EMT 2334: Electrical Circuit

Analysis II
Prerequisites
EMT 2232: Electrical Circuit Analysis I
SMA 2170: Algebra
SMA 2278: Differential Equations

Purpose
The purpose of this course is to enable the students to:
1. understand time and frequency analysis of first order and second order circuits
2. understand series and parallel resonance
3. understand the use of transform techniques in circuit analysis
4. understand the analysis of balanced and unbalanced 3-phase circuits

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, the student should be able to:
1. analyze the time and frequency response of first and second order systems
2. apply transform techniques in circuit analysis
3. determine the resonance selectivity of RLC circuits

EMT 2334:

Course Description
Basic test signals for circuit analysis: unit step function, unit ramp function,
impulse function.
First order circuits: Natural response of series RL circuits, natural response of
series RC circuits, forced response in RL and RC circuits, Total response.
Second order circuits: Response of series and parallel RLC circuits. Resonance : Series resonance, parallel resonance, quality factor, energy in L and C at
resonance, resonance selectivity in circuits.
Laplace Transformation:Laplace transforms, Inverse Laplace transforms, partial
fraction expansion, circuit analysis with Laplace transforms; circuit transformation
from time to complex frequency; complex impedance (Z); complex admittance (Y).
Transfer Functions: Frequency response and Bode plots; Decibel, octave and
decade; Bode plot scales and asymptotic approximations; phase lead and phase lag
circuits; low pass, high pass, band pass and band stop filter networks.
Three-Phase Circuits: Introduction to balanced and unbalanced three-phase
circuits.

Course Textbooks
1. David E. Johnson, Johnny R. Johnson, John L. Hilburn and Peter D. Scott (1999),
Electric circuit analysis, John Wiley and Sons, 3rd Ed.
2. Charles J. Monier (2000), Electric circuit Analysis, Prentice-Hall.

References
1. Johnny R. Johnson and John L. Hilburn (2006), Basic electrical circuit analysis,
Prentice-Hall, 5th Ed.
2. Couros Ghaznavi and Arthur H. Seidman (2000), Electronic circuit analysis, Macmillan.
3. International Journal of Electronics

Course Structure
Lectures: 2 hours/week:
Tutorial: 1 hour/week :
L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

ii

EMT 2334:

Practical: 3 hours/week:
CATs:
Week 5
Week 8
Week 12
Assignments:
Three Assignments, each to be handed in two weeks after date issued.
Assessment:
Continuous assessment:
Tests- 10%
Assignments- 5%
Practicals - 15%
Examination- 70%

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

iii

Chapter 1
Basic test signals for circuit analysis
Electric circuits are generally connected to input signals to generate required steady state
output. These inputs are responsible for generating transients in the instance before the
circuit response stabilizes.
Excitation signals (also referred to as forcing functions) may be classified either as
random signals or deterministic signals.
A deterministic signal can be expressed as a function of time and its value is known
explicitly at any instant. Commonly used signals are either singularity functions or
complex frequency functions.

1.1

Singularity Functions

The term singularity function refers to a class of excitations which can be expressed as
a polynomial in t. A function f(t) is regarded as a singularity function if f(t) or any of
its derivatives is discontinuous. Commonly used singularity functions are:
1. The Step function, denoted as u(t), which is a constant value, K, for t > 0 and is
equal to zero for t 0.
The unit step function refers to a step function with the value of K as 1.
2. The Ramp function, denoted as r(t), whose value is Kt, where K is a constant for
t > 0 and equal to zero for t 0.

The ramp function increases linearly with time starting at time t = 0.

3. The impulse function, denoted as (t), whose value is for t = 0 and 0 for t 6= 0.

The area under the impulse function is a constant whose value gives the magnitude
of the impulse.
1

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 1. BASIC TEST SIGNALS FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

f(t)

Figure 1.1: Step Function

f(t)

Kt

Figure 1.2: Ramp Function

The relationship between the unit ramp, the unit step and the unit impulse is expressed as:
Z t
r(t) =
u(t)dt
(1.1)
0

and

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EMT 2334: CHAPTER 1. BASIC TEST SIGNALS FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

f(t)

(t)

Figure 1.3: Impulse Function

(t)dt

u(t) =

(1.2)

1.2

Complex Frequency Functions

These are functions generally expressed in the form:

f (t) = est .u(t)

(1.3)

where s = + j.
Some of the complex frequency functions are:
1. Unit Step Function: f (t) = u(t) if s=0.

2. Exponentially Decaying Function: f (t) = et .u(t) if s = and > 0.

The rate of decay of this function is determined by the value of .

3. Sinusoidal Function: f (t) = ejt .u(t), if > 0 and > 0.

4. Complex Frequency Function: f (t) = est .u(t), if > 0 and > 0.

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 1. BASIC TEST SIGNALS FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

f(t)

Figure 1.4: Unit Step Function

Series1

Figure 1.5: Exponential Decay

f(t)

Figure 1.6: Sinusoidal Function

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 1. BASIC TEST SIGNALS FOR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

f(t)1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
-0.2

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8

Figure 1.7: Complex Exponential Function

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

Chapter 2
First order circuits
First order circuits contain only one energy storage element, and are therefore mathematically described using first order differential equations. First order circuits may therefore
be either RC circuits or RL circuits.

2.1

Transients

In any electrical circuit, whenever sudden changes occur, such as closing and opening
of switches, short and/or open circuiting, change in operation of sources, etc, there is a
very short period of time during which the system adjusts to the change before settling
into its steady state operation.
The classical method of solving transients involves determining the differential equation that describes the circuit and thereafter solving for the natural and forced responses
of the circuit.

2.2

Basic Electrical Relationships in Circuit Analysis

The relationships between voltages, currents and the values of passive components in
electrical circuits are shown in the series of equations from equation ?? to equation ??.

eqV RVR = IR

1
VC =
C

Z
IC dt + V0

VL = L

(2.1)

dIL
dt

(2.2)

(2.3)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

IR =

IC = C

2.3

1
eqILIL =
L

V
R

(2.4)

dVC
dt

(2.5)

Z
VL dt + I0

(2.6)

Ordinary Differential Equations

An ordinary differential equation is a differential equation containing only ordinary

derivatives of one or more dependent variables with respect to a single independent
variable. The order of a differential equation refers to the order of the highest order
derivative in the equation.
The Natural Response of a circuit is its response to zero input, thus the response depends only upon the initial conditions. The natural response is usually generalized
as an exponential term.
The Forced Response of a circuit is the way the circuit responds to an input forcing
function. The forced response depends on the input function, so a general solution
cannot be given for it. However, a set of solutions for common inputs is provided
as follows:

2.4

RC Circuit Analysis

To generate the differential equation representing the circuit in Figure 2.1 when the
switch is closed, KVL is used around the circuit such that:
VR + VC = Vs

(2.7)

But VR = iR and i is equal for all components in the circuit. Thus,

iR + VC = Vs

(2.8)

using the relationship shown in equation 2.5,

RC

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

dVC
+ VC = Vs
dt

(2.9)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

t=0

Vs

C
Figure 2.1: R-C series circuit

2.4.1

Solving for RC Natural Response

From equation 2.9,it is possible to simplify and solve the ODE. Dividing through by RC,
dVC
VC
+
=0
dt
RC

(2.10)

dVC
VC
=
dt
RC
dividing both sides of equation 2.11 by VC and multiplying by dt,
1 dVC
1
dt =
dt
VC dt
RC

(2.11)

(2.12)

Equation 2.12 can be expressed as:

du
1
=
u
RC
Z

V (t)

V0

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

1
1
du =
u
RC
8

(2.13)
Z

du
0

(2.14)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Integrating both sides yields

ln V (t) ln V0 =

1
(t 0)
RC

(2.15)

which can be expressed as

ln

V (t)
t
=
V0
RC

(2.16)

Thus
V(t) =

V0 e RC
V0

t0
t0

In Summary:
As shown in Figure 2.2,

t=0

R
Vs

Figure 2.2: R-C circuit natural response

for t > 0
t

v(t) = V0 e RC
iC (t) =
L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

t
v(t)
V0
= e RC
R
R

(2.17)
(2.18)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

2t
1
1
(t) = C(v(t))2 = CV02 e RC
2
2

(2.19)

Graphically
As shown in Figure 2.3:

V0

v(t) = V0e-(t/)

Figure 2.3: R-C natural response

The voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay.

The rate at which voltage decreases is measured by time constant, .
= RC
If the circuit was initially at steady state, i.e. the capacitor was fully charged, then
V0 = Vs
In 5 time constants, v(t) is within 1% of its final value. This is treated as the
steady state value.

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EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

2.5

RL Circuit Analysis

The RL circuit is shown in Figure 2.4.

t=0

Is

Figure 2.4: R-L circuit

The analysis of the RL circuit bears some similarities to the analysis of the RC circuit.
The first step is to apply KVL around the loop.
vL + VR = Vs

(2.20)

To obtain the natural response, the right hand side is equated to zero. Using equations
2.3 and ??:
L

di
+ Ri(t) = 0
dt

(2.21)

di
= Ri(t)
dt

(2.22)

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EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

i(t)

I0

di
R
= i(t)
dt
L

(2.23)

di(t)
R
= dt
i(t)
L

(2.24)

1
R
di(t) =
i(t)
L

dt

(2.25)

R
ln i(t) ln I0 = (t 0)
L


i(t)
R
ln
= t
I0
L
i(t) =

I0 et L
I0

(2.26)
(2.27)

t0
t0

In Summary:
As shown in Figure 2.5,

t=0

t=0

Is

Figure 2.5: R-L circuit

for t > 0
R

i(t) = I0 et L
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12

(2.28)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

vL (t) = i(t)R = RI0 et L

(2.29)

R
1
1
(t) = L(i(t))2 = LI02 e2t L
2
2

(2.30)

The current response of the RL circuit is an exponential decay.

Time constant =

R
L

If the circuit was at steady state prior to the opening of the switch, then I0 = Is

2.6
2.6.1

Complete Response of First Order Circuits

General Form of Response Equations

First order circuits require solution of ODEs of the form:

dx(t)
+ ax(t) = f (t)
dt

(2.31)

The function f(t) is known as the forcing function.

A fundamental theorem states that if xf (t) is any solution to the ODE and if xn (t)
is the solution to the ODE
dx(t)
+ ax(t) = 0
(2.32)
dt
then
x(t) = xf (t) + xn (t)
(2.33)
xf (t) is known as the forced response, or the particular integral solution, and xn (t)
is known as the natural response, or complementary solution.

2.6.2

Step Response of First Order Circuits

A step signal is represented by the equation:

f (t) = A

(2.34)

where A is a constant.
The general solution to the First Order ODE is obtained by solving the two equations:
dxf (t)
+ axf (t) = A
dt

(2.35)

dxn (t)
+ axn (t) = 0
dt

(2.36)

and

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EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Since the right hand side of equation 2.35 is a constant, it is reasonable to assume
that the solution for xf is also a constant, K1 .
Substituting this value into the equation, we obtain
A
a

(2.37)

= a

(2.38)

K1 =
Examining equation 2.36, it is noted that:
dxn (t)
dt

xn (t)
which can be rewritten as:

d
[ln xn (t)] = a
dt

(2.39)

ln xn (t) = at + c

(2.40)

xn (t) = K2 eat

(2.41)

Thus
Giving a solution of
Thus, the complete solution is given as:
x=

A
+ K2 eat
a

(2.42)

Equation 2.42 is generally expressed as:

t

K1 + K2 e

(2.43)

where is the time constant of the circuit.

K1 is referred to as the steady state solution of the circuit and refers to the value
of the variable x(t) as t , when the second term becomes negligible.
The term is the time constant.
The second term is a decaying exponential that has a value, if > 0, of K2 for
t = 0 and a value of 0 for t = . The rate at which this exponential decays is
determined by the time constant .

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EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

t=0

Vs

Figure 2.6:

2.6.3

RC Circuit Complete Response

Consider the RC circuit in Figure 2.6.

Applying KCL around the circuit for time t > 0:
C

dv(t) v(t) Vs
+
=0
dt
R

(2.44)

or

dv(t) v(t)
Vs
+
=
dt
RC
RC
We assume a solution of the form:
t
v(t) = K1 + K2 e
Plugging this into the equation yields:

K2 t
K1
K2 t
Vs
e +
+
e =

RC RC
RC

(2.45)

(2.46)

Equating the constant and exponential terms yields

L.A. KAdoyo, 2014

15

K1 = Vs

(2.47)

= RC

(2.48)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Thus

v(t) = Vs + K2 e RC

(2.49)

K2 is evaluated from the initial conditions of the circuit, thus if at t = 0 the capacitor
was uncharged, then K2 = Vs , and the solution becomes:
t

v(t) = Vs Vs e RC = Vs (1 e RC )

2.6.4

(2.50)

RL Complete Circuit Response

Solving for the inductor current using steps similar to those for the RC circuit yields:
i(t) =

R
Vs
+ K2 e( L )t
R

and if there is no initial current in the inductor then K2 =

2.7

(2.51)
Vs
R

The Step by Step Approach for Solving DC Transients

t

Step 1: Assume a solution for the variable x(t) of the form x(t) = K1 + K2 e .
Step 2: Assuming that the original circuit has reached steady state before a
switch was thrown (thereby producing a new circuit), draw this previous circuit
with the capacitor replaced by an open circuit or the inductor replaced by a short
circuit. Solve for the voltage across the capacitor, vc (0), or the current through
the inductor, iL (0), prior to switch action.
Step 3: Recall that voltage across a capacitor and the current flowing through
an inductor cannot change in zero time. Draw the circuit valid for t = 0+ with
the switches in their new positions. Replace a capacitor with a voltage source
vc (0+) = vc (0) or an inductor with a current source of value iL (0+) = iL (0).
Solve for the initial value of the variable x(0+).
Step 4: Assuming that steady state has been reached after the switches are thrown,
draw the equivalent circuit, valid for t > 5 by replacing the capacitor by an open
circuit or the inductor by a short circuit. Solve for the steady state value of the
variable
x(t)|t>5 = x()
Step 5: Find the equivalent resistance seen by the inductor/capacitor for t > 0.
This is denoted Rth . Use this value to solve for , which is equal to Rth C for an
RC circuit and RLth for an RL circuit.
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16

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Step 6: Using the results of steps 3, 4, and 5, we can evaluate the constants in
step 1 as
x(0+) = K1 + K2 , x() = K1 .
Therefore, K1 = x(), K2 = x(0+) x() , and hence the solution is
t
x(t) = x() + [x(0+) x()]e .
Keep in mind that this solution form applies only to a first-order circuit having dc
sources. If the sources are not dc, the forced response will be different. Generally,
the forced response is of the same form as the forcing functions (sources) and their
derivatives .

2.7.1

RC Ramp Response

Consider an RC circuit with an input of the form:

Vs = At

(2.52)

The differential equation describing an RC circuit was derived previously as:

RC

dVc
+ VC = Vs
dt

(2.53)

Using the input-output relationships shown in Table ??, the resultant output is assumed
to take the form:
vC = K2 t + K3
(2.54)
Substituting this solution into the differential equation yields:
RCK2 + K2 t + K3 = At

(2.55)

A = K2

(2.56)

K3 = A.RC

(2.57)

Thus, equating terms:

and
thus, the forced response is obtained as:
vC = A(t RC)

(2.58)

which represents a ramp with a gradient equal to the input signal but with a delaying
factor.
The complete solution takes the form:
t

vC = K1 e RC + A(t RC)

(2.59)

Since it was assumed that the capacitor was initially uncharged, the value of K1 may be
obtained as:
K1 = ARC
(2.60)
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EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

Thus, the complete solution becomes:

t

A(t RC) + ARCe RC

(2.61)

Note:
The zero input response for the ramp input may be obtained by integrating the
response for the step input and restricting the integration to values of t greater
than 0.
The response for the unit step input may be obtained by differentiating the response
for the unit ramp input.
Now consider the case where there is an initial voltage stored in the capacitor at time
t = 0. In this case, the approach of integrating the response for step input no longer
applies. The complete solution is obtained by recalling that the natural response for an
RC circuit with initial value V0 was obtained as:
t

vC = V0 e RC

(2.62)

The complete solution is thus:

t

V0 e RC + At ARC(1 e RC )

2.7.2

(2.63)

Response of the RC circuit to Short Pulses and the Impulse Response

The general form of the response of an initially uncharged capacitor, for the charging
period, may be expressed as:
t
vC = Vs (1 e RC )
(2.64)
for the time period 0 t tp , where tp is the time period of charging. If tp is sufficiently
long, the voltage across the capacitor at the end of the charging period is Vs .
The response after the pulse is ended, when the capacitor is discharging becomes:
vC = Vs e
for the interval: t > tp  RC.

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18

(ttp )
RC

(2.65)

EMT 2334: CHAPTER 2. FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS

If the pulse is made shorter, the charging no longer reaches completion, and the
discharge function becomes:
t

vC = [Vs (1 e RC )]e

(ttp )
RC

(2.66)

It is possible to expand the exponential function using the relation:

ex = 1 x +

x2
...
2!

(2.67)

Thus, the charging waveform becomes:

t
vC = Vs Vs (1
+
RC

t
RC

2
+ . . .)

(2.68)

For smaller values of t, the higher powers may be neglected, reducing to

vC ' Vs

t
RC

(2.69)

At the end of the pulse, the voltage has reached its maximum value of
vC (tp ) = Vs

tp
RC

(2.70)

and the discharge equation is thus:




(ttp )
tp
vC ' Vs
e RC
RC

(2.71)

The numerator term represents the area of the pulse, and for impulses, even the delay
term tp can be neglected, such that the response can be expressed as:


Areaof P ulse t
e RC
vC '
(2.72)
RC
Thus, for an input impulse of strength (or Area) A, described as: Vs = At, the response
is expressed as:
A t
vC =
e RC
(2.73)
RC

2.8

Exercises

Obtain, both by derivation and integration/differentiation the ramp and impulse responses for the RL circuit.

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