Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Chapter 1
Computer Abstractions
and Technology

Progress in computer technology

n

Makes novel applications feasible

n
n
n
n
n

Underpinned by Moores Law

1.1 Introduction

The Computer Revolution

Computers in automobiles
Cell phones
Human genome project
World Wide Web
Search Engines

Computers are pervasive

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 2

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Classes of Computers
n

Desktop computers
n
n

Server computers
n
n
n

General purpose, variety of software

Subject to cost/performance tradeoff
Network based
High capacity, performance, reliability
Range from small servers to building sized

Embedded computers
n
n

Hidden as components of systems

Stringent power/performance/cost constraints
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 3

The Processor Market

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 4

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

What You Will Learn

n

How programs are translated into the

machine language
n

n
n

The hardware/software interface

What determines program performance
n

And how the hardware executes them

And how it can be improved

How hardware designers improve

performance
What is parallel processing
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 5

Understanding Performance
n

Algorithm
n

Programming language, compiler, architecture

n

Determine number of machine instructions executed

per operation

Processor and memory system

n

Determines number of operations executed

Determine how fast instructions are executed

I/O system (including OS)

n

Determines how fast I/O operations are executed

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 6

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Application software
n

Written in high-level language

System software
n

Compiler: translates HLL code to

machine code
Operating System: service code
n
n
n

1.2 Below Your Program

Below Your Program

Handling input/output
Managing memory and storage
Scheduling tasks & sharing resources

Hardware
n

Processor, memory, I/O controllers

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 7

Levels of Program Code

n

High-level language
n

Assembly language
n

Level of abstraction closer

to problem domain
Provides for productivity
and portability
Textual representation of
instructions

Hardware representation
n
n

Binary digits (bits)

Encoded instructions and
data
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 8

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

The BIG Picture

Same components for

all kinds of computer
n

Desktop, server,
embedded

1.3 Under the Covers

Components of a Computer

Input/output includes
n

User-interface devices
n

Storage devices
n

Display, keyboard, mouse

Hard disk, CD/DVD, flash

Network adapters
n

For communicating with

other computers

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 9

Anatomy of a Computer
Output
device

Network
cable

Input
device

Input
device

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 10

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Anatomy of a Mouse
n

Optical mouse
n

n
n

LED illuminates
desktop
Small low-res camera
Basic image processor
n

Looks for x, y
movement

Buttons & wheel

Supersedes roller-ball
mechanical mouse

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 11

Through the Looking Glass

n

LCD screen: picture elements (pixels)

n

Mirrors content of frame buffer memory

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 12

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Opening the Box

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 13

Inside the Processor (CPU)

n
n
n

Datapath: performs operations on data

Control: sequences datapath, memory, ...
Cache memory
n

Small fast SRAM memory for immediate

access to data

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 14

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Inside the Processor

n

AMD Barcelona: 4 processor cores

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 15

Abstractions
The BIG Picture
n

Abstraction helps us deal with complexity

n

Instruction set architecture (ISA)

n

The hardware/software interface

Application binary interface

n

Hide lower-level detail

The ISA plus system software interface

Implementation
n

The details underlying and interface

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 16

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

A Safe Place for Data

n

Volatile main memory

n

Loses instructions and data when power off

Non-volatile secondary memory

n
n
n

Magnetic disk
Flash memory
Optical disk (CDROM, DVD)

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 17

Networks
n
n

Communication and resource sharing

Local area network (LAN): Ethernet
n

n
n

Within a building

Wide area network (WAN: the Internet

Wireless network: WiFi, Bluetooth

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 18

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Technology Trends
n

Electronics
technology
continues to evolve
n

Increased capacity
and performance
Reduced cost

Year

Technology

1951

Vacuum tube

1965

Transistor

1975

Integrated circuit (IC)

1995

Very large scale IC (VLSI)

2005

Ultra large scale IC

DRAM capacity

Relative performance/cost
1
35
900
2,400,000
6,200,000,000
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 19

Which airplane has the best performance?

Boeing 777

Boeing 777

Boeing 747

Boeing 747

BAC/Sud
Concorde

BAC/Sud
Concorde

Douglas
DC-8-50

Douglas DC8-50
0

100

200

300

400

500

Boeing 777

Boeing 777

Boeing 747

Boeing 747

BAC/Sud
Concorde

BAC/Sud
Concorde

Douglas
DC-8-50

Douglas DC8-50
500

1000

4000

6000

8000 10000

Cruising Range (miles)

Passenger Capacity

2000

1.4 Performance

Defining Performance

1500

Cruising Speed (mph)

100000 200000 300000 400000

Passengers x mph

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 20

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Response Time and Throughput

n

Response time
n

How long it takes to do a task

Throughput
n

Total work done per unit time

n

How are response time and throughput affected

by
n
n

e.g., tasks/transactions/ per hour

Replacing the processor with a faster version?

Adding more processors?

Well focus on response time for now

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 21

Relative Performance
n
n

Define Performance = 1/Execution Time

X is n time faster than Y
Performanc e X Performanc e Y
= Execution time Y Execution time X = n

Example: time taken to run a program

10s on A, 15s on B
n Execution TimeB / Execution TimeA
= 15s / 10s = 1.5
n So A is 1.5 times faster than B
n

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 22

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

11

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Measuring Execution Time

n

Elapsed time
n

Total response time, including all aspects

n

Processing, I/O, OS overhead, idle time

Determines system performance

CPU time
n

Time spent processing a given job

n

Discounts I/O time, other jobs shares

Comprises user CPU time and system CPU

time
n Different programs are affected differently by
CPU and system performance
n

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 23

CPU Clocking
n

Operation of digital hardware governed by a

constant-rate clock
Clock period

Clock (cycles)
Data transfer
and computation
Update state

Clock period: duration of a clock cycle

n

e.g., 250ps = 0.25ns = 2501012s

Clock frequency (rate): cycles per second

n

e.g., 4.0GHz = 4000MHz = 4.0109Hz

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 24

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

12

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

CPU Time
CPU Time = CPU Clock Cycles Clock Cycle Time
=
n

CPU Clock Cycles

Clock Rate

Performance improved by
Reducing number of clock cycles
n Increasing clock rate
n Hardware designer must often trade off clock
rate against cycle count
n

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 25

CPU Time Example

n
n

Computer A: 2GHz clock, 10s CPU time

Designing Computer B
n
n

Aim for 6s CPU time

Can do faster clock, but causes 1.2 clock cycles

How fast must Computer B clock be?

Clock RateB =

Clock CyclesB 1.2 Clock CyclesA

=
CPU TimeB
6s

Clock CyclesA = CPU Time A Clock Rate A

= 10s 2GHz = 20 10 9
Clock RateB =

1.2 20 10 9 24 10 9
=
= 4GHz
6s
6s
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 26

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Instruction Count and CPI

Clock Cycles = Instruction Count Cycles per Instruction
CPU Time = Instruction Count CPI Clock Cycle Time
=
n

Instruction Count for a program

n

Instruction Count CPI

Clock Rate

Determined by program, ISA and compiler

Average cycles per instruction

n
n

Determined by CPU hardware

If different instructions have different CPI
n

Average CPI affected by instruction mix

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 27

CPI Example
n
n
n
n

Computer A: Cycle Time = 250ps, CPI = 2.0

Computer B: Cycle Time = 500ps, CPI = 1.2
Same ISA
Which is faster, and by how much?
CPU Time

= Instruction Count CPI Cycle Time

A
A
= I 2.0 250ps = I 500ps
A is faster

CPU Time = Instruction Count CPI Cycle Time

B
B
B
= I 1.2 500ps = I 600ps
CPU Time
B = I 600ps = 1.2
CPU Time
I 500ps
A

by this much

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 28

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

14

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

CPI in More Detail

n

If different instruction classes take different

numbers of cycles
n

Clock Cycles = (CPIi Instruction Count i )

i=1

CPI =

Weighted average CPI

n
Clock Cycles
Instructio n Count i

= CPIi

Instructio n Count i=1

Instructio n Count

Relative frequency
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 29

CPI Example
n

Alternative compiled code sequences using

instructions in classes A, B, C
Class

CPI for class

IC in sequence 1

IC in sequence 2

Sequence 1: IC = 5
n

Clock Cycles
= 21 + 12 + 23
= 10
Avg. CPI = 10/5 = 2.0

Sequence 2: IC = 6
n

Clock Cycles
= 41 + 12 + 13
=9
Avg. CPI = 9/6 = 1.5

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 30

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Performance Summary
The BIG Picture

CPU Time =
n

Instructions Clock cycles Seconds

Program
Instruction Clock cycle

Performance depends on
n
n
n
n

Algorithm: affects IC, possibly CPI

Programming language: affects IC, CPI
Compiler: affects IC, CPI
Instruction set architecture: affects IC, CPI, Tc
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 31

1.5 The Power Wall

Power Trends

In CMOS IC technology
Power = Capacitive load Voltage 2 Frequency
30

5V 1V

1000

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 32

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Reducing Power
n

Suppose a new CPU has

n
n

85% of capacitive load of old CPU

15% voltage and 15% frequency reduction

Pnew Cold 0.85 (Vold 0.85) 2 Fold 0.85

=
= 0.85 4 = 0.52
2
Pold
Cold Vold Fold
n

The power wall

n
n

We cant reduce voltage further

We cant remove more heat

How else can we improve performance?

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 33

1.6 The Sea Change: The Switch to Multiprocessors

Uniprocessor Performance

Constrained by power, instruction-level parallelism,

memory latency
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 34

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

17

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Multiprocessors
n

Multicore microprocessors
n

More than one processor per chip

Requires explicitly parallel programming

n

Compare with instruction level parallelism

n
n

Hardware executes multiple instructions at once

Hidden from the programmer

Hard to do
n
n
n

Programming for performance

Load balancing
Optimizing communication and synchronization
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 35

1.7 Real Stuff: The AMD Opteron X4

Manufacturing ICs

Yield: proportion of working dies per wafer

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 36

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

AMD Opteron X2 Wafer

n
n

X2: 300mm wafer, 117 chips, 90nm technology

X4: 45nm technology
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 37

Integrated Circuit Cost

Cost per die =

Cost per wafer

Dies per wafer Yield

Dies per wafer Wafer area Die area

Yield =
n

1
(1+ (Defects per area Die area/2))2

Nonlinear relation to area and defect rate

n
n
n

Wafer cost and area are fixed

Defect rate determined by manufacturing process
Die area determined by architecture and circuit design
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 38

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

SPEC CPU Benchmark

n

Programs used to measure performance

n

Standard Performance Evaluation Corp (SPEC)

n

Supposedly typical of actual workload

Develops benchmarks for CPU, I/O, Web,

SPEC CPU2006
n

Elapsed time to execute a selection of programs

n

n
n

Negligible I/O, so focuses on CPU performance

Normalize relative to reference machine

Summarize as geometric mean of performance ratios
n

CINT2006 (integer) and CFP2006 (floating-point)

n

Execution time ratio

i=1

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 39

CINT2006 for Opteron X4 2356

Name

Description

IC109

CPI

Tc (ns)

Exec time

Ref time

SPECratio

perl

Interpreted string processing

2,118

0.75

0.40

637

9,777

15.3

bzip2

Block-sorting compression

2,389

0.85

0.40

817

9,650

11.8

gcc

GNU C Compiler

1,050

1.72

0.47

24

8,050

11.1

mcf

Combinatorial optimization

336

10.00

0.40

1,345

9,120

6.8

go

Go game (AI)

1,658

1.09

0.40

721

10,490

14.6

hmmer

Search gene sequence

2,783

0.80

0.40

890

9,330

10.5

sjeng

Chess game (AI)

2,176

0.96

0.48

37

12,100

14.5

libquantum

Quantum computer simulation

1,623

1.61

0.40

1,047

20,720

19.8

h264avc

Video compression

3,102

0.80

0.40

993

22,130

22.3

omnetpp

Discrete event simulation

587

2.94

0.40

690

6,250

9.1

astar

Games/path finding

1,082

1.79

0.40

773

7,020

9.1

xalancbmk

XML parsing

1,058

2.70

0.40

1,143

6,900

Geometric mean

6.0
11.7

High cache miss rates

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 40

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

SPEC Power Benchmark

n

Power consumption of server at different

workload levels
n
n

Performance: ssj_ops/sec
Power: Watts (Joules/sec)

10
10

Overall ssj_ops per Watt = ssj_ops i poweri

i=0
i=0

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 41

SPECpower_ssj2008 for X4
Target Load %

Performance (ssj_ops/sec)

Average Power (Watts)

100%

231,867

295

90%

211,282

286

80%

185,803

275

70%

163,427

265

60%

140,160

256

50%

118,324

246

40%

920,35

233

30%

70,500

222

20%

47,126

206

10%

23,066

180

0%
Overall sum

141

1,283,590

2,605

ssj_ops/ power

493
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 42

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

21

Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Improving an aspect of a computer and

expecting a proportional improvement in
overall performance
Timproved =

Example: multiply accounts for 80s/100s

n

Taffected
+ Tunaffected
improvemen t factor

1.8 Fallacies and Pitfalls

Pitfall: Amdahls Law

How much improvement in multiply performance to

get 5 overall?
80
n Cant be done!
20 =
+ 20
n

Corollary: make the common case fast

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 43

Fallacy: Low Power at Idle

n

Look back at X4 power benchmark

n
n
n

Google data center

n
n

At 100% load: 295W

At 50% load: 246W (83%)
At 10% load: 180W (61%)
Mostly operates at 10% 50% load
At 100% load less than 1% of the time

Consider designing processors to make

power proportional to load
Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 44

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

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Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

October 24, 2012

Pitfall: MIPS as a Performance Metric

n

MIPS: Millions of Instructions Per Second

n

Doesnt account for

n
n

Differences in ISAs between computers

Differences in complexity between instructions

MIPS =
=

Instructio n count
Execution time 10 6
Instructio n count
Clock rate
=
Instructio n count CPI
CPI 10 6
10 6
Clock rate

CPI varies between programs on a given CPU

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 45

Cost/performance is improving
n

Hierarchical layers of abstraction

n

In both hardware and software

Instruction set architecture

n

Due to underlying technology development

1.9 Concluding Remarks

Concluding Remarks

The hardware/software interface

Execution time: the best performance

measure
Power is a limiting factor
n

Use parallelism to improve performance

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology 46

Chapter 1 Computer Abstractions and Technology

23