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Chapter 1
Introduction
In recent years, there has been a major trend toward the use of C among serious
programmers.
Among the many reasons for C’s popularity are the following :
1. C is largely machine-independent. Programs written in C are easily ported from
one computer to another.
2. C is widely available. Commercial C compilers are available for most personal
computers, mini-computers, and mainframes.
3. C includes certain low-level features that are normally available only in assembly
or machine language.
4. Programs written in C compile into smaller programs that execute efficiently.
5. C is a flexible, high-level, structured programming language.

This course material provides instruction in computer programming with C. It includes

complete and understandable explanations of the commonly used features of C. In
addition, the material presents a contemporary approach to programming, stressing
the importance of clarity, legibility, modularity, and efficiency in program design. Thus,
the reader is exposed to the principles of good programming practice as well as the
specific rules of C. Examples of C programs are presented throughout the text,
beginning with the first chapter. The use of an interactive programming style is
emphasized throughout the text.
This volume can be used by the beginners in the programming as well as professionals.
It is particularly well suited for an introductory programming course. Sets of review
questions and problems are provided at the end of each chapter. The review questions
enable readers to test their assimilation of the material presented within each chapter.
They also provide an effective chapter summary. The problems reinforce the principles
presented within each chapter.

History
C was developed by Dennis Retchie in 1972 at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in
U.S.A. C was derived from a Language known as BCPL which was evolved at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the late 60’s. BCPL was used to develop an
operating system known as MULTICS for early multi-user time shared computers. One
of the aims of BCPL was to achieve efficiency in compiled code. Thus BCPL was defined
such that a translator could produce efficient machine Language code. C being a
successor of BCPL has a similar philosophy. C Language has been defined so that it has
the advantages of a high level language namely machine independence. At the same
time it is concise, providing only the bare essentials required in a language so that a
translator can translate it in to an efficient machine language code. Until 1978, C was
confined to use within Bell Laboratories. In 1978, when Brian Kernighan and Ritchie
published a description of the language, known as “k & rc” computer professionals got
impressed with C’s many desirable features. By mid 1980s, popularity of C became
wide spread Numerous C Compiler were written for computers of all sizes.

This chapter covers following Topics.

1. The structure of a C program.
2. How to develop small program in C.
3. How to input data and print the results obtained from a C program.

Structure of a C Program:
The structure of a C program can by explained by taking an example of a C program to
calculate area and perimeter of a rectangle. The program is written as follows.

/* Example program */
/* This program finds the area and perimeter of a rectangle */
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
int p,q, area, perimeter;
p=4
q=6
area = p*q;
perimeter = 2 * (p+q);
printf(“area = %d\n”, area);
printf(“perimeter = % d\n”, perimeter);
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}
/* End of main */

Comments
In the above program the first line in the program starts with /* and ends with */. Any
thing written between /* and */ is called a comment. In the C Language comments are
an aid to the programmer to read and understand a program. It is not a statement of
the language. The compiler ignores comments It is a good practice to include
comments in a program which will help in understanding a program.

PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVE
Now let us observe the line
# include <stdio.h>
This is called a preprocessor directive. It is written at the beginning of the program. It
commands that the contents of the file stdio.h should be included in the compiled
machine code at the place where # include appears. The file stdio.h contains the
standard input/output routines. All preprocessor directives begin with pound sign #
which must be entered in the first column. The # include line must not end with a
semicolon. Only one preprocessor directive can appear in one line.

Main( ) Function
he next line is main( ). It defines what is known as a function in C. A C program is made
up of many functions. The function main( ) is required in all C programs. It indicates the
start of a C program. We will use main( ) at the beginning of all programs. Observe that
main( ) is not followed by a comma or semicolon.

Braces {And}
Braces{and} enclose the computations carried out by main ( ). Each line in the
program is a statement. Every statement is terminated by a semicolon; The statement
itself can be written anywhere in a line. More than one statement can be on a line as a
semicolon separates them. However it is a good practice to write one statement per
line.

Declaration
In the above program the first statement int p, q, area, perimeter; This statement is
called a declaration. It informs the compiler that p,q, area and perimeter are variable
names and that individual boxes must be reserved for them in the memory of the
computer. Further it tells that the data to be stored in the memory boxes named p,q,
area and perimeters are integers namely, whole numbers without a fractional part(e.g,
0,1,2,...). The statement ends with a semicolon The effect of statement is shown in
figure given below;

p q area Parameter

Fig. 1.1 Effect of defining p, q, area and perimeter as integer variable names.

Assignment Statements
The statement p=4; is an assignment statement. It commands that the integer 4 be
stored in the memory box named p. when the statement is executed the integer 4 will
be stored in the memory box named p as shown in fig. 1.2 . This statement assigns a
value 4 to the variable name p.
p
4

Fig. 1.2 The next statement q=6; assigns 6 to q

Arithmetic Statement
The statement area=p*q; is an arithmetic statement. It commands that the numbers
stored in memory boxes p and q should be copied in to the CPU. The original contents
of p and q remain in their respective boxes. These numbers are multiplied by the CPU
and product is stored in box named area. After executing this statement the box
named area will contain 24.

The next statement perimeter = 2 *(p+q) is also an arithmetic statement.

The next two statements in the program are commands to display the contents of
memory box named area and perimeter respectively.
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The library function used for display is printf( ). the general form of this function is
printf (format string, variable 1, variable2, ——variable n);

The format string is enclosed in quotes. It specifics any message to be printed and the
manner in which the contents of variables are to be displayed for each of the variables
in the list of variables.
printf(“area = % d\n”, area);

The format string is %d \n The symbol %d says interpret the variable area occurring
after the comma in the printf statement as an integer and display its value”. The
symbol \n causes the display to advance to the next line. Thus when this statement is
carried out we will see on the screen
area = 24

After the statement

printf(“perimeter = % d\n”, perimeter);
we will have on the screen
area = 24
perimeter = 20

Some C Program Examples

Let us write a program to convert a temperature given in Celsius to Fahrenheit - The
formula
for conversion is
f = 1.8C + 32
/* Example program */
/* This program converts a Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit */
# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
float fahrenheit, celsius;
scanf(“%f”, & celsius);
fahrenhit = 1.8*celsius + 32.0;
printf (“fahrenheit = % f\n”, fahrenheit);
} /* End of main */
Note in the above program after # include we have defined the main function. If the
statement. float fahrenheit, celsius; is observed we see that This is a declaration which
informs the compiler that fahrenheit and celsius are variable names in which floating
point number will be stored. By floating point we mean a number with a fractional part.
The statement scanf(“%f”, & celsius) is a command to read a floating point number and
store it in variable name celsius. The format string %f indicates that floating point
number is to be read. The next statement is an arithmetic statement contents of
celsius is multiplied by 1.8 and added to 32.0 and stored in fahrenheit. The number 32
is written with a decimal point to indicate that it is a floating point number. The last
statement is to print the answer.

EXERCISE
Q.1 Where was C originally developed and by whom ?
Q.2 What are the major components of a C program ? What significance is attached to
name “main” ?
Q.3 How can comments be included within a C program ? Where can comments be
placed?

Summery:
1) C is a middle level language developed by denies Ritchi in 1972.
2) C is a procedure oriented language each program is divide into small block of
codes
3) This is called a preprocessor directive. It is written at the beginning of the
program to include library files in our program.
4) Each and every program must have main function, because execution of
program starts from main function.
5) Variable is nothing but a tool to reserve space for you in computer memory to
store values and calculations.
6) = is a assignment statement assign right hand side expression value to left hand
side

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7) printf is a output statement from stdio file use to put messages on screen.
8) scanf is a input statement use to get values from user through keyboard.
9) We use conversion specification for getting values from keyboard and to put
values on screen using scanf, printf.
10) Each statement end with semicolon in c.

Chapter 2
NUMERIC CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES
CONSTANTS
The term constant means that it does not change during the execution of a program
constants may be classified as:
(i) Integer Constant
(ii) Floating point Constant

Integer Constant
Integer constants are whole numbers without any fractional parts. There are three
types of Integer constant:
(i) Decimal constant (base 10)
(ii) Octal Constant (base 8)
(iii) Hexa decimal constant(base 16)
Allowed digit in decimal constant 0,1,.2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,. The digits of one octal constant
can be
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 and that in hexadecimal constants are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8.9,A,B,C,D,E,F,

Rule for decimal constant

A decimal integer constant must have at least one digit and must be written without a
decimal point. The first digit in the constant should not be 0. It may have either sign +
or -. If either sign does not precede to the constant it is assumed to be positive.
Following are valid decimal integer constants:
(i) 12345
(ii) 3468
(iii) -9746

The following are invalid decimal integer constants :-

(i) 11. ( Decimal point not allowed )
(ii) 45,256(comma not allowed )
(iii) $ 125 ( currency symbol not allowed )
(vi) 025 ( first digit should not be 0 for a decimal integer )
(v) ƒ 248 ( first symbol not a digit )

Octal Constant
An octal constant must have at least one digit and start with the digit 0. It must be
written without a decimal point. It may have either sign + or -. A constant which has no
sign is taken as positive.
The following are valid octal constants.
(i) 0245
(ii) - 0467
(iii) +04013
The following are invalid octal constants
(i) 25( Does not begin with 0 )
(ii) 0387 ( 8 is not an octal digit )
(iii) 04.32 (Decimal point not allowed )

Hexadecimal constant
A hexadecimal constant must have at least one hexadecimal digit and start with Ox or
OX.
It may have either sign
The following are valid hexadecimal constants
(i) OX 14 AF
(ii) OX 34680
(iii) – OX 2673E
The following are invalid hexadecimal constants:
(i) Ox14AF
(ii) OX34680
(iii) -Ox2673E
The following are invalid hexadecimal constants:
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(i) 0345 (Must start of Ox)

(ii) 0x45H3 (H not a hexa decimal digit)
(iii) Hex 2345 (Ox defines a hexadecimal number, not Hex)

Floating Point Constants

A floating point constant may be written in one or two forms could fractional form or
the exponent form, the rules for writing a floating point constant in these two forms is
given as follows.

Rule (Fractional Form)

A floating point constant in a fractional form must have at least one digit to the right of
the
decimal point. It may have either the + or the - sign preceding it. If a sign does not
precede it
then it is assumed to be positive.
Following are valid floating point constants:
(i) 1.0
(ii) –0.5678
(iii) 5800000.0
(iv) –0.0000156

Following are invalid:

(i) 1 (Decimal point missing)
(ii) 1. (No digit following decimal point)
(iii) -1/2, (Symbol/illegal)
(iv) .5 (No digit to the left of the decimal)
(v) 58, 678.94 (Comma not allowed)

Rule (Exponential form)

A floating point constant in the exponent form consists of a mantissa and an exponent.
The mantissa must have at least one digit. It may have a sign. The mantissa is followed
by the letter E or e and the exponent. The exponent must be an integer(without a
decimal point) and must have at least one digit. A sign for the exponent is optional.

The following are valid floating point constants in exponent form:

(i) (a) 152 E08 (b) 152.0 E8 (c) 152 e+8
(d) 152 E+08 (e) 15.2 e9 (f) 1520 E7
(ii) -0.148E-5
(iii) 152.859 E25
(iv) 0.01540 e05

The following are invalid:

(i) 152.AE8 (Mantissa must have a digit following).
(ii) 152*e9 (* not allowed).
(iii) +145.8E (No digit specified for exponent).
(iv) -152.9E5.5 (Exponent can not be a fraction).
(v) 0.158 E+954 (Exponent too large).
(vi) 125, 458.25 e-5 ( comma not allowed in mantissa).
(vii) 02E8 (A digit must precede in mantissa).

C Variables and Their Types

In C, a quantity which may vary during program execution is called a variable. Variable
names are names given to locations in the memory of computer where different
constants are stored. These locations can contain integer, real or character constants.
In any language the types of variables that it can support depends on the type of
constants that it can handle. This is because a constant stored in a location with a
particular type of variable name can hold only that type of constant. For example, a
constant stored in a memory location with an integer variable name must be an integer
constant. One stored in location with a real variable name must be a real constant and
the one stored in location with a character variable name must be character constant.

Rules for Variable Names

(i) A variable name is any combination of 1 to 8 alphabets, digits or underscores.
(ii) The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet
(iii) No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name.

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(iv) No special symbol other than an underscore(as in gross-sal) can be used in a

variable name.

e.q. si_int
m_hra
pop_e_89

C compiler is able to distinguish between the variable names, by making it compulsory

for you to declare the type of any variable name you wish to use in a program. This
type of declaration is done at the beginning of the program.
Following are the examples of type declaration statements:
e.q. int si, m-hra;
float bassal;
char code;

C Keywords
Keywords are the words whose meaning has already been explained to the C compiler.
Keywords can not be used as variable names because if we do so we are trying to
assign a new meaning to the keyword, which is not allowed by the computer. The
keywords are also called ‘Reserved words’. There are 32 keywords available in C.
following is list of keywords in C.

auto double if static, break else int struct

case enum long typedef, const float register union
continue far return unsigned, default for short void
do goto signed white

EXERCISE
Q.1 Determine which of the following are valid identifiers. If invalid, explain why ?
(a) record 1 (b) return (c) name_and_address (d) name-and-address
Q.2 What is the range of long double?
Q.3 What are the rules for naming variables?
Q.4 Discuss the various types of constants?

Summery
1) Keywords are the words reserved for compiler.
2) C is a case sensitive language so capital A and small a are two different
variables in c.
3) No special characters are allowed in variable name.

Chapter 3
DATA INPUT AND OUTPUT
SINGLE CHARACTER INPUT - THE getchar( ) FUNCTION
Single characters can be entered in to the computer using the C library function
getchar( ). The getchar function is a part of the standard C Language i/o Library. It
returns a single character from a standard input device. The function does not require
any arguments, though a pair of empty parentheses must follow the word getchar. In
general terms a reference to the getchar function is written as
character variable = getchar( );
Here character variable refers to some previously declared character variable

SINGLE CHARACTER OUTPUT-THE putchar( ) FUNTION

The putchar( ) function, like getchar( ), is a part of the standard C language i/o library.
It transmits a single character to a standard output device. The character being
transmitted will normally be represented as a character- type variable. It must be
expressed as an argument to the function enclosed in parentheses following the word
putchar. In general a reference to the putchar function is written as .
putchar( char var )
e.q
A C-Program contains the following statement :
char C;
__ _
__ _
__ _
__ _

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putchar(C);
The first statement declares that C is a character type variable. The second statement
causes the current value of C to be transmitted to the standard output device.

ENTERING INPUT DATA THE scanf( ) FUNTION

Input data can be entered into the computer from a standard input device by means of
the C library function scanf(). In general terms, the scanf function is written as
scanf(Control string, arg1,arg2,.....,argn)

Here control string refers to a string containing certain required formatting information,
and arg1, arg2,...arg n are arguments that represent the individual input data items.
The arguments represent pointers that indicate the addresses of the data item within
the computers memory. The control string comprises individual groups of characters
with one character group for each input data item. Each character group must begin
with a a percent sign( % ). In its simplest form a single character group will consist of
the percent sign, followed by a conversion character which indicates the type of the
corresponding data item.

COMMONLY USED CONVERSION CHARACTERS FOR DATA INPUT

c data item is a single character
d data item is a decimal integer
f data item is a floating point value
h data item is a short integer
I data item is a decimal, hexadecimal or octal integer
o data item is an octal integer
s data item is a string followed by white space character
u data item is an unsigned decimal integer
x data item is a hexadecimal integer

e.q of scanf function

# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
char item [20];
int partno;
float cost;
...
scanf(“%s% d % f”, item, &partno, & cost);
...
}
The first character group % s indicates that the first argument (item) represents a
string the second character group, %d indicates that the second argument ( & partno)
represents a decimal integer value. The third character group % f, indicates that the
third argument (&cost) represents a floating point value.
e.q. consider the skeleton of the following program
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
char item [20];
int partno;
float cost;
...
scant(“%s%d%f”, item &partno, &scost);
}
The following data items could be entered from the standard input device when the
program is executed.
fastener 12345 0.05
or
fastener
12345
0.0 5

Now let us again consider the skeleton structure of a C program

# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
int a,b,c;
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...
scanf (“%3d %3d %3d”, & a, & b, & c);
...
}
Suppose the input data items are entered as
123
Then the following assignment is will result
a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
It data is entered as
123 456 789
The following assignments would be
a = 123, b = 456, c = 789
Now suppose that the data had been entered as
123456789
The assignments would be
a = 123, b = 456, c = 789

Again consider the following example

# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{ int i ;
float x;
char c ;
...
scanf (“%3d %5f %c”, & i, & x, & c);
...
}
If the data item are entered as
10256.875 T
These when the program will be executed
10 will be assigned to i
256.8 will be assigned to x
and the character 7 will be assigned to c. the remaining two input characters(5 and T)
will be
ignored.

WRITING OUTPUT DATA - THE printf( ) FUNCTION

Output data can be written from the computer on to a standard output device using the
library function printf the general form of printf function is
printf(control string, arg 1, arg 2, . . ., argn)
where control string refers to a string that contains formatting information.
arg1, arg 2, . . ., argn are arguments that represent the individual output data items.
e.g:-
Following is a simple program that makes use of the printf function.
# include <stadio.h>
# include <math.h>
main ( ) /* Print several floating-point numbers */
{
float i = 2.0, j = 3.0 ;
printf (“%f %f %f %f”, i, j, i+j, sqrt (i + j ));
}
Executing the program produces the following output
2.000000 3.000000 5.000000 2.236068

The gets( ) and puts( ) FUCTIONS

The gets and puts are the functions which facilitate the transfer of strings between the
computer and the standard input/output devices. Each of these functions accepts a
single argument. The argument must be a data item that represents a string (e.g, a
character array). The string may include white space characters. In the case of gets,
the string will be entered from the keyboard and will terminate with a newline
character (“i’e” the string will end when the user presses the RETURN key).

# include <stdio.h>
main ( )
{
char line [80];
gets(line);
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puts(line);
}
Now suppose following string is entered from the standard input device
I am happy
Now the output of the program will be
I am happy

EXERCISE
Q.1 A C program contains the following statements :
# include <stdio.h>
char a, b, c;
(i) Write appropriate getchar statement that will allow values for a, b and c to be
entered into the computer
(ii) Write appropriate putchar statements that will allow the current values of a,b and c
to be written out of the computer.
Q.2 When entering a string via the scanf function using an s_type conversion factor,
how is the string terminated?
Q.3 What is the purpose of the printf function? How is it used within a C program ?
compare
with the putchar function ?

Summery
1) getchar() is use to get a single character through keyboard but u have to confirm
input by pressing enter.
2) getche() is use to get a single character through keyboard, it echo to screen.
3) getch()is use to get a single character through keyboard without echoing to
screen

Chapter 3
Operators in C:

1. Arithmetic operators
There are five arithmetic operators in C . They are
Operator Purpose
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Remainder after integer
The operator % is known as the modulus operator
e.g. Suppose that a and b are integer variables whose values are 10 and 3 respectively,
several arithmetic expressions involving these variables are shown below together with
their
resulting values
Expression Value
a+b 13
a-b 7
a * b 30
a/b 3
a%b 1
Now suppose that v1 and v2 are floating - point variables whose values are 12.5 and
2.0
respectively. several arithmetic expressions involving these variables are shown below,
together
with their resulting values
Expression Value
v1 + v2 14.5
v1 - v2 10.5
v1 * v2 25.0
v1 / v2 6.25
Now suppose c1 and c2 are character - type variables that represent the characters P
and T,
respectively. Several arithmetic expression that make use of these variables are shown
below
together with their resulting values (based upon the ASCII character set)
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Expression Value
C1 80
C1 + C2 164
C1 + C2 +5 169
C1 + C2 +'5' 217
P is encoded as (decimal ) 80, T is encoded as 84, and 5 is encoded as 53 in the ASCII
character set, as shown above.
Suppose that a and b are integer variables whose values are 11 and - 3, respectively.
Several
arithmetic expressions involving these variables are shown below, together with their
resulting
values
Expression Value
a+b 8
a-b 14
a*b -33
a/b -3

Type cast
The value of an expression can be converted to a different data type. If desired to do
so the expression must be preceded by the name of the desired data type enclosed in
parentheses. (data type) expression This type of construction is known as a cast ( It is
also called a type cast.) Suppose that i is an integer variable whose value is 7, and f is
floating- point variable whose value is 8.5. The expression (i +f) % 4 is invalid because
the first operand (i + f) is floating point rather than integer. However the expression
((int) (i + f)) % 4 forces the first operand to be an integer and is therefore valid,
resulting in the integer remainder 3.

UNARY OPERATORS
C includes a class of operators that act upon a single operand to produce a new value
such operators are known as unary operators. Unary operators usually precede their
single operands, though some unary operators are written after their operands.

(i) UNARY MINUS

Unary minus is a unary operator where a minus sign precedes a numerical constant, a
variable
or an expression. In C, all numeric constants are positive. Thus a negative number is
actually an expression consisting of the unary minus operator followed by a positive
number.
e.g. - 743, -0 X 7FFF, -0.2, -5E -8, -root 1, -(x +y) -3 * (x+y)

(ii) INCREMENT OPERATOR AND DECREMENT OPERATOR

The increment operator (++) causes its operand to be increased by one where as the
decrement operator causes its operand to be decreased by one. The operand used with
each of these operator must be a single variable. e.g. Suppose i is an integer variable
that has been assigned a value of 5. the expression ++i, causes the value of i to be
increased by one, Whereas the decrement operator causes the value to be decreased
by 1 so, now the new variable of i will be 4
i ++ means i = i + 1
- - i means i = i-1
The increment and decrement operators can each be utilized in two different ways,
depending an whether the operator is written before or after the operand. If the
operator precedes the operand (e.g. ++ i) then the operand will be altered in value
before it is utilized for its intended purpose within the program. If however, the
operator follows the operand (e.g i ++) then the value of the operand will be altered
after it is utilized
e.g. printf (“ i = %d\n”, i);
printf (“ i = % d\n”, ++i);
printf (“ i = %d\n”, i);
There printf statements will generate following three lines of out put
i=1
i=2
i =2

Now let us take the second case

printf (“ i = %d\n”, i);
printf (“ i = %d\n”, i++);
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printf ( i = %d\n”, i )

The statement will generate the following three lines of output

i=1
i=1
i=2

LOGICAL OPERATORS
There are two logical operators also available in C. They are
Operator Meaning
&& and
|| or
The result of a logical and operation will be true only if both operands are true where
as the result of a logical or operation will be true if either operand is true or if both
operands are true. In other words the result of a logical or operation will be false only if
both operands are false.
Suppose i is an integer variable whose value is 7, f is a floating point variable whose
value is 5.5 and C is a character variable that represents the character ‘w’, several
complex logical expressions that make use of these variables are shown below:
Expression Interpretation Value
(i > = 6) && (c = = 'w') true 1
(i >= 6) && (c = = 119) true 1
(f < 11) && (i > 100) false 0
(c = 'p') || ((i + f) < =10) true 1

RELATIONAL AND LOGICAL OPERATORS

These are four relational operators in C. They are
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to

EQUALITY OPERATORS
There are two equality operators in C which are as follows
= = Equal to
!= Not equal to
The six operators mentioned above are used to form logical expressions representing
conditions that are either true or false.
The resulting expression will be of type integer, since true is represented by the integer
value
1 and false is represented by the value 0.
e.g . Let us suppose i, j and k are integer variables whose values are 1,2 and 3
respectively. Several logical expressions involving these variables are shown below.
Expression Interpretation Value
i<j true 1
(i + j) > = k true 1
(j + k) > (i + 5) false 0
k!=3 false 0
j==2 true 1

Expression Interpretation Value

(i > = 6)&&(c == 'w') true 1
(i > = 6) || (c = = 119) true 1
(f < 11) && (i > 100) false 0
(c1 == 'p') || ((i + f) < = 10) true 1
Both operands are true hence expression is true
Both operands are true hence expression is true
Second operand is false hence expression is false
First operand is true hence expression is true

ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS
The commonly used assignment operator is = Assignment expressions that make use
of this operator are written in the form
Identifier = expression

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Here identifier represents a variable and expression represents a constant, a variable

or a more complex expression e.g. Here are some typical assignment expressions that
make use of the = operator

a=3
x=y
sum = a+b
area = length * width.

THE CONDITIONAL OPERATOR

Conditional operator is (?:) A expression that makes use of the conditional operator is
called a conditional expression
for e.g. expression 1? expression 2 : expression 3
When evaluating a conditional expression, expression 1 is evaluated first. If the
expression 1 is true then expression 2 is evaluated and this becomes the value of
conditional expression However, if expression 1 is false then expression 3 is evaluated
and this becomes the value of the conditional expression e.g. In the conditional
expression shown below suppose f and g are floating point variables. The conditional
expression is
(f < g)? f: g
It takes the value f if f is less than g otherwise the conditional expression takes on the
value of e.g. In other words conditional expression returns the value of the smaller of
the two variables.

EXERCISE
Q.1 What is an operator ? Describe several different type of operator included in C.
Q.2 A C program contains the following declarations
int i, j;
long ix;
short s;
float x;
double dx;
char c;
Determine the data type of each of the following expressions,
(a) x + c (c) i + x (e) ix + 4
(b) dx + x (d) s + 4 (f) s + c
Q.3 A C program contains the following declaration and initial assignments
int i = 8, j = 5;
double x = 0.005, y = - 0.01;
char c = ‘c’, d = ‘d’;
determine the value of each of the following expressions which involve the use of
library functions
(a) abs ( i - 2 * j ) (e) log (x)
(b) abs ( x + y) (f) sqrt ( x * x + y * y)
(c) toupper (d) (g) strlen ( “ hello\ 0”)
(d) floor (x) (h) pow (x - y)

Chapter 4
THE DECISION CONTROL & LOOP STRUCTURE
(a) The if statement
(b) The if - else statement
(c) The conditional operators

The if Statement
The general form of if statement looks like this:
if (this condition is true)
execute this statement;
Here the keyword if tells the compiler that what follows, is a decision control
instruction. The condition following the keyword if is always enclosed within a pair of
parentheses. If the condition, whatever it is true, then the statement is executed. It the
condition is not true then the statement is not executed instead the program skips past
it. The condition in C is evaluated using C’s relational operators. The relational
operators help us to build expression, which are either true or false

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e.q

X = = Y X is equal to Y
X ! = Y X is not equal to Y
X <Y X is less than Y
X>Y X is greater than Y
X< = Y X is less than or equal to Y
X> = Y X is greater than or equal to Y

Demonstration of if statement
main( )
{
int num;
printf(“Enter a number less than 10”);
scanf(“%d”, & num);
if(num < = 10)
printf(“The number is less than 10”);
}

Multiple Statements within if

If it is desired that more than one statement is to be executed if the condition following
if is satisfied, then such statements must be placed within pair of braces. e.q The
following program demonstrate that if year of service greater than 3 then a bonus of
Rs. 2500 is given to employee. The program illustrates the multiple statements used
within if

/* calculation of bonus */
main( )
{
int bonus, CY, Yoj, yr-of-ser;
printf(“Enter current year and year of joining”);
scanf(“%d %d”, &cy, &yoj);
yr-of-ser = CY-Yoj;
if(yr-of-ser > 3)
{
bonus = 2500;
printf(“Bonus = Rs. %d”, bonus);
}
}
If - else The if statement by itself will execute a single statement or a group of
statements when the condition following if is true. it does nothing when the condition is
false. It the condition is false then a group of statements can be executed using else
statement. The following program illustrates this
/* Calculation of gross salary */
main( )
{
float bs, gs, da, hra;
printf(“Enter basic salary”);
scanf(“%f”, & bs);
if(bs <1500)
{ hra = bs * 10/100;
da = bs * 90/100;
}
else
{ hra = 500;
da = bs * 98/100;
}
gs = bs+hra+da;
printf(“gross salary = Rs. %f”, gs);
}

Nested if - else If we write an entire if - else construct within the body of the if
statement or the body of an else statement. This is called ‘nesting’ of ifs.
e.g.
if(condition)
{
if (condition)
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do this;
else
{ do this;
and this;
}
}
else
do this;

The Loop Control structure

These are three methods by way of which we can repeat a part of a program. They are:
(a) Using a for statement
(b) Using a while statement
(c) Using a do-while statement

The while Loop:-

The general from of while is as shown below:
initialise loop counter;
while (test loop counter using a condition)
{
do this;
and this;
increment loop counter;
}
The parentheses after the while contains a condition so long as this condition remains
true all
statements within the body of the while loop keep getting executed repeatedly
for e.g.
/* calculation of simple interest for 3 sets of p, n and r */
main( )
{ int p,n, count;
float r, si;
count = 1;
while(count < = 3 )
{
printf(“\n Enter values of p, n and r”);
scanf(“%d %d %f”, & p, & n, & r);
si = p*n*r/100;
printf(“simple interest = Rs. %f”, si);
count = count +1;
}

The do-while Loop

The do-while loop takes the following form
do
{
this;
and this;
and this;
and this;
} while (this condition is true);
There is a minor difference between the working of while and do-while loops. The
difference
is the place where the condition is tested. The while tests the condition before
executing any
of the statements within the while loop. As against this the do-while tests the condition
after
having executed the statements within the loop.
e.g:-
main( )
{
while(5<1)
printf(“Hello \n”);
}
In the above e.q. the printf will not get executed at all since the condition fails at the
first time

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itself. Now let’s now write the same program using a do-while loop.
main( )
{
do
{
printf (“Hello \n”);
} while (5<1);
}
In the above program the printf( ) would be executed once, since first the body of the
loop is
executed and then the condition is tested.

The for Loop

The general form of for statement is as under:
for( initialise counter; test counter; increment counter)
{ do this;
and this;
and this;
}
Now let us write the simple interest problem using the for loop
/* calculation of simple interest for 3 sets of p,n and main( )
{
int p,n, count;
float r, si;
for(count = 1; count <=3; count = count +1)
{
printf(“Enter values of p,n and r”);
scanf(“%d %d %f”, & p, & n, & r);
si = p * n * r / 100;
printf(“Simple interest = Rs %f \n”, si);
}
}

The break Statement

The keyword break allows us to jump out of a loop instantly without waiting to get back
to the
conditional test. When the keyword break is encountered inside any C loop, control
automatically
passes to the first statement after the loop.
for e.q. The following program is to determine whether a number is prime or not.
Logic:- To test a number is prime or not, divide it successively by all numbers from 2
to one
less than itself. If the remainder of any of the divisions is zero, the number is not a
prime.
following program implements this logic
main( )
{
int num, i;
printf(“Enter a number”);
scanf(“%d”, &num);
i=2
while (i < = num -1)
{
if (num%i= = 0)
{
printf(“Not a prime number”);
break;
}
i++
}
if(i = = num)
printf(“Prime number”);
}
The continue Statement
The keyword continue allows us to take the control to the beginning of the loop
bypassing the

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statements inside the loop which have not yet been executed. When the keyword
continue is
encountered inside any C loop, control automatically passes to the beginning of the
loop. for
e.g.
main( )
{
int i,j;
for(i = 1; i< = 2; i++)
{
for(j=1; j<=2; j++)
{
if (i= =j)
continue;
printf(“\n%d%d\n”, i,j);
}
}
The output of the above program would be....
12
21
when the value of i equal to that of j, the continue statement takes the control to the
for loop
(inner) bypassing rest of the statements pending execution in the for loop(inner).

The Case Control structure

switch Statement:-
The switch statement causes a particular group of statements to be chosen from
several
available groups. The selection is based upon the current value of an expression that is
included
within the switch statement. The form of switch statement is.
switch (integer expression)
{ case constant 1:
do this;
break;
case constant 2:
do this;
break;
case constant 3:
do this;
break;
default;
do this;
}

EXERCISE
Q.1 Write a loop that will calculate the some of every third integer beginning with i = 2
( i.e.
calculate the some 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + ————) for all values of i that are less than 100.
Write the loop three different ways.
Q.2 Write a switch statement that will examine the value of integer variable called flag
and
print one of the following messages, depending on the value assigned to flag.
(a) HOT, if flag has a value of 1
(b) LUKE WARM, if flag has value of 2
(c) COLD, if flag has value of 3
(d) OUT OF RANGE, if flag has any other value.
Q.3 Describe the output that will be generated by each of following C programs.
(a) # include <stdio.h> (b) # include < stdio.h>
main ( ) main ( )
{{
int i = 0, x = 0; int i, j, x = 0;
while ( i < 20) { for ( i = 0; i < 5 ; ++ i)
if ( i % 5 = = 0) { for ( i = 0; j < i; ++ j) {

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x + = i; x + = ( i + j - 1);
printf (“%d”, x); printf ( “ %d”, x);
}}
++i; printf (“\n x = %d”, x)
}}
printf (“ \n x = %d”, x);
}

Chapter 5
COMPETENCY OBJECTIVES
The objective of this Section is to provide the advanced features for programming with
C language. It includes complete explanations of these features. At the end of the
course, a student should be able to :-
1) Understand and implement Arrays.
2) Appreciate the use of functions.
3) Use the standard library string functions.
4) Develop dynamic data structures in C.
5) Understand structures and unions in C.
6) Apply graphics features in C language.

What are Arrays

Let us suppose we wish to arrange the percentage marks obtained by 100 students in
ascending order. In such a case there are two options to store these marks in memory:
(a) Construct 100 variables to store percentage marks obtained by 100 different
students
i.e “each variable containing one students marks.
(b) Construct one variable (called array or subscripted variable) capable of storing or
holding
all the hundred values.
Clearly, the second alternative is better because it would be much easier to handle one
array
variable than handling 100 different variables Now we can give a formal definition of
array . An array is a collective name given to a group of similar quantities. These
similar quantities could be percentage marks of 100 students, or salaries of 300
employee or ages of 50 employees. Thus an array is a collection of similar elements.
These similar elements could be all ints, or all floats or all chars etc. Usually, the array
of characters is called a ‘string’, where as an array of ints or floats is called simply an
array. All elements of any given array must be of the same type i.e we can’t have an
array of 10 numbers, of which 5 are ints and 5 are floats.

ARRAY DECLARATION
To begin with, like other variables an array needs to be declared so that the compiler
will know what kind of an array and how. large an array we want.
for e.g. int marks [30];

Here int specifies the type of variable, marks specifies the name of the variable. The
number 30 tells how many elements of the type int will be in our array. This number is
often called the ‘dimension’ of the array. The bracket [ ] tells the compiler that we are
dealing with an array.

ACCESSING ELEMENTS OF AN ARRAY

To access an individual element in the array we have to subscript it, that is we have to
put the number in the brackets following the array name. All the array elements are
numbered starting with 0. Thus, marks [2] is not the second element of array but it is
actually the third element. Thus marks [i] refers to (i + 1) th element of the array.
Let us take an example of a program using array
main ( )
{
float avg, sum=0;
int i;
int marks [30]; /* array declaration*/
for ( i =0; i < = 29; i ++)
{
printf (“\n Enter marks “);
scanf (“%d”, &marks [i]);

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}
for ( i = 0; i <= 29; i ++)
sum = sum + marks [i];
avg = sum /30;
printf (“\n Average marks = % f”, avg);
}

ENTERING DATA IN TO THE ARRAY

The section of code which places data in to an array is
for (i=0; i<= 29; i++)
{
printf (“\n Enter marks”)
scanf (“%d”, &marks [i]);
}
The above section will read about 30 elements numbered from 0 to 29 in to the marks
array.
This will take input from the user repeatedly 30 times.

READING DATA FROM ARRAY

for ( i=0; i <= 29; i++);
sum = sum + marks [i];
avg = sum / 30;
printf (“\n Average marks = % f”, avg );
The rest of the program reads the data back out of the array and uses it to calculate
the average. The for loop is much the same, but now the body of loop causes each
student’s marks to be added to a running total stored in a variable called sum. When
all the marks have been added up, the result is divided by 30, the numbers of students
to get the average.
Let us summarize the facts about array

(a) An array is a collection of similar elements.

(b) The first element in the array is numbered 0, the last element is 1 less than the
size of the array.
(c) An array is also known as subscripted variable .
(d) Before using an array its type and dimension must be declared.
(e) However big an array is, its elements are always stored in contiguous memory
locations.

ARRAY INITIALISATION
To initialise an array while declaring it. Following are a few examples which
demonstrate this
int num [6] = {2, 4, 12, 5, 45, 5};
int n [ ] = {2, 4, 12, 5, 45, 5};
float press [ ] = { 12.3, 34.2, -23.4, - 11.3}
The following points should be noted
(a) Till the array elements are not given any specific values, they are suppose to
contain garbage values.
(b) If the array is initialized where it is declared mentioning the dimension of the
array is optional as in the 2nd example above.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL ARRAYS
In C one can have arrays of any dimensions. To understand the concept of
multidimensional
arrays let us consider the following 4 x 5 matrix
0 10 4 3 -10 12
1 2 3 0 61 8
2 0 16 12 8 0
3 12 9 18 45 -5
Column numbers (j)
Row number (i)
Let us assume the name of matrix is x
To access a particular element from the array we have to use two subscripts on for row
number and other for column number the notation is of the form X [i] [j] where i stands
for row subscripts and j stands for column subscripts.

Below given are some typical two-dimensional array definitions

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float table [50] [50];

char line [24] [40];

The first example defines tables as a floating point array having 50 rows and 50
columns. The
number of elements will be 2500 (50 X50).
The second declaration example establishes an array line of type character with 24
rows and
40 columns. The number of elements will be (24 X 40) 1920 consider the following two
dimensional
array definition int values [3] [4] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 11, 12, };
Thus the array values can be shown pictorially as
0123
01234
15678
2 9 10 11 12
Column number
Row number
Values [0] [0] = 1 Values [0] [1] = 2 Values [0] [2] = 3 Values [0] [3] = 4
Values [1] [0] = 5 Values [1] [1] = 6 Values [1] [2] = 7 Values [1] [3] = 8
Values [2] [0] = 9 Values [2] [1] = 10 Values [2] [2] = 11 Values [2] [3] = 12
Here the first subscript stands for the row number and second one for column number.
First
subscript ranges from 0 to 2 and there are altogether 3 rows second one ranges from 0
to 3
and there are altogether 4 columns.
Alternatively the above definition can be defined and initialised as
int values [3] [4] = {
{ 1, 2, 3, 4}
{ 5, 6, 7, 8}
{9, 10, 11, 12}
};
Here the values in first pair of braces are initialised to elements of first row, the values
of
second pair of inner braces are assigned to second row and so on. Note that outer pair
of
curly braces is required. If there are two few values within a pair of braces the
remaining elements will be assigned as zeros.
Here is a sample program that stores roll numbers and marks obtained by a student
side by
side in matrix
main ( )
{
int stud [4] [2];
int i, j;
for (i =0; i < =3; i ++)
{
printf (“\n Enter roll no. and marks”);
scanf (“%d%d”, &stud [i] [0], &stud [i] [1] );
}
for (i = 0; i < = 3; i ++)
printf (“\n %d %d”, stud [i] [0], stud [i] [1]);
}
The above example illustrates how a two dimensional array can be read and how the
values
stored in the array can be displayed on screen.

EXERCISE
Q.1 Describe the array defined in each of the following statements
(a) char name [30] (d) # define A 66
(b) float c [6]; # define B 132
(c) int params [5] [5] (e) double account [50] [20] [80]
Q.2 How can a list of strings be stored within a two-dimensional array ? How can the
individual strings be processed? What library functions are available to simplify string
processing?
Q.3 Write a C program that will produce to table of value of equation
y = 2 e- 0.1t sin 0.5t
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Where t varies between 0 and 60. Allow the size of the t - increment to be entered as
an
input parameter.
A computer program cannot handle all the tasks by it self. Instead its requests other
program
like entities - called ‘functions in C - to get its tasks done. A function is a self contained
block
of statements that perform a coherent task of some kind.

e.g
#include <stdio.h>
message();
{
message ( );
printf (“\n Hello “);
}
main ( )
{
message ( )
printf (“\n I am in main “);
}
output of the program will be
Hello
I am in main
Here main ( ) is the calling function and message is the called function. When the
function message ( ) is called the activity of main ( ) is temporarily suspended while the
message ( ) function wakes up and goes to work. When the message ( ) function runs
out of statements to execute, the control returns to main ( ), which comes to life again
and begins executing its code at the exact point where it left off.
The General form of a function is
function (arg1, arg2, arg3)
type arg1, arg2, arg3
{
statement 1;
statement2;
statement3;
statement4;
}

Chapter 6
FUNCTIONS
There are basically two types of functions
(i) Library functions e.g printf ( ), scanf ( ) etc
(ii) user defined function e.g the function message( ) mentioned above.
The following point must be noted about functions
(i) C program is a collection of one or more functions
(ii) A function gets called when the function name is followed by a semicolon for e.g.
main ( )
{
message ( );
}
(iii) A function is defined when function name is followed by a pair of braces in which
one
or more statements may be present for e.g.
message ( )
{
statement 1;
statement2;
statement 3;
}
(iv) Any function can be called from any other function even main ( ) can be called from
other functions. for e.g.
main ( )
{
message ( );
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}
message ( )
{
printf (“ \n Hello”);
main ( );
}
(v) A function can be called any number of times for eg.
main ()
{
message ( );
message ( );
}
message ( )
{
printf (“\n Hello”);
}
(vi) The order in which the functions are defined in a program and the order in which
they
get called need not necessarily be same for e.g.
main ( );
{
message1 ( );
message2 ( );
}
message2 ( )
{
printf (“\n I am learning C”);
}
message1 ( )
{
printf ( “\n Hello “);
}
(vii) A function can call itself such a process as called ‘recursion’.
(viii) A function can be called from other function, but a function cannot be defined in
another
function. Thus the following program code would be wrong, since argentina is
being defined inside another function main ( ).
main ( )
{
printf (“\n I am in main”);
argentina ( )
{
printf {“\n I am in argentina”);
}
}
(ix) Any C program contains at least one function
(x) If a program contains only one function, it must be main ( )
(xi) In a C program if there are more than one functional present then one of these
functional
must be main ( ) because program execution always begins with main ( )
(xii) There is no limit on the number of functions that might be present in a C program.
(xiii) Each function in a program is called in the sequence specified by the function calls
in
main ( )
(xiv) After each function has done its thing, control returns to the main ( ), when main (
) runs
out of function calls, the program ends.

WHY USE FUNCTIONS

Two reasons :
(i) Writing functions avoids rewriting the same code over and over. Suppose that there
is a section of code in a program that calculates area of a triangle. If, later in the
program we want to calculate the area of a different triangle we wont like to write the
same instructions all over again. Instead we would prefer to jump to a ‘section of code’
that calculates area and then jump back to the place from where you left off. This
section of code is nothing but a function.

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(ii) Using functions it becomes easier to write programs and keep track of what they
are doing. If the operation of a program can be divided in to separate activities, and
each activity placed in a different function, then each could be written and checked
more or less independently. Separating the code in to modular functions also makes
the program easier to design and understand.

(a) Functions declaration and prototypes

Any function by default returns an int value. If we desire that a function should return a
value other than an int, then it is necessary to explicitly mention so in the calling
functions as well as in the called function.
e.g
main ( )
{
float a,b,
printf (“\n Enter any number”);
scanf (“\% f”, &a );
b = square (a);
printf (“\n square of % f is % f”, a,b);
}
square (Float x)
{
float y;
y = x * x; return (y); }
the sample run of this program is
Enter any number 2.5
square of 2.5 is 6.000000
Here 6 is not a square of 2.5 this happened because any C function, by default, always
returns an integer value. The following program segment illustrates how to make
square ( )
capable of returning a float value.

main ( )
{
float square ( );
float a, b;
printf (“\n Enter any number “);
scanf (“%f” &a);
b = square (a);
printf (“\n square of % f is % f, “ a, b);
}
float square (float x)
{
float y;
y= x *x;
return ( y);
}
sample run
Enter any number 2.5
square of 2.5 is 6.2500000

CALL BY VALUE
In the preceding examples we have seen that whenever we called a function we have
always
passed the values of variables to the called function. Such function calls are called
‘calls by
value’ by this what it meant is that on calling a function we are passing values of
variables to it.
The example of call by value are shown below ;
sum = calsum (a, b, c);
f = factr (a);
In this method the value of each of the actual arguments in the calling function is
copied into
corresponding formal arguments of the called function. With this method the changes
made
to the formal arguments in the called function have no effect on the values of actual
argument

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in the calling function. the following program illustrates this

main ( )
{
int a = 10, b=20;
swapy (a,b);
printf (“\na = % d b = % d”, a,b);
}
swapy (int x, int y)
{
int t;
t = x;
x = y;
y = t;
printf ( “\n x = % d y = % d” , x, y);
}
The output of the above program would be;
x = 20 y = 10
a =10 b =20

CALL BY REFERENCE
In the second method the addresses of actual arguments in the calling function are
copied in
to formal arguments of the called function. This means that using these addresses we
would
have an access to the actual arguments and hence we would be able to manipulate
them the
following program illustrates this.
main ( )
{
int a = 10, b =20,
swapr (&a, &b);
printf (“\n a = %d b= %d”, a, b);
}
swapr (int *x, int * y)
{
int t;
t = *x
*x = *y;
*y = t;
}
The output of the above program would be
a = 20 b =10

EXERCISE
Q.1 Each of the following is the first live of a function definition explain the meaning of
each
(a) float f (float a, float b) (c) Void f (int a)
(b) long f ( long a ) (d) char f (void)
Q.2 Write a function that will calculate and display the real roots of the quadratic
equation:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 using the quadratic formula
x=
2a
- b ± b - 4ac 2
Assume that a, b and c are floating - point arguments where values are given and that
x1 and x2 are floating point variables. Also assume that b2 > 4 * a * c , so that the
calculated roots will always be real.
Q.3 Write a function that will allow a floating - point number to be raised to an integer
power. In other words, we wish to evaluate the formula
y = Xn
where y and x are floating - point variables and n is an integer variable.
For string handling C provides a standard set of library functions. Though there exists
many
such functions four of them will be discussed here.

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Chapter 7
STANDARD LIBRARY STRING FUNCTIONS
The strcmp( ) Function
This function is used to check whether two strings are same or not. If both the strings
are
same it return a 0 or else it returns the numeric difference between the ASCII values of
nonmatching characters e.q. the following program
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
char string1 [ ] = “orange”;
char string2 [ ] = “banana”;
printf(“%d\n”, strcmp(string1, string2));
printf(“%d\n”, strcmp(string2, “banana”);
printf(“%d”, strcmp(string1, “Orange”));
getch( );
}

output
13
0
32
In the first printf statement we use the strcmp( ) function with string1 and string2 as it
arguments.
As both are not equal (same) the function strcmp( ) returned 13, which is the numeric
difference between “orange” and “banana” ie, between string2 and b.
In the second printf statement the arguments to strcmp() are string2 and “banana”. As
string2
represents “banana”, it will obviously return a 0.
In the third printf statement strcmp( ) has its arguments “orange” and “Orange”
because
string1 represents “Orange”. Again a non-zero value is returned as “orange” and
“Orange”
are not equal.

strcpy( ) Function
The function copies one string to another for e.g. the following program
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
char source [ ] = “orange”;
char target [20];
strcpy(target, source);
clrscr( );
printf(“source: %s\n”, source);
printf(“target:%s”, target);
getch( );
}
output will be
source : orange
target : orange

strcat( )
This function concatenates the source string at the end of the target string for e.g,
“Bombay”
and “Nagpur” on concatenation would result in to a string “Bombay Nagpur”. Here is
an example
of strcat( ) at work.
main( )
{
char source [ ] = “Folks”;
char target [30] = “Hello”;
strcat(target, source);
printf(“\n source string = %s”, source);
printf(“\n target string = %s”, target);
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}
And here is the output
source string = folks
target string = Hello folks

strlen( )
This function counts the number of characters present in a string. Its usage is
illustrated in the
following program.
main( )
{
char arr[ ] = “Bamboozled”
int len1, len 2;
len1 = strlen(arr);
len2 = strlen(“Hunpty Dumpty”);
printf(“\n string = %s length = %d”, arr, len1);
printf(“\n string = %s length = %d”, “Humpty Dumpty”, len2); }
The output would be
string = Bamboozled length=10
string = Humpty Dumpty length = 13
while calculating the length of the string it does not count ‘\0’.

EXERCISE
Q.1 Write a function xstrstr ( ) that will return the position where one string is present
within
another string. If the second string doesn’t occur in the first string xstrstr ( ) should
return a0.
For example in the string “ some where over the rainbow”, “over” is present at
position”
Q.2 Write a program to encode the following strings such that it gets convert into an
unrecognisable from. Also write a decode function to get back the original string.

Chapter 8
DYNAMIC DATA STRUCTURES IN C
POINTERS
THE & and * Operators
A pointer is a variable that represents the location of a data item, such as a variable or
an array element. Pointers are used frequently in C, as they have a number of useful
applications. For example, pointers can be used to pass information back and forth
between a function and its reference point. Pointers provide a way to return multiple
data items from a function via function arguments to be specified as arguments to a
given function. Pointers are also closely associated with arrays and therefore provide
an alternate way to access individual array elements. Within the computer’s memory,
every stored data item occupies one or more adjacent memory cells. The number of
memory cells required to store a data item depends on the type of data item. For
example, a single character will be stored in 1 byte of memory integer usually requires
two adjacent bytes, a floating point number may require four adjacent bytes. Suppose
V is a variable that represents some particular data item. The compiler will
automatically assign memory cells for this data item. The data item can be accessed if
we know the location of the first memory cell. The address of V’s memory location can
be determined by the expression &V, where & is a unary operator, called the address
operator, that evaluates the address of its operand.

Now let us assign the address of V to another variable, PV. Thus,

PV = & V

This new variable is called a pointer to V, since it “Points” to the location where V is
stored in
memory. Remember, however, that PV represents V’s address, not its value. Thus, PV
is
called pointer variable.
address of V value of V
PV V
Relationship between PV and V (where PV = &V and V = *PV)
The data item represented by V can be accessed by the expression *PV where * is a
unary operator, that operates only on a pointer variable. Therefore, PV and V both
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represent the same data item. Furthermore, if we write PV = &V and U = PV, then U
and V will both represent the same values i.e., the value of V will indirectly be assigned
to U.
Example :
int quantity = 179 ;
The statement instructs the system to find a location for the integer quantity and puts
the
value 179 in that location. Let us reassume that the system has chosen the address
location
5000 for quantity.
Quantity
179
5000
Variable
Value
Address
Representation of a variable
Remember, since a pointer is a variable, its value is also stored in the memory in
another
location.
The address of P can be assumed to be 5048.
Variable
Quantity
P
Value
179
5000
Address
5000
5048
Pointer as a variable

Declaring and initializing Pointers

Since pointer variables contain addresses that belong to a separate data type, they
must be declared as pointers before we use them. The declaration of a pointer variable
takes the following form:
data type * Pt _ name

This tells the compiler three things about the variable Pt_name.
1. The * tells that the variable Pt_name is a pointer variable.
2. Pt_name needs a memory location.
3. Pt_name ponts to a variable of type data type.

Example : int * P ;
Declares the variable P as a pointer variable that points to an integer data type.
float * y ;
declares y as a pointer to a floating point variable.
Once pointer variable has been declared, it can be made to point to a variable using an
assignment statement such as
P = & quantity ;
which causes P to point to quantity. P contains the address of quantity. This is known
as
pointer initialization.

Pointer expressions
Like other variables, pointer variables can be used in expressions. For example, if P1
and P2
are properly declared and initialized pointers, then the following statements are valid.
1) Y = * P1 ;
2) Sum = Sum + * P1 ;
3) Z = S - * P2 / * P1 ;
4) * P2 = * P2 + 10 ;
Note that there is a blank space between / and * in the item 3 above.
If P1 and P2 are pointers then the expressions such as,
P1 + 4 , P2 - 2 , P1 - P2 , P1 ++ , — P2 are allowed
also,
Sum =Sum + *P2 ;
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P1 ++ ;
- -P2 ;
P1 > P2
P1 = = P2
P1 ! = P2
are all allowed expressions.
The expressions such as,
P1 / P2 or P1 * P2 or P1/3
are not allowed.

Pointer assignments
After declaring a pointer, pointer is assigned a value, so that it can point to a particular
variable.
eg. int * P ;
int i ;
P=&i;
This is called assignment expression in which pointer variable P is holding the address
of i.

Pointer arithmetic
Two pointer values can be added, multiplied, divided or subtracted together.
eg. if int i ;
int j ;
int * P , * q ;
i = 5 , j = 10 ;
Now, various pointer arithmetic can be performed
eg. * j = * i + * j ;
The value of variable j is changed from 10 to 15.
*j=*j-*i;
The value of variable j is changed from 10 to 5.
* i = * i ** j ;
The value of i is changed from 5 to 50 ;
Consider another example,
if there is array and a pointer is pointing to it
int i [10] ;
int * P ;
P=i;
Now, arithmetic operations like
P=P+4;
Will move the pointer P from the starting address of the array to the fourth subscript of
array.
Similarly, if P1 and P2 are both pointers to the same array, then P2 - P1 gives the
number of
elements between P1 and P2.
arithmetic operations like
P1/P2 or P1 x P2 or P/3 are not allowed.

Pointer Comparison
In addition to arithmetic operations, pointers can also be compared using the relational
operators.
The expressions such as
P1 > P2 , P1 = = P2 , P1 ! = P2 are allowed.
However, any comparison of pointers that refer to separate and unrelated variables
make no
sense. Comparisons can be used meaningfully in handling arrays and strings.

The dynamic allocation functions - malloc( ) and calloc( )

Most often we face situations in programming where the data is dynamic in nature.
That is, the number of data items keep changing during execution of the program. For
example, consider a program for processing the list of customers of a company. The
list grows when names are added and shrinks when names are deleted. When list
grows we need to allocate more memory space to the list to accommodate additional
data items. Such situations can be handled more easily and effectively by using what is
called dynamic data structures.

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DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION

C language requires that the number of elements in an array should be specified at
compile time. Our initial judgement of size, if it is wrong, may cause failure of the
program or wastage of memory space. Many languages permit a programmer to
specify an array’s size at run time. Such languages take the ability to calculate and
assign, during execution, the memory space required by the variables in a program.
The process of allocating memory at run time is known as dynamic memory allocation.
The library functions used for allocating memory are :
unction Task
malloc ( ) Allocates requested size of bytes and returns a pointer to the
first byte of the allocated space.
calloc ( ) Allocates space for an array of element, initializes them to
zero and then returns a pointer to the memory.

Memory Allocation Process

Let us first look at the memory allocation process associated with a C program. Fig.
below
shows the conceptual view of storage of a C program in memory.
Local Variable
Free Memory
Global
Variables
C Program
Instructions
Scale
Heap
The program instructions and global and static variables are stored in a region known
as permanent storage area and the local variables are stored in another area called
stack. The memory space that is located between these two regions is available for
dynamic allocation during execution of the program. The free memory region is called
the heap. The size of the heap keeps changing when program is executed due to
creation and death of variables that are local to functions and blocks. Therefore, it is
possible to encounter memory “overflow” during dynamic allocation process. In such
situations, the memory allocations functions mentioned above returns a NULL pointer.

ALLOCATING A BLOCK OF MEMORY

A block of memory may be allocated using the function malloc. The malloc function
reserves a block of memory of specified size and returns a pointer of type void. This
means that we can assign it to any type of pointer. It takes the following form;
ptr = ( Cast type * ) malloc ( byte size ) ;
ptr is a pointer of type cast type. The malloc returns a pointer (of cast type) to an area
of
memory with size byte - size.
Example :
X = ( int * ) malloc ( 100 *sizeof ( int )) ;
On successful execution of this statement, a memory space equivalent to “100 times
the size of an int” bytes is reserved and the address of the first byte of the memory
allocated is assigned to the pointer X of type int. Similarly, the statement

Cptr = ( char * ) malloc (10) ;

allocates 10 bytes of space for the pointer Cptr of type char
Cptr
2000
1000
012......9
Remember, the malloc allocates a block of adjacent bytes. The allocation can fail if the
space in the heap is not sufficient to satisfy the request. If it foils, it returns a NULL. We
should therefore check whether the allocation is successful before using the memory
pointer.

Example :
Write a program that uses a table of integers whose size will be specified interactively
at run time.
Program -
# include <stdio. h>
# include <stdlib.h>
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# define NULL O
main ( )
{
int * P, * table ;
int size ;
printf ( “\n What is the sizeof table ? “ ) ;
scanf ( “ % d”, &size ) ;
printf ( “\n” ) ;
if (( table = (int * ) malloc (size * sizeof (int)) = = NULL )
{
printf (“No space available \ n”) ;
exit ( 1) ;
}
printf (“\n address of the first byte is % u\n”, table );
printf(“\n Input table values”);
for ( P = table; P < table + size; P++ )
scanf (“%d”, *P );
for ( P = table + size - 1; P > = table; P- - )
printf (“%d is stored at address %u\n”, *P, P );
}

Allocating Multiple Blocks of Memory

calloc is another memory allocation function that is normally used for requesting
memory space at runtime for storing derived data types such as arrays and structures.
While malloc allocates a single block of storage space, calloc allocates multiple blocks
of storage, each of the same size, and then allocates all bytes to O. The general form of
calloc is :

ptr = (Cast type * ) calloc ( n, elem_size );

The above statement allocates contiguous space for n blocks, each of size elem-size
bytes. All bytes are initialized to zero and a pointer to the first byte of the allocated
region is returned. If there is not enough space, a NULL pointer is returned.
The following program allocates space for a structure variable.

#include < stdio.h>

#include < stdlib.h>
struct student
{
char name (25);
float age;
long int num;
};
typedef struct student record ;
record * ptr ;
int class_size = 30 ;
ptr = ( record * ) calloc ( class_size, sizeof ( record )) ;
----
----
record is of type struct student having three number :
name, age and num. The calloc allocates memory to hold data for 30 such records. We
should check if the requested memory has been allocated successfully before using the
ptr.
This may be done as follows:
if ( ptr == NULL )
{
printf ( “Available memory not sufficient”) ;
exit ( 1 ) ; }

POINTERS VS. ARRAY

When an array is declared, the compiler allocates a base address and sufficient amount
of storage to contain all the elements of the array in contiguous memory locations. The
base address is the location of the first element (index 0) of the array. The compiler
also defines the array name as a constant pointer to the first element suppose we
declare an array X as follows :

static int X [ 6 ] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } ;

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Suppose the base address of X is 1000 and assuming that each integer requires two
bytes,
the five elements will be stored as follows :
ELEMENTS x [0] x[1] x[2] x[3] x[4] x[5]
VALUE 1 2 3 4 5 6
Address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008 1010
BASE ADDRESS
The name X is defined as a constant pointer pointing to the first clement,
x[0] and therefore the value of X is 1000, the location whose X[0] is stored. That is ;
X = & x[0] = 1000
If we declare P as an integer pointer, then we can make the pointer P to point to the
array X
by the following assignment :
P=X;
This is equivalent to P = & X[0] ;
Now we can access every value of x using P++ to move from one element to another.
The
relationship between P and X is shown below :
P = & x[0] ( = 1000)
P+1 = & x[1] ( = 1002)
P+2 = & x[2] ( = 1004)
P+3 = & x[3] ( = 1006)
P+4 = & x[4] ( = 1008)
P+5 = & x[5] ( = 1010)
The address of an element is calculated using its index and the scale factor of the data
type.
For instance,
address of X[3] = base address + (3 x Scale factor of int)
= 1000 + (3 x 2) = 1006
When handling array, instead of using array indexing, we can use pointers to access
array elements. Note that *(x+3) gives the value of X[3]. The pointer accessing method
is more faster than array indexing.

POINTERS AND FUNCTIONS

When an array is passed to a function as an argument, only the address of the first
element of the array is passed, but not the actual values of the array elements. The
function uses this address for manipulating the array elements. Similarly, we can pass
the address of a variable as an argument to a function in the normal fashion.
When we pass addresses to a function, the parameters receiving the addresses should
be pointers. The process of calling function using pointers to pass the address of
variable is known as call by reference. The function which is called by reference can
change the value of the variable used in the call.
eg.
main ( )
{
int X ;
X = 40 ;
change ( & X ) ;
printf ( “ %d”, X ) ;
{
change ( int * P )
{
* P = * P + 10 ;
}
When the function change is called, the address of the variable X, not its value, is
passed into
the function change ( ). Inside change ( ), the variable P is declared as a pointer and
therefore
P is the address of the variable X. The statement,
* P = * P + 10 ;
means add 10 to the value stored at address P. Since P represents the address of X,
the value of X is changed from 50. Therefore, the output of the program will be 50 not
40. Thus, call by reference provides a mechanism by which the function can change
the stored values in the calling function.

POINTERS TO FUNCTIONS

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A function like a variable, has an address location in the memory. It is therefore,

possible to declare a pointer to a function, which can then be used as an argument in
another function. A pointer to a function is declared as follows:

type ( * fp) ( ) ;
This tells the compiler that fp is a pointer to a function which returns type value. We
can make a function pointer to point to a specific function by simply assigning the
name of the function to the pointer.

For example,
double (*P1)( ), mul ( ) ;
P1 = mul ;
declare P1 as a pointer to a function and mul as a function and then make P1 to point
to the function mul. To call the function mul, we may now use the pointer P1 with the
list of parameters.
That is,
(*P1) (x,y)
is equivalent to mul ( x,y )

FUNCTIONS RETURNING POINTERS

The way functions return an int, a float, a double or any other data type, it can even
return a pointer. However, to make a function return a pointer it has to be explicitly
mentioned in the calling function as well as in the function declaration. The following
program illustrates this
main ( )
{
int * P ;
int * fun ( ) ;
P = fun ;
printf ( “\n % Id”, P ) ;
}
int * fun ( )
{
int i = 20;
return (& i) ;
}
In this program, function fun( ) is declared as pointer returning function can return the
address of integer type value and in the body of the function fun ( ) we are returning
the address of integer type variable i into P which is also integer type pointer.

POINTERS AND VARIABLE NUMBER OF ARGUMENTS

We use printf ( ) so often without realizing how it works correctly irrespective of how
many arguments we pass to it. How do we write such routines which can take variable
number of arguments? There are three macros available in the file “stdarg.h” called
va_start, va_arg and va_list which allow us to handle this situation. These macros
provide a method for accessing the arguments of the function when a function takes a
fixed number of arguments followed by a variable number of arguments. The fixed
number of arguments are accessed in the normal way, whereas the optional arguments
are accessed using the macros va_start and va_arg. Out of these macros va_start is
used to initialise a pointer to the beginning of the list of optional arguments. On the
other hand the macro va_arg is used to initialise a pointer to the beginning of the list of
optional arguments. On the other hand the macro va_arg is used to advance the
pointer to the next argument.

eg. # include < stdarg. h >

# include < stdio. h >
main ( )
{
int max ;
max = findmax ( 5, 23, 15, 1, 92, 50 ) ;
printf (“\n max = % d”, max ) ;
max = findmax (3, 100, 300, 29 ) ;
printf (“\n max = %d”, max ) ;
}
findmax (int tot_num)
{
int max, count, num ;
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va_list ptr ;
va_start ( ptr, tot_num ) ;
max = va_arg (ptr, int ) ;
for ( count = 1 ; count < tot_num ; count + + )
{
num = va_arg (ptr, int ) ;
if ( num > max )
max = num ;
}
return ( max ) ;
}
Here we are making two calls to findmax( ) first time to find maximum out of 5 values
and second time to find maximum out of 3 values. Note that for each call the first
argument is the count of arguments that are being passed after the first argument. The
value of the first argument passed to findmax ( ) is collected in the variable tot_num
findmax( ) begins with a declaration of pointer ptr of the type va_list. Observe the next
statement carefully
va_start ( ptr, tot_num ) ;
This statements sets up ptr such that it points to the first variable argument in the list.
If we are considering the first call to findmax ( ) ptr would now point to 23. The next
statement max = va_arg ( ptr, int ) would assign the integer being pointed to by ptr to
max. Thus 23 would be assigned to max, and ptr will point to the next argument i.e.
15.

POINTERS TO POINTERS
The concept of pointers can be further extended. Pointer we know is a variable which
contains address of another variable. Now this variable itself could be another pointer.
These we now have a pointer which contains another pointer’s address. The following
example should make this point clear.

main ()
{
int i = 3 ;
int * j ;
int * * k ;
j=&i;
k=&j;
printf (“\n address of i = % \d”, & i );
printf (“\n address of i = % \d”, j );
printf (“\n address of i = % \d”, * k );
printf (“\n address of j = % \d”, & j );
printf (“\n address of j = % \d”, k );
printf (“\n address of k = % \d”, & k );
printf (“\n address of k = % \d”, &k );
}
In this program i is an integer type value, j is a pointer to this variable and k is another
pointer
type variable pointing to j.
ijk
3 6485 3276
6485 3276 7234
All the addresses are assumed addresses K is pointing to the variable j. These K is a
pointer to pointer. In principle, there could be a pointer to a pointer’s pointer, of a
pointer to a pointer to a pointer’s pointer. There is no limit on how far can we go on
extending this definition.

ARRAY OF POINTERS
The way there can be an array of ints or an array of floats, similarly there can be an
array of pointers. Since a pointer variable always contain an address, an array of
pointers would be nothing but collection of addresses. The addresses present in the
array of pointers can be addresses of isolated variables or addresses of array elements
or any other addresses. All rules that apply to an ordinary array apply to the array of
pointers as well.

eg. main ( )
{
int * arra [ 4 ];
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int i = 31, j = 5, k = 19, L = 71, m;

arra [0] = & i ;
arra [1] = & j ;
arra [2] = & k ;
arra [3] = & l ;
ij
3 6485
6485 3276
k
3276
7234
for (m=0; m<=3 ; m+ +)
printf (“\n% d”, * (arr[m])) ;
}
The output will be -
31
5
19
71
i j kl
31 5 19 71
4008 5116 6010 7118
arr[0] arr[1] arr[2] arr[3]
4008 5116 6010 7118
7602 7604 7606 7608

EXERCISE
Q.1 What is the purpose of an automatic variable? What is its scope?
Q.2 A C program contains the following declaration:
static char * color[6] { “red”, “green”, “blue”, “white”, “black”, “yellow”}
(a) What is the meaning of color?
(b) What is the meaning of (color + 2)?
(c) What is the value of * color ?
(d) What is the value of * (color +2)?

Chapter 9
STRUCTURES AND UNION
Introduction
A structure is a convenient tool for handling a group of logically related data items.
Structure help to organize complex data in a more meaningful way. It is powerful
concept that we may after need to use in our program Design. A structure is
combination of different data types using the & operator, the beginning address of
structure can be determined. This is variable is of type structure, then & variable
represent the starting address of that variable.

structure Definition
A structure definition creates a format that may be used to declare structure variables
consider
the following example.
struct book_bank
{
char title [20];
char author [15];
int pages;
float price; };
Here keyword struct hold the details of four fields these fields are title, author, pages,
and price, these fields are called structure elements. Each element may belong to
different types of data. Here book_bank is the name of the structure and is called the
structure tag. It simply describes as shown below.
struct book-bank
Title array of 20 characters
Author array of 15 characters
Pages integer
Price float

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The general format of a structure definition is as follows

struct teg_name
{
data_type member 1;
data_type member 2;
------
------ }
Array of structures
Each element of the array itself is a structure. See the example shown below. Here we
want to store data of 5 persons for this purpose, we would be required to use 5
different structure variables, from sample1 to sample 5. To have 5 separate variable
will be inconvenient.

# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
struct person
{
char name [25];
char age;
};
struct person sample[5];
int index;
char into[8];
for( index = 0; index <5; index ++)
{
print(“Enter name;”);
gets(sample [index]. name);
printf(“%age;”);
gets(info);
sample [index]. age = atoi (info);
}
for (index = 0; index <5; index++)
{
printf(“name = %5\n”, sample [index]. name);
printf(“Age = %d \n”, sample [index]. age);
getch( );
}
}
The structure type person is having 2 elements:
Name is an array of 25 characters and character type variable age

Using the statement:

struct person sample[5]; we are declaring a 5 element array of structures. Here, each
element of sample is a separate structure of type person. We, then defined 2 variable
indexes and an array of 8 characters’ info. Here, the first loop executes 5 times, with
the value of index varying from 0 to 4. The first printf statement displays. Enter name
gets( ) function waits for the input string. For the first time this name you enter will go
to sample[0]. name. The second printf display age the number you
type is will be 5 stored as character type, because the member age is declared as
character type. The function atoi( ) converts this into an integer. atoi stands for alpha
to integer. This will be stored in sample[0] age. The second for loop in responsible for
printing the information stored in the array of structures.

structures within structures:-

structure with in a structure means nesting of structures. Let us consider the following
structure
defined to store information about the salary of employees.

struct salary
{
char name[20];
char department[10];
int basic_pay;
int dearness_allowance;
int city_allowance;
} employee;
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This structure defines name, department, basic pay and 3 kinds of allowance. we can
group
all the items related to allowance together and declare them under a substructure as
shown
below:
struct salary
{
char name [20];
char department[10];
struct
{
int dearness;
int hous_rent;
int city;
}
allowance;
}
employee;
The salary structure contains a member named allowance which itself is a structure
with 3 members. The members contained in the inner, structure namely dearness,
hous_rent, and city can be referred to as :

employee allowance. dearness

employee. allowance. hous_rent
employee. allowance. city
An inner-most member in a nested structure can be accessed by chaining all the
concerned. structure variables (from outer-most to inner-most) with the member using
dot operator. The following being invalid.
employee. allowance (actual member is missing)
employee. hous_rent (inner structure variable is missing)

Passing a structure as a whole to a Function:

structures are passed to functions by way of their pointers. Thus, the changes made to
the structure members inside the function will be reflected even outside the function.

# include <stdio.h>
typedef struct
{
char *name;
int acc_no;
char acc_types;
float balance;
} account;
main( )
{
void change(account *pt);
static account person = {“chetan”, 4323, ‘R’, 12.45};
printf(“%s %d %c %2.f \n”, person. name,
person.acc_type, person. acc_type,
person. balance);
change(&person);
printf(“%s %d %c %2.f \n”, person.name, person.acc_type,
person.acc-type, person. balance);
getch( );
}
void change(account *pt)
{
pt - > name =” Rohit R”;
pt - > acc_no = 1111;
pt - > acc_type = ‘c’;
pt - > balance = 44.12;
}
output
chetan 4323 R 12.45
Rohit R 1111 c 44.12

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UNIONS
Unions, like structure contain members, whose individual data types may vary. This is a
is major distinction between them in terms of storage .In structures each member has
its own storage location, where as all the members of a union use the same location.
Like structures, a union can be declared using the keyword union is follows:

union item
{
int m;
float x;
char c;
} code;
This declares a variable code of type union item. The union contains item members,
each with a different date type. However, we can use only one of them at a time. This
is due to the fact that only one location is allocated for a union variable, irrespective of
its size

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Storage 4 bytes
1000
c
m
x
1001 1002 1003
The compiler allocates a piece of storage that is large enough to hold the largest
variable type in the union. In the declaration above, the member x requires 4 bytes
which is the largest among the members. The above figure shown how all the three
variables share the same address, this assumes that a float variable requires 4 bytes
of storage.
To access a union member, we can use the same syntax that we as for structure
members,
that is,
code. m
code. x
code. c are all valid
When accessing member variables, we should make sure that we are accessing the
member
whose value is currently in storage. For example
code. m = 565;
code. x = 783.65;
printf(“%d”, code. m); would produce erroneous output.
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
union
{
int one;
char two;
} val;
val. one = 300;
printf(“val. one = %d \n”, val. one);
printf(“val. two = %d \n”, val. two); }
The format of union is similar to structure, with the only difference in the keyword
used. The above example, we have 2 members int one and char two we have then
initialised the member ‘one’ to 300. Here we have initialised only one member of the
union. Using two printf statements, then we are displaying the individual members of
the union val as: val. one = 300
val. two = 44 As we have not initialised the char variable two, the second printf
statement will give a random value of 44.
The general formats of a union thus, can be shown as.
union tag
{ member 1;
member 2;
---
-- -
member m;
};

The general format for defining individual union variables:

Storage-class Union tag variable 1, variable 2,........., variable n;
Storage-class and tag are optional variable 1, variable 2 etc, are union variable of
type tag.
Declaring union and defining variables can be done at the same time as shown below:
Stroage-calss union tag {
member 1;
member 2;
---
---
---
member m;
} variable 1, variable 2, - - - , variable n;

EXERCISE
Q.1 struct book_bank
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{
char title[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
};
The above structure requires __________ bytes of memory.

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Q.2 union book_bank

{
char title[20];
char author[15];
int pages;
float price;
};
The above union requires __________ bytes of memory.
Q.3 struct marks
{
int maths;
int physics;
int chemistry;
char name[30]
};
Sort the above structure for 10 students according to the total of marks .

Chapter 10
DISK I/O FUNCTIONS
scanf( ), printf( ), getch ( ) etc which we have studied were console I/O functions. Let us
now turn our attention to disk I/O. Disk I/O operations are performed on entities called
files. The brief categorisation of Disk I/O functions is given below

DISK I/O FUNCTIONS

High Level
Text
Formatted Formatted
Low Level
Binary
Unformatted Unformatted
From above we can see that the file I/o functions are further categorised in to text and
binary. This classification arises out of the mode in which a file is opened for input or
output. Which of these two modes is used to open the file determines:
(a) How new lines (\n) are stored
(b) How end of file is indicated
(c) How numbers are stored in the file

Opening a file
We make the following declaration before opening a file
FILE * fp

Now let us understand the following statements,

FILE * fp;
fp = fopen (“PR1.C”,”r”);
fp is a pointer variable which contains address of the structure FILE which has been
defined
in the header file “stdio.h”.
fopen( ) will open a file “PRI.C” in read mode. fopen( ) performs three important tasks
when
you open the file in
“r” mode:
(i) Firstly it searches on the disk the file to be opened.
(ii) If the file is present, it loads the file from the disk in to memory. Of course if the file
is
very big, then it loads the file part by part.
If the file is absent, fopen( ) returns a NULL. NULL is a macro defined in “stdio.h” which
indicates that you failed to open the file.
(iii) It sets up a character pointer (which is part of the FILE structure) which points to
the
first character of the chunk of memory where the file has been loaded.

# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen(“PRI.C”, “r”);

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if (fp= = NULL)
{ puts (“ cannot open file”);
exit( );
}
}
Closing the file
The closing of the file is done by fclose( ) through the statement,
fclose ( fp );

File Opening Modes

The “r” mode mentioned above is one of the several modes in which we can open a
file.
These are mentioned below:
(i) “r” Searches the file. If the file exists, loads it in to memory and sets up a pointer
which
points to the first character in it. If the file doesn’t exist it returns NULL.
(ii) “w” Searches file if the file exists it contents are overwritten. If the file doesn’t exist,
a
new file is created. Returns NULL, if unable to open file.
Operations possible - writing to the file.
(iii) “a” Searches file. If the file exists, loads it in to memory and sets up a pointer
which
points to the first character in it. If the file doesn’t exist a new file is created. Returns
NULL, if unable to open file. Operations possible - Appending new contents at the
end of file.
(iv) “r+” Searches file. If it exists, loads it in to memory and sets up a pointer which
points
to the first character in it. If file doesn’t exist it returns NULL.

Operations possible - reading existing contents, writing new contents, modifying

existing contents of the file.
(v) “w+” Searches file. If the file exists, it contents are destroyed. It the file doesn’t
exist a
new file is created. Returns NULL if unable to open file. Operations possible - writing
new contents, reading them back and modifying existing contents of the file. “a+”
Searches if the file exists, loads it in to memory and sets up a pointer which points to
the first character in it. If the file doesn’t exist, a new file is created. Returns NULL, if
unable to open file. Operations possible - reading existing contents, appending new
contents to the end of file. Canot modify existing contents.

Reading from a File(Unformatted Character)

To read the file’s contents from memory there exists a function called fgetc( )
e.g ch = fgetc(fp);

Writing to a File(Unformatted Character)

There exists a fputc( ) function that writes to the file fputc(ch, ft); here value of ch
variable will be written to file whose file pointer is ft.

Closing the File

When we have finished reading or writing from the file, we need to close it. This is done
using
the function fclose( ) through the statement.
fclose(fp); fp is file pointer here.
e.g Afile - copy program here is a program which copies the contents of one file in to
another
# include <stdio.h>
main( )
{
FILE *fs, *ft;
char ch;
fs = fopen(“pr1.c”, “r”);
if(fs = = NULL)
{
puts(“canot open source file”)’
exit( );
}
ft = fopen (“pr2.c”, “w”);
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it (ft = =NULL)
{
puts(“canot open target file”);
fclose(fs);
exit( );
}
while (1)
{
ch = fgetc(fs);
if(ch = = EOF)
break;
else
fputc(ch,ft);
}
fclose(fs);
fclose(ft);
}

The fprintf and fscanf functions(Formatted I/o)

The general form of fprintf is
fprintf(fp, “control string”, list)
eg fprintf(f1, “%s %d %f”, name, age, 7.5);
Name is an array variable of type char and age is an int variable. The function fprintf
will
cause the value name age and 7.5 to be written to the file pointed by variable f1.
The general format of fscanf is
fscanf(fp, “control string”, list);
This statement would cause the reading of the items in the list from the file specified
by fp,
according to the specifications contained in the control string. eg.
fscanf(f2, “%s %d”, item, & quantity);
Like scanf fscanf also returns number of items that are successfully read. When the end
of the
file is reached, it returns the value EOF.

fseek function
fseek function is used to move the file position to a desired location within the file. It
takes the
following form:
fseek(file ptr, offset, position)
File ptr is a pointer to the file concerned, offset is a number variable of type long and
position
is an integer number. The offset specifics the number of positions(bytes) to the moved
from
the location specified by position.
The position can take one of the following three values

Values Meaning
0 Beginning of file
1 Current position
2 End of file
offset may be positive meaning move forwards or negative meaning move backwards.
The
following examples illustrate the operation of the fseek function:

tatement Meaning
fseek(fp,0L,0) Go to beginning
fseek(fp, 0L, 1) Stays at current position
fseek(fp, 0L, 2) Go to end of the file, past the last character of the file
fseek(fp, m, 0) Move to (m+1)th byte in the file
fseek(fp, m, 1) Go forwared by m bytes
fseek(fp, -m, 1) Go backward by m bytes from the current position
fseek(fp, - m, 2) Go backward by m bytes from the end

ftell
ftell takes a file pointer and returns a number of type long that corresponds to the
current
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position. This function is useful in saving the current position of a file, which can be
used later
in the program. It takes the following form
n = ftell(fp);
n would give the relative offset(in bytes) of the current position. This means that n
bytes have
already been read (or written).
rewind takes a file pointer and resets the position to the start of the file.
for e.g.
rewind(fp);
n = ftell(fp);
n would return 0

Binary Mode
A file can be opened in binary mode as follows:
fp = fopen(“Poem. txt”, “rb”)
Here fp is file pointer
Poem. txt is file name
rb denotes that file is opened in binary mode for read operation.

Text Mode Versus Binary Mode:-

(i) New Lines:-
In text mode, a newline character is converted into the carriage return -linefeed
combination before being written to the disk. Like wise, the carriage return-line feed
combination on the disk is converted back in to a newline when the file is read by a c
program. However if file is opened in binary mode, as opposed to text mode, these
conversions will not take place.

(ii) End of File:-

The difference is that in text mode when end-of-file is detected a special character
whose asciI value is 26, is inserted after the last character in the file to mark the end of
file. If this character is detected at any point in the file, the read function will return the
EOF signal to the program. As against this, there is no such special character present in
the binary mode files to mark the end of file. The binary mode file keeps track of the
end of file from the number of characters present in directory entry of the file.

Text Mode:-
The only function available for storing in a disk file is the fprintf( ) in text mode. Here
numbers are stored as string of characters when written to the disk. These 1234, even
though it occupies two bytes in memory, when transferred to the disk using fprintf( ), it
would occupy four bytes, one byte per character. Similarly the floating point number
1234.56 would occupy 7 bytes on disk. These, numbers with more digits would require
more disk space. In binary by using the functions (fread( ) and fwrite( )) numbers are
stored in binary format. It means each number would occupy the same number of
bytes on disk as it occupies in memory.

Command Line Arguments

Two special identifiers, argc and argv are used to pass to main( ) the number of
command line arguments and pointers to each argument we have to set up main( ) as
follows.
main(int argc, char*argv[ ])
argc will then provide the number of command line arguments including the command
itselfso
argC its never less than 1.
The argv is an array of pointer to char or equivalently an array of strings. Each of
argv[0],
argv[1],... up to argv[argc-1] is a pointer to command line argument, namely a NULL
terminated
string. The pointer argv[argc] is set to NULL to mark the end of the array.
Suppose these is a program Vkcpy in which main contains argument argc, and argv
means
skeleton of program is as follows
main(int argc, char * argv[ ])
{ __________
__________
__________

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}
suppose we now execute the program by typing VK COPY Hellow.C Hello.CBK Here argc
=
3(command plus 2 arguments
argv[0] points to “C:\VKCPY\0”
argv[1] points to “HELLO.C\0”
argv[2] points to “HELLO.CBK\0”
argv[3] is NULL

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