CHAPTER 3

ANTENNA ARRAYS AND BEAMFORMING

Array beam forming techniques exist that can yield multiple, simultaneously
available beams. The beams can be made to have high gain and low sidelobes, or
controlled beamwidth. Adaptive beam forming techniques dynamically adjust the array
pattern to optimize some characteristic of the received signal. In beam scanning, a single
main beam of an array is steered and the direction can be varied either continuously or in
small discrete steps.
Antenna arrays using adaptive beamforming techniques can reject interfering
signals having a direction of arrival different from that of a desired signal. Multi-
polarized arrays can also reject interfering signals having different polarization states
from the desired signal, even if the signals have the same direction of arrival. These
capabilities can be exploited to improve the capacity of wireless communication systems.
This chapter presents essential concepts in antenna arrays and beamforming.
An array consists of two or more antenna elements that are spatially arranged and
electrically interconnected to produce a directional radiation pattern. The interconnection
between elements, called the feed network, can provide fixed phase to each element or
can form a phased array. In optimum and adaptive beamforming, the phases (and
usually the amplitudes) of the feed network are adjusted to optimize the received signal.
The geometry of an array and the patterns, orientations, and polarizations of the elements
influence the performance of the array. These aspects of array antennas are addressed as
follows. The pattern of an array with general geometry and elements is derived in
Section 3.1; phase- and time-scanned arrays are discussed in Section 3.2. Section 3.3
gives some examples of fixed beamforming techniques. The concept of optimum
beamforming is introduced in Section 3.4. Section 3.5 describes adaptive algorithms that
iteratively approximate the optimum beamforming solution. Section 3.6 describes the
effect of array geometry and element patterns on optimum beamforming performance.

3.1 Pattern of a Generalized Array

A three dimensional array with an arbitrary geometry is shown in Fig. 3-1. In
spherical coordinates, the vector from the origin to the nth element of the array is given
L
by rm = ( ρ m ,θ m , φ m ) and − k = (1, θ , φ ) is the vector in the direction of the source of an

29
incident wave. Throughout this discussion it is assumed that the source of the wave is in
the far field of the array and the incident wave can be treated as a plane wave. To find
the array factor, it is necessary to find the relative phase of the received plane wave at
each element. The phase is referred to the phase of the plane wave at the origin. Thus,
2π
the phase of the received plane wave at the nth element is the phase constant β =
λ
L
multiplied by the projection of the element position rm on to the plane wave arrival
L L
vector − k . This is given by − k • rm with the dot product taken in rectangular
coordinates.

z
incident
wave
mth element
-k
θ rm
y
φ

x
Figure 3-1. An arbitrary three dimensional array
In rectangular coordinates, − kˆ = sin θ cos φ xˆ + sin θ sin φ yˆ + cosθ zˆ = rˆ and
L
rm = ρ m sin θ m cos φ m xˆ + ρ m sin θ m sin φ m yˆ + ρ m cos θ m zˆ , and the relative phase of the
incident wave at the nth element is
L L
ζ m = −k • rm
= βρ m (sin θ cos φ sin θ m cos φ m + sin θ sin φ sin θ m sin φ m + cosθ cosθ m ) (3.1)
= β ( x m sin θ cos φ + y m sin θ sin φ + z m cosθ )

3.1.1 Array factor

For an array of M elements, the array factor is given by

30
 M
AF (θ , φ ) = ∑ I m e j (ζ m +δ m ) (3.2)
m =1

where I m is the magnitude and δ m is the phase of the weighting of the mth element.
The normalized array factor is given by
AF (θ , φ )
f (θ , φ ) = (3.3)
max{ AF (θ , φ ) }

This would be the same as the array pattern if the array consisted of ideal isotropic
elements.

3.1.2 Array pattern

If each element has a pattern g m (θ , φ ) , which may be different for each element,
the normalized array pattern is given by
M

∑I m g m (θ ,φ )e j (ζ m +δ m )
F (θ , φ ) = m =1
(3.4)
M 
max  ∑ I m g m (θ ,φ )e j (ζ m + δ m ) 
 m =1 
In (3.4), the element patterns must be represented such that the pattern maxima are equal
to the element gains relative to a common reference.

3.2 Phase and Time Scanning

Beam forming and beam scanning are generally accomplished by phasing the feed
to each element of an array so that signals received or transmitted from all elements will
be in phase in a particular direction. This is the direction of the beam maximum. Beam
forming and beam scanning techniques are typically used with linear, circular, or planar
arrays but some approaches are applicable to any array geometry. We will consider
techniques for forming fixed beams and for scanning directional beams as well as
adaptive techniques that can be used to reject interfering signals.
Array beams can be formed or scanned using either phase shift or time delay
systems. Each has distinct advantages and disadvantages. While both approaches can be
used for other geometries, the following discussion refers to equally spaced linear arrays

31
such as those shown in Fig. 3-2. In the case of phase scanning the interelement phase
shift α is varied to scan the beam. For time scanning the interelement delay ∆t is varied.

1 2 M
1 2 M
...
...

A1 A2 AM
A1 A2e jα
AMe j(M-1)α

∆t (M-1)∆t

Σ Σ

to receiver to receiver
(a) (b)
Figure 3-2. (a) a phase scanned linear array (b) a time-scanned linear array

3.2.1 Phase scanning

Beam forming by phase shifting can be accomplished using ferrite phase shifters
at RF or IF. Phase shifting can also be done in digital signal processing at baseband. For
an M-element equally spaced linear array that uses variable amplitude element excitations
and phase scanning the array factor is given by [3.1]
M −1 2πd
jm ( cosφ +α )
AF (φ ) = ∑ Am e λ
(3.5)
m=0

where the array lies on the x-axis with the first element at the origin. The interelement
phase shift is

2πd
α =− cos φ0 (3.6)
λ0

32
and λ0 is the wavelength at the design frequency and φ0 is the desired beam direction. At
a wavelength of λ0 the phase shift α corresponds to a time delay that will steer the beam
to φ0.
In narrow band operation, phase scanning is equivalent to time scanning, but
phase scanned arrays are not suitable for broad band operation. The electrical spacing
(d/λ) between array elements increases with frequency. At different frequencies, the
same interelement phase shift corresponds to different time delays and therefore different
angles of wave propagation, so using the same phase shifts across the band causes the
beam direction to vary with frequency. This effect is shown in Fig 3-3. This beam
squinting becomes a problem as frequency is increased, even before grating lobes start to
form.

7 f0
1.5f0
2f0
6

5
|AF(phi)|

0
0 50 100 150 200
phi, degrees

Figure 3-3. Array factor of 8-element phase-scanned linear array computed for three
frequencies (f0, 1.5f0, and 2f0), with d=0.37λ at f0, designed to steer the beam to φo=45° at
f0.

33
3.2.2 Time scanning
Systems using time delays are preferred for broadband operation because the
direction of the main beam does not change with frequency. The array factor of a time-
scanned equally spaced linear array is given by

M −1 2πd
jm ( cosφ +ω∆t )
AF (φ ) = ∑ Am e λ
(3.7)
m =0

where the interelement time delay is given by

d
∆t = − cosφ0 (3.8)
c

Time delays are introduced by switching in transmission lines of varying lengths.

The transmission lines occupy more space than phase shifters. As with phase shifting,
time delays can be introduced at RF or IF and are varied in discrete increments. Time
scanning works well over a broad bandwidth, but the bandwidth of a time scanning array
is limited by the bandwidth and spacing of the elements. As the frequency of operation is
increased, the electrical spacing between the elements increases. The beams will be
somewhat narrower at higher frequencies, and as the frequency is increased further,
grating lobes appear. These effects are shown in Fig. 3-4.

34
 8
f0
7 1.5f0
2f0
6

|AF(phi)| 5

0
0 50 100 150 200
phi, degrees

Figure 3-4 Array factor of 8-element time-scanned linear array computed for three
frequencies (f0, 1.5f0, and 2f0), with d=0.37λ at f0, designed to steer the beam to φo=45° at
f0.

3.3 Fixed Beam Forming Techniques

Some array applications require several fixed beams that cover an angular sector.
Several beam forming techniques exist that provide these fixed beams. Three examples
are given here.

3.3.1 Butler matrix The Butler matrix [3.2] is a beam forming network that uses a
combination of 90° hybrids and phase shifters. An 8x8 Butler matrix is shown in Fig 3-5.
The Butler matrix performs a spatial fast Fourier transform and provides 2n orthogonal
beams. These beams are linearly independent combinations of the array element patterns.

35
 2 2 2 2

3 1 1 3

1R 4L 3R 2L 2R 3L 4R 1L

Figure 3-5. An 8x8 Butler matrix feeding an 8-element array. Circles are 90° hybrids
and numbers are phase shifts in units of π/8

When used with a linear array the Butler matrix produces beams that overlap at
about 3.9 dB below the beam maxima. A Butler matrix-fed array can cover a sector of up
to 360° depending on element patterns and spacing. Each beam can be used by a
dedicated transmitter and/or receiver, or a single transmitter and/or receiver can be used,
and the appropriate beam can be selected using an RF switch. A Butler matrix can also
be used to steer the beam of a circular array by exciting the Butler matrix beam ports with
amplitude and phase weighted inputs followed by a variable uniform phase taper.

3.3.2 Blass Matrix

The Blass matrix [3.3] uses transmission lines and directional couplers to form
beams by means of time delays and thus is suitable for broadband operation. Figure 3-6
shows an example for a 3-element array, but a Blass matrix can be designed for use with
any number of elements. Port 2 provides equal delays to all elements, resulting in a
broadside beam. The other two ports provide progressive time delays between elements
and produce beams that are off broadside. The Blass matrix is lossy because of the
resistive terminations. In one recent application [3.4] a three-element array fed by a

36
Blass matrix was tested for use in an antenna pattern diversity system for a hand held
radio. The matrix was optimized to obtain nearly orthogonal beams.

Figure 3-6. A Blass matrix (The circles are directional couplers.)

3.3.3 Wullenweber Array

A Wullenweber array [3.5] is a circular array developed for direction finding at
HF frequencies. An example is shown in Fig. 3-7. The array can use either
omnidirectional elements or directional elements that are oriented radially outward. The
array typically consists of 30 to 100 evenly spaced elements. About a third of the
elements are used at a time to form a beam that is oriented radially outward from the
array. A switching network called a goniometer is used to connect the appropriate
elements to the radio, and may include some amplitude weighting to control the array
pattern. Advantages of the Wullenweber array are the ability to scan over 360° with very
little change in pattern characteristics. At lower frequencies the Wullenweber array is
much smaller than the rhombic antennas that might be used otherwise. Time delays are
used to form beams radial to the array, enabling broad band operation. The bandwidth of
a Wullenweber array is limited by the bandwidth and spacing of the elements.

37
 Goniometer

Figure 3-7. A Wullenweber array [3.5]

3.3.4 Other fixed beam forming techniques

Fixed beams can also be formed using lens antennas such as the Luneberg lens or
Rotman lens with multiple feeds. Lenses focus energy radiated by feed antennas that are
less directive. Lenses can be made from dielectric materials or implemented as space-fed
arrays. Multi-beam arrays can be used to feed reflector antennas as well.

3.4 Optimum Beamforming

Complex weights for each element of the array can be calculated to optimize
some property of the received signal. This does not always result in an array pattern
having a beam maximum in the direction of the desired signal but does yield the optimal
array output signal. Most often this is accomplished by forming nulls in the directions of
interfering signals. Adaptive beamforming is an iterative approximation of optimum
beamforming.
A general array with variable element weights is shown in block-diagram form in
Fig. 3-8. The output of the array y(t) is the weighted sum of the received signals si(t) at
the array elements having patterns gm(θ, φ) (the patterns include gain) and the thermal
noise n(t) from receivers connected to each element. In the case shown, s1(t) is the
desired signal, and the remaining L signals are considered to be interferers. In an
adaptive system, the weights wm are iteratively determined based on the array output y(t),
a reference signal d(t) which approximates the desired signal, and previous weights. The

38
reference signal is assumed to be identical to the desired signal. In practice this can be
achieved or approximated using a training or synchronization sequence or a CDMA
spreading code, which is known at the receiver.

s1(t) g1(θ, φ)
w *1
x1(t)
Σ
.
.
gm(θ, φ) n1 (t) .
w*m
xm(t) y(t)
sk(t) Σ Σ
.
gM(θ, φ) .
nm(t) .
w* ε (t)
M
xM(t)
Σ
controller
nM(t) d(t)
sN(t)
Figure 3-8. An adaptive antenna array

Here we will find the optimum weights that minimize the mean squared error ε(t)
between the array output and the reference signal. A desired signal s1(t), L interfering
signals, and additive white gaussian noise are considered in the derivation. Rather than
the usual implicit assumption of isotropic elements, general directional element patterns
are considered. The element patterns need not be the same for all elements.
The array output is given by
y( t ) = w H x ( t ) (3.9)

where wH denotes the complex conjugate transpose of the weight vector w.

39
3.4.1 Array response vector

The array response vector for a signal with direction of arrival (θ,φ) and
polarization state P can be written as follows

 e jζ 1 g1 (θ ,φ , P) 
 jζ 2 
e g 2 (θ ,φ , P) 
a(θ ,φ , P) =  (3.10)
 M 
 jζ M 
e g M (θ ,φ , P)

The phase shifts ζm represent the spatial phase delay of an incoming plane wave
arriving from angle (θ ,φ ) . The factor g m (θ , φ , P ) is the antenna pattern of the mth
element.

3.4.2 Spatial-polarization signature

The spatial-polarization signature is the total response of the array to a signal

with N multipath components and is expressed as

N
v = ∑ α n a (θ n , φ n , Pn ) (3.11)
n =1

where αn is the amplitude and phase of the nth component. The angle of arrival and
polarization state of the nth component are given by θn, φn, and Pn.

3.4.3 Spatial-polarization signature matrix

The response of the array to multiple signals (in this case a desired signal and L
interfering signals) can be written using a spatial-polarization signature matrix. The
columns of the matrix are the spatial-polarization signatures of the individual signals.
The matrix is written as

U = [v1 | v2 L vL +1 ]
(3.12)
= [U d | U i ]

40
where Ud is the response to the desired signal s1(t) and Ui is the response to the
interfering signals.

The output of the M receivers prior to weighting is

x ( t ) = Us( t ) + n( t ) (3.13)

3.4.4 Signals and noise

The incident signals (excluding direction of arrival and polarization information)
are given by

s(t ) = [s1 ( t ) s2 ( t ) L s L +1 ( t ) ] = [sd ( t ) | si ( t ) ]

T T
(3.14)
where sd(t)=s1(t) is the desired signal and si(t) consists of the remaining, interfering
signals. In this case all signals are considered to be uncorrelated and to have the form
sk (t ) = S k uk (t )e jω 0 t where S k is the amplitude of the signal and uk(t) is a normalized

baseband modulating signal. The noise in the M receivers is given by

n(t ) = [n1 (t ) n2 (t ) L nM (t )]
T
(3.15)

and the noise in different receiver branches is uncorrelated.

3.4.5 Optimum weights

To optimize the element weights, we seek to minimize the mean squared error
between the array output and the reference signal d(t). Optimizing SINR will lead to
weights that differ by a scalar multiplier from the weights shown here [3.6]. The
derivation proceeds as for the case of omnidirectional elements, and the solution for the
optimum weights is
wopt = Rxx−1rxd (3.16)

where Rxx=x(t)xH(t) is the signal covariance matrix and rxd=d*(t)x(t). This is the same as
the expression for the optimum weights for an array with isotropic elements (see [3.6]).
In this case, however, Rxx, rxd, and hence wopt are functions of the angles of arrival of the
L+1 signals, and of the element patterns.

41
3.5 Adaptive Algorithms
Adaptive beamforming algorithms iteratively approximate these optimum
weights. Adaptive beamforming began with the work of Howells [3.7] and Applebaum
[3.8]. Since then many beamforming algorithms have been developed. Several
algorithms are briefly described below. This closely follows the discussion in [3.6].

3.5.1 Least mean squares (LMS)

This algorithm uses a steepest-descent method and computes the weight vector
recursively using the equation
w(n+1)=w(n)+µx(n)[ d*(n)-xH(n)w(n)] (3.17)
where µ is a gain constant and controls the rate of adaptation. The LMS algorithm
requires knowledge of the desired signal. This can be done in a digital system by
periodically transmitting a training sequence that is known to the receiver, or using the
spreading code in the case of a direct-sequence CDMA system. This algorithm
converges slowly if the eigenvector spread of Rxx is large.

3.5.2 Direct sample covariance matrix inversion (DMI)

In this algorithm (3.14) is used to obtain the weights, but with Rxx and rxd
estimated from data sampled over a finite interval. The estimates are given by
N2
Rˆ xc = ∑ x(i) x
i = N1
H
(i ) (3.18)

and
N2
rˆxd = ∑ d * (i) x(i)
i = N1
(3.19)

The DMI algorithm converges more rapidly than the LMS algorithm but it is more
computationally complex. The DMI algorithm also requires a reference signal.

42
Recursive least squares (RLS) algorithm
The RLS algorithm estimates Rxx and rxd using weighted sums so that
N
~
Rxc = ∑ γ n −1 x(i ) x H (i ) (3.20)
i =1

and
N
~
rxd = ∑ γ n −1d * (i ) x (i ) (3.21)
i =1

The inverse of the covariance matrix can be obtained recursively, and this leads to the
update equation
wˆ (n) = wˆ ( n − 1) + q (n)[d * (n) − wˆ H ( n − 1) x ( n)] (3.22)
where
γ −1 Rxx−1 (n − 1) x(n)
q ( n) = (3.23)
1 + γ −1 x H (n) Rxx−1 (n − 1) x ( n)

and
Rxx−1 (n) = γ −1[ Rxx−1 (n − 1) − q (n) x(n) Rxx−1 (n − 1)] (3.24)

The RLS algorithm converges about an order of magnitude faster than the LMS
algorithm if SINR is high. It requires an initial estimate of Rxx-1 and a reference signal.

3.5.3 Decision directed algorithms

In decision-directed algorithms, the weights can be updated using any of the
above techniques, but the reference signal is obtained by demodulating y(t). This means
that no external reference is required, but convergence is not guaranteed because y(t) may
not correspond to d(t).

3.5.4 Constant modulus algorithm (CMA)

The constant modulus algorithm is a blind adaptive algorithm proposed by
Goddard [3.9] and by Treichler and Agee [3.10]. That is, it requires no previous

43
knowledge of the desired signal. Instead it exploits the constant or nearly constant-
amplitude properties of most modulation formats used in wireless communication. By
forcing the received signal to have a constant amplitude, CMA recovers the desired
signal. The weight update equation is given by
w(n+1)=w(n)- µx(n)ε *(n) (3.25)
where
ε (n)=[1-|y(n)|2]y(n)x(n) (3.26)

When the CMA algorithm converges, it converges to the optimal solution, but
convergence of this algorithm is not guaranteed because the cost function ε is not convex
and may have false minima. [3.6] Another potential problem is that if there is more than
one strong signal, the algorithm may acquire an undesired signal. This problem can be
overcome if additional information about the desired signal is available. Variations of
CMA exist that use different cost functions.
The least-squares CMA (LSCMA) is a variation of CMA that uses a direct matrix
inversion. The weights are calculated as follows:
w = Rxx−1rxd (3.27)

where Rxx and rxd are as described in Section 3.4.5 except that a constant-modulus
y
estimate of the desired signal given by d = is used.
y

Multitarget versions of CMA use a Graham-Schmidt orthogonalization process to

produce two or more orthogonal sets of weights. A multitarget CMA algorithm can
separate a number of signals equal to the number of array elements. Soft
orthogonalization [3.11] or hard orthogonalization [3.12] can be used. Hard
orthogonalization is described here. Initially, for an N-element array, N orthogonal
weight vectors are used. Each weight vector is updated independently using the CMA as
in (3.25) or (3.27). All but the first weight vector are periodically reinitialized as follows
to prevent more than one weight vector from converging to the same value.
H
k −1
wi Rxx wk
w = w −∑
k k
iH i
wi , k=2, 3,...,M (3.28)
i =1 w Rxx w

44
3.5.6 Other techniques
Other adaptive beamforming approaches include spectral self-coherence restoral
(SCORE) a blind adaptive algorithm that uses the cyclostationary property of a signal.
Neural networks and maximum likelihood sequence estimators can also be used to
perform adaptive beamforming. In partially adaptive arrays, only some of the elements
are weighted adaptively. This technique is useful for large arrays. Partial adaptivity
allows an array to cancel interfering signals but requires less computational complexity
than adapting all the element weights.

45
 Table 3-1 Summary of adaptive beamforming algorithms

Algorithm Weight update equations Advantages Disadvantages

Least mean w(n+1)=w(n)+ Always Requires reference

H
µx(n)[d*(n)-x (n)w(n)] converges signal
squares (LMS)
N2
Direct matrix Rˆ xx = ∑ x (i ) x H (i )
Always Requires reference
inversion (DMI) i = N1 signal
N2 converges
rˆxd = ∑ d * (i) x(i)
i = N1
Computationally
Faster than LMS complex
46

w = Rˆ xx−1rˆxd

Recursive least wˆ (n) = wˆ ( n − 1) + q( n)[d * ( n) − wˆ H ( n − 1) x ( n)] Always Requires reference

squares (RLS) γ −1Rxx−1 (n − 1) x(n) converges, signal and initial
q ( n) = -1
1 + γ −1 x H ( n) Rxx−1 ( n − 1) x( n) ~10 x faster than estimate of Rxx
Rxx−1 (n) = γ −1[ Rxx−1 (n − 1) − q (n) x (n) Rxx−1 (n − 1)] LMS

Constant w(n+1)=w(n)- µx(n)ε *(n) Does not require Theoretically may

2
modulus ε (n)=[1-|y(n)| ]y(n)x(n) reference signal not converge
algorithm
(CMA)
3.6 Effect of Array Geometry and Element Patterns
Most literature on adaptive beamforming considers linear arrays of
omnidirectional elements. Other geometries and element patterns are possible, and these
factors influence array performance. Ishide and Compton [3.13], and later Compton
[3.14] showed that using elements with directional patterns can introduce grating nulls in
patterns. More recently, Liang and Paulraj performed computer simulations to compare
the diversity performance of several array configurations in a multipath channel [3.15].
Transmission from a single mobile to a base station was considered. The simulation used
20 multipath components, with the directions of arrival uniformly distributed over an arc
of 10 to 60 degrees. All multipath components had equal power. The array
configurations included the following: (a) single circular array with d=0.5λ element
spacing; (b) single circular array with large inter-element spacing that was varied to
maintain a 5λ diameter regardless of the number of elements; (c) single small (d=0.5λ)
circular array plus one sensor; (d) double small (d=0.5λ) circular arrays spaced 5λ apart;
(e) single linear array (d=0.5λ); and (f) double linear arrays (two colinear arrays, each
with d=0.5λ, spaced 7.5λ apart). The circular arrays used cardioid element patterns, with
the element pattern maxima oriented radially outward. The linear arrays used
omnidirectional elements. The range extension that could be obtained with the six
topologies, using equal numbers of elements, with maximal ratio combining, was
compared. The number of elements considered ranged from 2 to about 22. The dual
circular arrays (d) performed better than the small circular array (a) for small multipath
angle spreads. For larger angle spreads the large circular array (b) performed slightly
better than (a) or (d). The single circular array plus one sensor (c) also performed better
than the small circular array and was considered to be more suitable for downlink
beamforming than (b) and (d), since the small circular array could be used with the extra
sensor for diversity on the uplink but without the extra sensor for downlink beamforming.
Because of the small interelement spacing in the circular array in configuration (c) there
would not be severe grating lobes in the downlink pattern. The performance of the two
linear array configurations (e) and (f) was very similar and slightly better than that of the
circular array configurations. This may have been due to the use of omnidirectional
element patterns as much as the array geometry. For all arrays compared, the differences

47
between configurations decreased with increasing multipath angle spread and increasing
number of elements.
Computer modeling was used in [3.16] to compare triangular, square, and
cylindrical array configurations using directional elements. The arrays were evaluated in
a TDMA system that resembled GSM/DCS 1800 with the addition of spatial division
multiple access (SDMA) which allows a frequency to be reused even in the same cell if
the spatial separation between users is sufficient. "Spatial reference" algorithms that
compute direction of arrival for desired and interfering signals and then form directional
beams were used. A midamble data sequence used for equalizer training was used as an
identification code for each signal. Only the uplink was considered. Triangular and
square arrays provided similar SDMA capabilities, but the circular array performed very
poorly. This is because the UCA-ESPRIT algorithm used for the circular array did not
take into account the directional antenna patterns caused by the supporting mast. In
contrast, the unitary ESPRIT direction finding algorithm used with the planar array faces
of the triangular and square arrays performed despite the directional elements used in
those arrays. This is likely because the element patterns in the planar arrays are aligned
and could be factored out of the array pattern.

3.7 Diversity Combining [3.17],[3.18]

In addition to phased and adaptive arrays, signals from multiple antennas can be
combined to improve performance in fading channels. Figure 3-9 depicts the block
diagrams of three diversity combining techniques. Selection diversity, shown in Fig. 3-9
(a), is the simplest of these methods. From a collection of M antennas the branch with
the largest signal to noise ratio at any time is selected and connected to the receiver. As
one would expect, the larger the value of M the higher the probability of having a larger
signal to noise ratio (SNR) at the output. Maximal ratio combining takes a better
advantage of all the diversity branches in the system. Fig. 3-9 (b) shows this
configuration where all M branches are weighted with their respective instantaneous
signal voltage to noise ratios. The branches are then cophased prior to summing in order
to ensure that all branches are added in phase for maximum diversity gain. The summed
signals are then used as the received signal. Maximal ratio has advantages over selection

48
diversity but is more complicated; proper care has to be taken in order to ensure that
signals are cophased correctly and gain coefficients have to be constantly updated. A
variation of maximal ratio combining is equal gain combining (see Fig. 3-9 (c)). In this
scheme the gains of the branches are all set to the same value and are not changed
thereafter. As with the previous case, the output is a cophased sum of all the branches.

49
 1 2 M

Transmitter Select Antenna with largest

SNR

Output: Best of
the M antennas

(a)
1 2 M

Variable Gain
a1 a2 aM Amplifiers
Transmitter
ai=(S/N) i
Cophasing and Summing

Output
(b)
1 2 M

Transmitter a a a

Cophasing and Summing

Output
(c)

Figure 3-9. Diversity combining techniques [3.18]: (a) selection diversity, (b) maximal-
ratio combining, (c) equal-gain combining

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3.8 Conclusion
This chapter has addressed several aspects of antenna arrays and beamforming.
These include the pattern of an array with arbitrary geometry and elements, phase- and
time-scanned arrays, and fixed-beam forming techniques. Optimum beamforming and
adaptive algorithms are also discussed.

References
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[3.10] J. R. Treichler and B. Agee, A New Approach to Multipath Correction of Constant
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[3.12] T. Biedka, Virginia Tech Adaptive Array Seminar, 1997.
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1980.

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[3.14] R. T. Compton, Jr., "A Method of Choosing Element Patterns in an Adaptive
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