manufacturing of semiconductor chips, the Intel and
Motorola Corporations were very competitive into the 1980s, although Japanese
firms were making strong economic advances, especially in the area of memory
chips. By the late 1980s, some personal computers were run by microprocessors

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that, handling 32 bits of data at a time, could process about 4,000,000 instructions
per second.

III. Types of Computers

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is
considerable overlap:

Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal
computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higherquality monitor.
Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of
users simultaneously.
Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds
or thousands of users simultaneously.
Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions
of instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example,
weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research,
electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).
Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.
Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor
unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of
smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were
described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a
Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even
thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a
mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as
fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single
program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and

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minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its
machines.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers
and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small
minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally
come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in
network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass
storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for
workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are
single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a localarea network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area network.
It could be a workstation or a personal computer.

Personal computer:
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual
user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five
thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables
manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for
word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers
is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

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Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular
personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the
late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to
appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known
as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other
personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer
or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer,
which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies
adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally
almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same
microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the
years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after
the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBMcompatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers,
such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to
pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel
microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other
component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall
under the rubric of PC
Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes
and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user
systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although personal computers are
designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them together to form a network. In
terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end, the distinction between personal
computers and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the
same computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun
Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.
III, Personal Computer Types
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case. The
chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for electronic
components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house the circuit
boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If you want to
insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion chassis, which provides
additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis designsdesktop models and tower
modelsbut there are many variations on these two basic types. Then come the portable
computers that are computers small enough to carry. Portable computers include notebook
and subnotebook computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.
Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass storage
devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to desktop models,

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in which these components are housed in a more compact box. The main advantage of
tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which makes installation of
additional storage devices easier.
Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting
on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower
model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers
are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be
very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.
Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less
than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the
principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display
screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies,
to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display
screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers
are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity,
and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook
computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook
computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in.
However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.
Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop
computers are more frequently called notebook computers.
Subnotebook computer
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook
computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are
otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.
Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in ones hand. Although extremely
convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because
of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those
that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions,
such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small
keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-

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based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy.
Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.
Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops
are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and
calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called handheld computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not
include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk
drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held
computers and pocket computers.
PDA
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing,
telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax
sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based,
using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that they also incorporate
handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice
recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which
introduced the Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other
manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the
marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many experts
believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.
PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

IV. Data Processing Cycle

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1. User will input the data to be processed by the processor.
2. The storage holds databases, files and programs. The output devices present
the processed data as useful information products for the user.
INPUT :
- Input is any data or instructions that we enter into the computer system for
processing.
- There are some common ways of feeding input data into the system, which are:
typing on a keyboard
pointing with a mouse
- CPU accepts instruction from the user and translates the instruction into
readable information (decode).
PROCESS :
- The processing unit controls all activities within the system. For every
instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the
machine cycle:

STORAGE :
- Storage is a location which data, instruction and information are held for future
use. Every computer uses storage to hold system software and application
software.
- When we issue a command to start the application software, the operating
system locates the program in storage and loads it into memory.
- A storage medium, also called secondary storage is the physical material in the
computer that keeps data, instruction and information.
- A storage device is the computer hardware that records or retrieves items to
and from storage media.

OUTPUT :

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- Output is data that has been processed into a useful form, called information.
There are four types of output, which are texts, graphics, audio and video.
- The text consists of characters that are used to create texts, sentences and
paragraphs.
- Graphics are digital representations of non text information such as drawings,
charts and photographs.
- Audio is music, speech or any other sound. Video consists of images that
provide the appearance of full motion.

V. Data Processing Operations

The word data is derived from Latin language. It is plural of Datum (But Data
is usually used as a singular term.) Datum (singular) Data (plural). Data is any
collection of facts of figures. The data is the raw material to be processed by a
computer. Example Names of students, marks obtained in the examination,
designation of employees, addresses, quantity, rate, sales figures or anything
that is input to the computer is data. Even pictures, photographs, drawings,
charts and maps can be treated as data. Computer processes the data and
produces the output or result.
Types of Data
Mainly Data is divided into two types: 1. Numeric Data 2. Character Data
1. Numeric Data
The data which is represented in the form of numbers is known as Numeric Data.
This includes 0-9 digits, a decimal point (.), +, /, sign and the letters E or D.
2. Character Data
Character data falls into two groups. i. String Data ii. Graphical Data
String Data String data consists of the sequence of characters. Characters may be
English alphabets, numbers or space. The space, which separates two words, is
also a character. The string data is further divided into two types.
a. Alphabetic Data
b. Alphanumeric Data

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Graphical Data It is possible that pictures, charts and maps can be treated as
data. The scanner is normally used to enter this type of data. The common use of
this data is found in the National Identity Card.
Information
A collection of data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It may
provide answers to questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how. or
The raw input is data and it has no significance when it exists in that form. When
data is collated or organized into something meaningful, it gains significance.
This meaningful organization is information or
Observations and recordings are done to obtain data, while analysis is done to
obtain information
Data processing:
Any operation or set of operations performed upon data, whether or not by
automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation
or alteration to convert it into useful information.

Data Processing Cycle

Once data is collected, it is processed to convert it into useful information. The
data is processed again and again until the accurate result is achieved. This is
called data processing cycle.
The data processing is very important activity and involves very careful
planning. Usually, data processing activity involves three basic activities.
Input
Processing
Output
Data Processing Cycle Step-1
1. Input
It is the process through which collected data is transformed into a form that
computer can understand. It is very important step because correct output result
totally depends on the input data. In input step, following activities can be
performed.
i) Verification
The collected data is verified to determine whether it is correct as required. For
example, the collected data of all B.Sc. students that appeared in final
examination of the university is verified. If errors occur in collected data, data is
corrected or it is collected again.
ii) Coding
The verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it can
be processed through computer.

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iii) Storing
The data is stored on the secondary storage into a file. The stored data on the
storage media will be given to the program as input for processing.
Data Processing Cycle Step-2
2. Processing
The term processing denotes the actual data manipulation techniques such as
classifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, comparing, etc. that convert data
into information.
i) Classification
The data is classified into different groups and subgroups, so that each group or
sub-group of data can be handled separately.
ii) Storing
The data is arranged into an order so that it can be accessed very quickly as and
when required.
iii) Calculations
The arithmetic operations are performed on the numeric data to get the
required results. For example, total marks of each student are calculated.
iv) Summarizing
The data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. ft means that the
summary of data is prepared for top management. For example, the summary of
the data of student is prepared to show the percentage of pass and fail student
examination etc.
Data Processing Cycle Step-3
3. Output
After completing the processing step, output is generated. The main purpose of
data processing is to get the required result. Mostly, the output is stored on the
storage media for later user. In output step, following activities can be
performed.
i) Retrieval
Output stored on the storage media can be retrieved at any time. For example,
result of students is prepared and stored on the disk. This result can be retrieved
when required for different purposes.
ii) Conversion
The generated output can be converted into different forms. For example, it can
be represented into graphical form.
iii) Communication
The generated output is sent to different places. For example, weather forecast is
prepared and. sent to different agencies and newspapers etc. where it is
required.
Types of Data Processing
1. Manual Data Processing: This method of data processing involves human
intervention. The manual process of data entry implies many opportunities

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for errors, such as delays in data capture, as every single data field has to be
keyed in manually, a high amount of operator misprints or typos, high labor
costs from the amount of manual labor required. Manual processing also
implies higher labor expenses in regards to spending for equipment and
supplies, rent, etc.
2. EDP (electronic data processing), an infrequently used term for what is today
usually called "IS" (information services or systems) or
"MIS" (management information services or systems), is the
processing of data by a computer and its programs in an environment
involving electronic communication. EDP evolved from "DP"
(data processing), a term that was created when most computing input was
physically put into the computer in punched card form or in ATM cards form
and output as punched cards or paper reports.

3. Real time processing

In a real time processing, there is a continual input, process and output of data.
Data has to be processed in a small stipulated time period (real time), otherwise
it will create problems for the system. For example , when a bank customer
withdraws a sum of money from his or her account it is vital that the transaction
be processed and the account balance updated as soon as possible, allowing both
the bank and customer to keep track of funds.
4. Batch processing
In a batch processing group of transactions collected over a period of time is
collected, entered, processed and then the batch results are produced. Batch
processing requires seperate programs for input, process and output. It is an
efficient way of processing high volume of data. For example : Payroll system,
Examination system and billing system.

VI. Components of Computer System

Software is stored on hardware such as hard disks or tape. Monsters, Inc. can be recorded
on a VCR tape. But the computer program (and the TV episode) is intangible. It is not the
physical storage medium.
The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic and mechanical parts.
The software components of a computer system are the intangible parts: the data and the
computer programs.
The major hardware components of a computer system are:

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Processor
Main memory
Secondary memory
Input devices
Output devices

You probably have a computer in front of you. The processor, main memory, and
secondary memory devices are inside the systems unit. This is the metal box that is
sometimes called "the computer." The monitor (the TV-like screen) is an output device.

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