K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.

com
Department of
Electronics & Communication
Engineering
Manual and Obseration !oo"
#nalog Communication $ab
!%
K.Sridhar Raju
www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
Department of
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Analog Communication Lab
&ame of the student ' (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
Class ' ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
Roll &o ' ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
Semester ' ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
#cad. )ear ' ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((
2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
$*S+ O, E-.ER*ME&+S
.age &o.
/. #M generation and Detection 0
1. !alanced modulator /2
3. ,M generation and Detection 13
4. .re5emphasis & De5emphasis circuits 36
7. Radio receier measurements 38
8. Sampling9 .#M & reconstruction 42
2. .ulse :idth Modulation;.:M< generation and detection 71
=. .ulse .osition Modulation;..M< generation and detection 72
0. +ime Diision Multiple>ing and De5multiple>ing 87
/6. ,re?uenc% Diision Multiple>ing and De5multiple>ing 23
//. .$$ characteristics =1
/1. Mi>er Characteristics =0
E-.ER*ME&+S !E)O&D C@RR*C@$@M
/3. Stud% of s%nchronous detection of #M signal 01
/4. Aeneration and Demodulation of SS! signal 02
/7. Stud% of .hase modulated signal /64
/8. Simulation of #M9 ,M using M#+$#! software ///

3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
Department of
Electronics & Communication Engineering
Analog Communication Lab
Name of the student:
Class BE:
!oll No: Acad "ear:
*&DE-
Sl
&o
&ame of the E>periment Date
Conducted
*nitials of staff
#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' / Date'
#M AE&ER#+*O& #&D DE+EC+*O&
/. #*M' $o stud% the Circuit of A& &odulation & Demodulation
1. #..#R#+@S'
1 'anel la%out diagram (ith components mounted on 'CB)panel
2 Built in DC po(er suppl% *)+ , - ) 3,. mA
3 'ro/ided (ith # mm soc0ets
# 1et of patch chords
3. +BEOR)'
2n radio transmission3 it is necessar% to send audio signal 4eg3 &usic3 speech etc5 from a
broad casting station o/er great distances to a recei/er $his communication of audio signal does
not emplo% an% (ire and is sometimes called (ireless $he audio signal cannot be sent directl%
o/er the air for appreciable distance E/en if the audio signal is con/erted into electrical signal3
the later cannot be sent /er% far (ithout emplo%ing large amount of po(er $he energ% of a (a/e
is directl% proportional to its fre6uenc% At audio fre6uencies 42.78 to 2. 9785 the signal po(er
is 6uite small and radiation is not practicable
$he radiation of electrical energ% is practicable onl% at high fre6uencies eg abo/e 2.
978 $he high fre6uenc% signals can be sent thousands of miles e/en (ith comparati/el% small
po(er $herefore3 if audio signal is to be transmitted properl%3 some means must be de/ised
(hich (ill permit transmission to occur at high fre6uencies (hile it simultaneousl% allo(s the
carr%ing of audio signal $his is achie/ed b% imposing electrical audio signal on high fre6uenc%
carrier $he resultant (a/es are 0no(n as modulated (a/es or radio (a/es and the process is
called modulation At the radio recei/er3 the audio signal is e:tracted from the modulated (a/e b%
the process is called modulation At the radio recei/er3 the audio signal is e:tracted from the
modulated (a/e b% the process called demodulation $he signal is then amplified and reproduced
into sound b% the loudspea0er
MOD@$#+*O& '
A high fre6uenc% carrier (a/e is used to carr% the audio signal (hich is done b%
changing some characteristic of carrier (a/e in accordance (ith the signal ;nder such
conditions3 the audio signal (ill be contained in the resultant (a/e $he process is called
modulation and defined as $he process of changing some characteristic 4eg Amplitude
,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
<re6uenc% or 'hase5 of a carrier (a/e in accordance (ith the intensit% of the signal is 0no(n as
&odulation
&odulation means to =change> in modulation3 some characteristic of a carrier (a/e is
changed in accordance (ith the intensit% 4ie3 Amplitude5 of the signal $he resultant (a/e is
called modulated (a/e or radio (a/e and contains the audio signal $herefore3 modulation
permits the transmission to occur at high fre6uenc% (hile it simultaneousl% allo(s the carr%ing of
the audio signal
&eed for Modulation'
&odulation is e:tremel% necessar% in communication s%stem due to the follo(ing reasons
/. .ractical #ntenna $ength' 2n order transmit a (a/e collecti/el% the length of the
transmitting antenna should be appro:imatel% e6ual to the (a/elength of the (a/e
No(
?a/elength @ -elocit% ) <re6uenc% @ 3 : 1.
A
) fre6uenc% 4785 &eters
As the audio fre6uencies range from 2.78 to 2. 9783 therefore if the% are transmitted
directl% into space the length of the transmitting antenna re6uired (ould be e:tremel%
large <or instance3 to radiate a fre6uenc% of 2. 978 directl% into space (e (ould need
an antenna length of 3 : 1.
A
B 2. : 1.
3
@ 1,... meters $his is too long antenna to be
constructed practicall% <or this reason3 it is impracticable to radiate audio signal directl%
into space Cn the other hand3 if a carrier (a/e sa% of 1... 978 is used to carr% the
signal (e need an antenna length of 3.. meters onl% and this si8e can be easil%
constructed
1. Operating Range'
$he energ% of a (a/e depends upon its fre6uenc% $he greater the fre6uenc% of the (a/e
the greater the energ% possessed b% it As the audio signal fre6uencies on small therefore
these cannot be transmitted o/er large distances if radiated directl% into space $he onl%
practical solution is to modulate a high fre6uenc% carrier (a/e (ith audio signal and
permit the transmission to occur at this high fre6uenc% 4ie3 carrier fre6uenc%5
3. :ireless Communication'
Cne desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried (ithout (ires ie3
!adiated into space At audio fre6uencies radiation is not practicable because the
efficienc% of radiation is poor 7o(e/er3 efficient radiation of electrical energ% is possible
at high fre6uencies 4D2.9785 <or this reason3 modulation is al(a%s done in
communication s%stems
E
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
7. .ROCED@RE'
1(itch CN the demonstration board b% connecting the po(er card to the
AC mains
Cbser/e the carrier and modulating (a/eforms and note their fre6uencies
Carrier fre6uenc% is 1.. 978 and amplitude is /ariable from . + A-p+p
&odulating signal is 1978
Connect the carrier and modulating signals to the modulator circuit
Cbser/e the amplitude modulated (a/e in s%nchroni8ation (ith the modulating signal on
a dual trace C!C
Calculate ma:imum and minimum points on a C!C and calculate depth of modulation
from the diagram
B% /ar%ing the modulating /oltage3 the depth of modulation /aries
During demodulation gi/e this A& output to the input of the demodulator to the
follo(ing fig
B% adFusting the !C time constant of the filter circuit (e get minimum distorted output
Note should be ta0en that this demodulated output is amplified has some phase dela%
because of !C components
Also obser/e the effect b% changing the carrier amplitudes
2n all cases3 calculate the modulation inde: (ith the help of the follo(ing
table
G
1No -ma: -min m @ -ma: + -min
-ma: + -min
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. E-.EC+ED :#CE,ORMS'

H
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C#5COCE D@ES+*O&S'
1 List the ad/antages and disad/antages of A&
2 ?hat is meant b% modulation depthI
3 ?hat are different demodulation techni6ues used for A&I
# ?hat are the applications of A&I
, ?hat is the ma:imum /alue of modulation inde:I
E ?hat is modulationI
G ?hat is the need for modulationI
11
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
12
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 1 Date'
!#$#&CED MOD@$#+OR
/. #*M: $o stud% the operation of amplitude modulator (ith suppressed carrier
1. ED@*.ME&+' &odules AC$+.13 AC$+.2 3 'o(er suppl%3 Cscilloscope3 Connecting Lin0s3
<re6uenc% &eter
&O+E' 9EE' ALL $7E 1?2$C7E1 2N 1?2$C7 <A;L$ 1EC$2CN 2N C<< 'C12$2CN
3. +BEOR)'
$he balanced modulator is a circuit3 (hich can generate an amplitude+modulated signal
(ith suppressed carrier3 consisting of onl% side bands $o obtain this result3 it is sufficient to
multipl% the carrier signal and the modulating signal
&odulating signal -m4t5 @ B sin42ft53 carrier signal -c4t5 @ A sin42<t5
$he modulated signal obtained b% their multiplication consists of t(o sine components
9 Cos J24<+f5 tK lo(er side band
9 Cos J24<*f5 tK upper side band
An integrated circuit commonl% used as signal multiplier and as balanced modulator $his
has a 6uadruple differential amplifier3 dri/en b% a further differential amplifier $he output signal
consists of a constant 4gain53 (hich multiplies the product of t(o signals 4..ROCED@RE'
1 Connect po(er suppl% (ith proper polarit% to the 0its AC$+.1 and AC$+.2 and s(itch it
CN
2 !efer to the fig3G & Carr% out the follo(ing connections and settings
3 2n AC$+.1
9eep s(itch 11 in sine (a/e position
9eep s(itch 12 in upper position 41+1.9785
;sing pot '1 0eep sine (a/e signal fre6uenc% at 1 978
;sing pot '2 0eep sine (a/e signal amplitude at C,-pp
9eep s(itch 13 in ,..978 position
13
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
;sing pot '# 0eep -C.1 fre6uenc% at #,.978
;sing pot ', 0eep -C.2 amplitude at 1Li-pp
# 2n AC$+.2
9eep BALANCED &CD;LA$C!1 CA!!2E! N;LL in center position using pot
'1
9eep BALANCED &CD;LA$C!1 LE-EL at ma:imum using pot '2
, Connect the sine (a/e output 4AC$+.15 C;$1 post to the input of Balance modulator 1
4AC$+.25 12MNAL 2N post
E Connect the output of -C.1 4AC$+.15 !<)<& C;$ post to the input of Balance
modulator 1 4AC$+.25 CA!!2E! 2N post
G Connect the oscilloscope to the inputs of the modulator and detect the modulating signal
and the carrier signal 4fig3A a)b5
A &o/e the probe from 12MNAL 2N post to &CD C;$ post 4modulator output53 (here the
modulated signal is detected 4fig3Ac5 !eset the le/el of the modulating signal3 and
adFust the CA!!2E! N;LL to obtain the minimum of the output carrier of the
modulator $a0e the amplitude of the modulating signal about C,-pp Note that the
(a/eform of the modulating signal does not correspond to the en/elope of the modulated
signal3 as it occurs3 instead3 in case of signal A&
H -ar% the amplitude of the modulating signal and chec0 the corresponding /ariation of the
modulated signal amplitude Note that it is different from the Amplitude modulation
(here the modulated signal is ne/er null3 the modulated signal annuls (hen the
modulating signal is null
1. -ar% fre6uenc% and amplitude of the modulating signal3 and chec0 the corresponding
/ariations of the modulated signal
1#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
7. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
1,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. E-.EC+ED :#CE,ORMS'

1E
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
1 ?hat are different demodulation techni6ues used for D1B+1C signalI
2 ?hat are the applications of D1B+1CI
3 ?hat is the transmission band (idth of D1B+1CI
# ?hat is modulationI
, ?hat is the need for modulationI
0. RE#D*&AS'


1G
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 3 Date'
,M AE&ER#+*O& #&D DE+EC+*O&
/. #*M' $o stud% the process of <re6uenc% &odulation and Demodulation and to calculate the
depth of modulation b% /ar%ing the modulating /oltage
1. #..#R#+@S'
1 &odulating signal generator
2 Carrier )<& generator 4A.3A5
3 Demodulator 4,E,5
# *12-),..mA <i:ed DC 'o(er 1uppl%
, 1et of patch chords & ;ser &anual
Non 1tac0able 1tac0able
3 #
3. +BEOR)'
<re6uenc% modulation is a s%stem in (hich the amplitude of the modulated carrier is 0ept
constant3 (hile its fre6uenc% is /aried b% the modulating signal $he first practical s%stem (as
put for(ard in 1H3E as an alternati/e to A& in an effort to ma0e radio transmissions more
resistant to noise 'hase &odulation is a similar s%stem in (hich the phase of the carrier signal is
/aried instead of its fre6uenc%3 as in <& the amplitude of the carrier signal remains constant
$he general e6uation of an unmodulated (a/e or carrier (a/e ma% be (ritten as
: @ A 1in 4(t * N5
?here : @ instantaneous /alue of /oltage or current
A @ 4ma:imum5 amplitude
O@ angular /elocit%P radians per second 4rad)s5
N @ 'hase angle3 rad
Note that (e represent an angle in radians
1H
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
4. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
7. .ROCED@RE'
1 1(itch CN the e:perimental 0it
2 Cbser/e carrier signal and modulating signal on a dual trace CEC
a Carrier signal &odulator output (ithout an% modulating input is the carrier signal
Carrier fre6uenc% is Q G1 978 and amplitude is ,E-p+p
b &odulating signal <re6uenc% is Q G1 978
Amplitude is 1.-p+p 4/ariable5
2.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
3 Connect modulating signal to the modulator input and obser/e modulating signal and <&
output on a dual trace C!C $he follo(ing fig sho(s the procedure
$he Band ?idth re6uired for <& signal as per CarsonRs rule is
Band ?idth B @ 24Sf*fm5
Band (idth is t(ice the sum of fre6uenc% de/iation and the modulating fre6uenc%
$he modulation inde: T @ Sf ) fm
?hen Sf @ fre6uenc% de/iation
f
m
@ modulating fre6uenc%
for e:ample in the <& 1ignal 4see fig5
if St @ ,

sec
Sf @ 1 ) St @1 ) ,

sec @ .2 &78
@ 2.. 978
fm @ G1 978
T @ Sf ) fm @ 2.. 978 ) G1 978 @ 2A1E
21
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com

C71 of C!C C72 of C!C
,M Modulation
# $rigger C!C (rt C71 AdFust amplitude of the modulating signal until (e get
undistorted <& output 2t is difficult to trigger <& on analog C!C $hat is (h% %ou
adFust modulating signal amplitude until small distortion notified in <& output
Note: 2n this position modulating signal amplitude is appro:imatel% E-p+p 'ut C!C in C71
-)di/ in 2 and C72 /)di/ in 2 and time ) di/ in 2.s position
, Calculate ma:imum fre6uenc% and minimum fre6uenc% from the <& output and
calculate modulating inde:
E During demodulation connect the diagram as sho(n belo(
G
C72 of C!C C71 of C!C
<M Demodulation
G 2n this condition decrease the amplitude of the modulating signal generator until (e get
undistorted demodulated output
Note: 2n this condition ma:imum modulating signal generator output is 1- p+p is due to
capture+range restrictions of 'LL in demodulator
A AdFust the potentiometer in demodulation section until (e get demodulated output
22
&odulating
1ignal Menerator
<&
&odulator
&odulating
1ignal Menerator
<&
&odulator
<&
Demodulator
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
=. E-.EC+ED :#CE,ORMS'
2. RE#D*&AS' Modulating signal fre?uenc% fm F
Sl.&o #mp. Of
modulating
signal
Modulated
signal
fre?uenc%
Gf Modulation inde>
H F GfIf
m
!: re?uired
! F 1;GfJf
m
<
23
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
=. RES@$+'
0. C*C#5COCE D@ES+*O&S'
1 ?hat are the methods of generation of <&I
2 List the ad/antages and disad/antages of <&
3 Can the modulation inde: be U1 in <&I
# ?hat are the methods of demodulation of <&I
, Compare A& and <& (ith respect to B? and circuit comple:it%
2#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 4 Date'
.RE5EM.B#S*S & DE5EM.B#S*S C*RC@*+S
/. #*M'
a5 $o plot the characteristics of the pre+emphasis circuit
b5 $o plot the characteristics of the de+emphasis circuit
1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED'
ACL+.3 & ACL+.# 9its3 V'o(er 1uppl%3 VCscilloscope3V Connecting Lin0s
3. +BEOR)'
&eed for .re emphasis'
<re6uencies contain in human speech mostl% occup% the region from 1.. to 1.3... 783 but most
of the po(er is contained in the region of ,.. 78 for men and A.. 78 for (omen Common /oice
characteristics emit lo( fre6uencies higher in amplitude than higher fre6uencies $he problem is
that in <& s%stem the noise output of the recei/er increases linearl% (ith the fre6uenc%3 (hich
means that the signal to noise ratio becomes poorer as the modulating fre6uenc% increases
Also3 noise can ma0e radio reception less readable and unpleasant $his noise is greatest in
fre6uencies abo/e 3 978 $he high fre6uenc% noise causes interference to the alread% (ea0 high
fre6uenc% /oice $o reduce the effect of this noise and ensure an e/er po(er spread of audio
fre6uencies 're emphasis is used at the transmitter side
A pre emphasis net(or0 in the transmitter accentuates the audio fre6uencies abo/e 3 9783 so
pro/iding the higher a/erage de/iation across the /oice spectrum3 thus impro/ing the signal to
noise ratio
De5emphasis'
$he problem in <& broadcasting is that noise and hiss tends to be more noticeable3 especiall%
(hen recei/ing the (ea0er stations $o reduce this effect3 the treble response of the audio signal
is artificiall% boosted prior to transmission $his is 0no(n as pre+emphasis
A$ the recei/er side a corresponding filter or =de emphasis> circuit is re6uired to reduce the treble
response to correct le/el 1ince most noise and hiss tends to be at the higher fre6uencies3 the de
emphasis remo/es a lot of this 're emphasis and de emphasis thus allo( an impro/ed signal to
noise ratio to be achie/ed (hile maintaining the fre6uenc% response of the original audio signal
4. !$OCK D*#AR#M'
2E
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
&ote' 9EE' ALL $7E 1?2$C7 <A;L$1 2N C<< 'C12$2CN
7. .ROCED@RE'
.RE5EM.B#S*S'
$he characteristics of pre+emphasis circuit are gi/en b% output /oltage of the pre+emphasis circuit
as the function of instantaneous input fre6uenc% 2t is possible to plot the cur/e of fig B% /ar%ing
the input fre6uenc% and measuring the corresponding output /oltage
1 &a0e the connections as sho(n in the bloc0 diagram <ig 21
2 Connect the po(er suppl% (ith proper polarit% to the 0it ACL+.3 (hile connecting thisP
ensure that the po(er suppl% is C<<
3 Connect the output of function generator to the 2N of pre+emphasis circuit
# 1(itch on the po(er suppl% and carr% out the follo(ing presetting
, <unction generator: <re6uenc% about 1978 and le/el of 1..m- p+p sine (a/e
E No( /ar% the fre6uenc% in steps of ,..78 and note do(n the output /oltage at the C;$
post of pre+emphasis circuit
2G
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
G 'lot the graph of output /oltage /)s input fre6uenc% on graph paper $he response should
come as sho(n in the theor% abo/e
A <rom the response %ou can easil% understand that using the pre+emphasis
circuit (e can increase the amplitude of modulating signal at higher
fre6uencies thus impro/ing the 1ignal to Noise ratio at higher fre6uencies
DE5EM.B#S*S'
$he characteristic of de emphasis circuit is gi/en b% output /oltage of the de emphasis circuit as
the function of instantaneous input fre6uenc% 2t is possible to plot the cur/e of fig B% /ar%ing
the input fre6uenc% and measuring the corresponding output /oltage
1 &a0e the connections as sho(n in the bloc0 diagram <ig #1
2 Connect the po(er suppl% (ith proper polarit% to the 0it ACL+.# (hile connecting thisP
ensure that the po(er suppl% is C<<
3 Connect the output of function generator 4ACL+.35 to the 2N of de emphasis circuit
4ACL+.#5
# 1(itch on the po(er suppl% and carr% out the follo(ing presetting
, <unction generator: <re6uenc% about 1 978 and le/el of 1..m- p+p sine (a/e
E No( /ar% the fre6uenc% in steps of ,..78 and note do(n the output /oltage at the C;$
post of the de emphasis circuit
G 'lot the graph of input fre6uenc% /)s output /oltage on graph paper $he response should
come as sho(n in theor%
2. E-.EC+ED AR#.BS'
$he pre emphasis is obtained b% using the simple audio filter3 e/en simple !C filter (ill
do the Fob $he pre emphasis circuit produces higher output at higher fre6uencies because the
capaciti/e reactance is decreased as the fre6uenc% increases the response of the pre+emphasis
circuit (ill be as follo(s:

$he response of the de emphasis circuit can be understood from the follo(ing graph:
2A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. RE#D*&AS'
.RE5EM.B#S*S'
S$. &O *&.@+ ,RED@E&C)
;KBK<
O@+.@+ CO$+#AE
;mC<
A#*& A#*& *& d!
DE5EM.B#S*S'
2H
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
S$. &O *&.@+ ,RED@E&C)
;KBK<
O@+.@+ CO$+#AE
;mC<
A#*& A#*& *& d!
=. RES@$+'
0. C*C#5COCE D@ES+*O&S'
1 ?hat is the need for pre+emphasisI
2 ?hat is the need for de+emphasisI
3 ?hat is meant b% <& threshold effectI
3.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 7 Date'
31
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
R#D*O RECE*CER ME#S@REME&+S
/. #*M'
1 $o stud% Bloc0 Diagram & Circuit diagram of A& 1uper heterod%ne !adio !ecei/er
2 $o 1tud% &i:er stage3 2< Amplifiers stage3 AMC & Audio Amplifier stages of A& !adio
3 $o stud% the 1ignal (a/e forms at the different sections of A& 1uperhetrod%ne !adio
!ecei/er
# $o 1tud% the !adio Characteristics 1electi/it%3 1ensiti/it% & fidelit% of A& !adio
recei/er
, $o stud% the faults on the different sections of A& !adio !ecei/er
1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED'
Digital multimeter for measuring /oltages at different point W l no 1ingle trace C!C for
obser/ing the (a/eforms+1no A& 1ignal Menerator in &? )1? <re6uenc% !ange (ith /ariable
Amplitude & !< Carrier to stud% 1ensiti/it%3 1electi/it% & <idelit%
Component /alues used in circuit:
4i5 &? Antenna coil and oscillator coil
4ii5 Mang condenser (CII C25'-C2K
4iii5 2ntermediate fre6uenc% transformers 41f$5 + 3 nos
2<$ 1+ "ello( Colour 2f lX 2 + Mreen Colour 2<$ 3 + ?hite Colour
4i/5 1uppl% /oltage @ *E/ ) ,.. mA
4/5 $ransistors: Yl @Br 1H#+B3 Y2 @B< 1H,+C3 Y3 @B< 1H,+D
YF @ BC 1#A+B Y3 @ YE @ BC A.,.
4/i5 1pea0er # ohms
32
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
33
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
3. +BEOR)'
!adio recei/ers usuall% 0no(n as radios are used for recei/ing transmitted & other
radio communication signals
A number of stations transmit different programs at the same time at the different
fre6uencies Amplitude modulated 4A&5 radio recei/er operates on mainl% t(o bands3
medium (a/e 4&?5 and short 41?5 bands Menerall% for local transmission &? band is
used 2t operates in ,,. 978 to 1E,.978 fre6uenc% range $he recei/ed signals are (ea0
$herefore a radio has to perform se/eral functions to recei/e the transmitted signals
$he main functions of radio are:
1 $o select the desired station
2 $o increase the strength of recei/ed signals ie to amplif% the signals
3 $o separate the audio 4sound5 signals from the modulated carrier signals ie to
detect these
# $o increase the le/el of the audio signals ie to amplif% these to obtain
sufficient 0/P 'o(er
, $o con/ert audio signals into sound
$hese functions are performed b% /arious stages of radio recei/er
<ig 1ho(s Bloc0 diagram of superhetrod%ne radio recei/er 2n this circuit fre6uenc% of the
incoming signals is changed into the fi:ed fre6uenc% called as intermediate fre6uenc% 42<5
$hen it is gi/en to /arious bloc0s of circuit to pro/ide amplified original signal
2t consist of follo(ing bloc0s:
1 !< amplifier3 mi:er and local oscillator3 called as fre6uenc% changer stage
2 2< amplifier 4$(o 1tages5
3 Detector
# Audio po(er amp
, 1pea0er
1 <re6uenc% Changer:
2t consist of !< amp3 mi:er and local oscillator ?hich (ill change the incoming
selected fre6uenc% fs into fi:ed fre6uenc% called as intermediate fre6uenc% 42f5
$he tuned circuit is used in local oscillator for producing oscillations of re6uired
3#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
fre6 $he local oscillator produces fL3 (hich is higher than fs $hese fre6uencies fs & fL
are mi:ed b% mi:er stage to produce sum 4fL * fs5 and difference 4fL + fs5 called as 2<
(hich contains the same modulations as contained b% the recei/ed signal Z(hich is then
gi/en to 2< amp3 & sum output 4<L*<s5 is bloc0s b% 2<$+l circuit 7ence onl% difference
output 4<L<s5 called 2< is gi/en to ne:t stage
2 $he 2< gi/en b% 2<$+l applied to base of first 2< amplifier transmitter Y2 B< 1H,C to
produce amplified output at itXs collector (here primar% of 2<$+2 is connected
3 $he amplified 2< signal appears across the secondar% of 2<$+2 is applied to the base of
Y3B< 1H,+D 2
nd
2< amplifier $he 0/P of 2
nd
2< amplifier through 2<$+3 4(hite5 is
applied to cathode of detector diode D4CA GH5 for the detection of the signal
4. Detector'
Diode 4D5 .)B GH rectifies the signal !esistor !E3 CG and Cs forms lo(+pass !<
filter (hich filter out !< fre6uenc% and gi/es audio signals to audio section through a
potentiometer or /olume control
7. #AC'
Automatic gain control 4AMC5 is used to minimi8e the /ariations in sound (ith the
change in signal strength and to pre/ent o/erloading3 AMC dc /oltage obtained from the
detection of 2< signals is applied to the first 2< amplifier transistor Y2 base in such (a%
that an increase in this /oltage reduces the gain of the transistors Y2 $he result is that
(hen the strength of the incoming signals increases the DC /oltage also increases and
this tends to reduce the gain of the 2< amplifier thus the output to change (ill not much
more !esistor !G gi/es AMC /oltage to the base & pro/ides suitable time constant
7ence due to AMC3 /ariations in sound (ill be less or 8ero
8. #udio section'
$he detected signal through /olume control is applied to pre amplifier transistor
Y# BC1#A B (hich operates A< dri/er [< $his [< then dri/es output po(er transistor
Y, & YE to pro/ide a po(er to spea0er <inall%3 b% selecting a desired station through
abo/e said /arious bloc0s (e get original signal from the spea0er
3,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
4. C*RC@*+ DESCR*.+*O&'
15 $he circuit dra(n on Acr%lic sheet consists of all the bloc0s of !adio 1uperhetrod%ne
recei/er 2t is medium (a/e recei/er 4,,.978 to 1E,.9785
25 $elescopic Antenna connected to antenna Coil and Cl forms tuned circuit $o select the
desired station fre6uenc% fs $he selected fre6uenc% fs is /er% (ea0 so it is applied to base of
!< amp Cum mi:er transistor Y1 B< 1H#+B through C3 $he oscillator coil and C2 forms
local oscillator $uned circuit for (hich positi/e feedbac0 is gi/en b% collector of Y1 $hese
local oscillator fre6uenc% fL is feedbac0 to the emitter of Y1 through C# 7ence fs is applied
to the base and fL is applied to the emitter of Yl B< 1H#+B (hich produces sum 4fL*fs5 and
difference 4fL+fs5 called 2< fre6uenc% 4#,,978 or #,E9785 at the primar% of l<$+l B? at
the section of 2<$+l onl% 4fL+fs5 2< is produced
35 $he (ea0 2< signals is amplified b% this stages 2< amplifier Y2&Y3 <inall% at the section of
2<$+3 amplified 2< is obtained
#5 $he amplified 2< is gi/en to diode detector (hich produce (ea0 modulating audio 4original5
signal $he DC le/el produce is applied to base of 1
st
2f amplifier Y2 to reduce the /ariations
in sound signals
,5 $he (ea0 audio signal is amplified b% pre+amplifier transistor Y# (hich operated Y,&YE
connected in class AB push pull mode to pro/ide high po(er to spea0er
8< Spea"er'
$he spea0er con/erts amplified electrical signal into sound signals (ith /oice
CB#R#C+ER*S+*CS O, RECE*CER
$he /arious t%pes of recei/ers can be compared in their performances b% the follo(ing
features Characteristics
/. SE$EC+*C*+): 2t is the abilit% of recei/er to reFect adFacent carrier signal 2t is used to
distinguish bet(een t(o adFacent carrier fre6uencies $his sho(s that ho( perfectl% the
recei/er is able to select the desired carrier fre6uenc% and reFect the others 1electi/it%
depends on the sharpness of the resonance cur/e of a tuned circuit in/ol/ed in the recei/er
$he sharper resonance cur/e3 the better the selecti/it% Better selecti/it% means that the
recei/er has grater capabilit% to reFect on desired signals $he sharpness of resonance cur/e
3E
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
depends on \Y\ of the resonant circuit $he higher is the \Y\3 more is the selecti/it%
2n fig 4A53 cur/e 1 is sharper than cur/e 23 & hence has better selecti/it%
A @ -)-i dB
+fc fc *fc
Carrier Departure 978
<ig A 1electi/it% Cur/e Cf $%pical !adio !ecei/er
2t is generall% e:pressed in d13s 2f -i is the 2)' carrier /oltage at the desired fre6uenc%
4(ith standard modulation of 3.] at #.. 785 needed to produce standard OIP po(er sa% ,.
m?3 (hile - is the O/P /oltage to produce same standard O/P. $hroughout this measurements3
the recei/er is 0ept tuned to the desired carrier fre6uenc% As the 2) ' carrier fre6uenc% departs
from the desired /alue3 the 0/ ' of recei/er drops & the I/ ' carrier fre6uenc% at this departed
fre6uenc% is re6uired to be increased to get same standard modulation fre6uenc% 0/P of
,.m? $he selecti/it% is determined for the carrier fre6uencies $he selecti/it% of recei/er
/anes (ith the /ariation of desired carrier fre6uenc% in 2< amplifiers
2n general3 the selecti/it% is determined primaril% b% the response of the 2< amplifier
?hile the response of other amplifier ma% pla% minor role $he selecti/it% of recei/er determines
the 3 dB band(idth of recei/er & hence determines the adFacent channel reFection of the
recei/er
1. SE&S*+*C*+)' 2t is the abilit% of recei/er to amplif% (ea0 signals:
&athematicall%3 it is defined as the carrier /oltage3 (hich must be applied to the recei/er 2)'
terminals to get the standard C)' po(er at the C)' terminals $he C)' terminals can be
spea0er replaced b% load resistance of e6ual /alue or spea0er or at the O/P of detector Diode
Appl% the modulated signal as stated in selecti/it% section $he sensiti/it% is e:pressed in
micro /olt or milli /olt or in dBs belo( 1 - 2t ma% be measured at /arious carrier
fre6uencies in the radio band 111e high gain 2< amplifier pro/ides better sensiti/it% $o
3G
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
measure sensiti/it%3 0eep carrier fre6uenc% constant3 appl% proper carrier /oltage so that
standard a 2)' can be obtained $he sensiti/it% cur/e for different carrier fre6uencies is
sho(n in fig 4B5
,,. 978 1E,. 978
Carrier <re6uenc%
<ig B 1ensiti/it% Cur/e Cf A $%pical !adio !ecei/er
3. ,*DE$*+)'
2t is the abilit% of radio recei/er to reduce the difference bet(een lip signal &O/P (a/e
C! 2t is the abilit% of a recei/er to reproduce all the fre6uenc% components present in the base
band signal
&athematicall% it is defined as the modulating fre6uenc%3 (hich must be applied in the
range to recei/er I/P terminal to get standard O/p terminal
$his feature is mainl% di/ided b% the audio amplifier3 (hich amplifies the base band
signal
-o
.G.G -o
gain
2)' fre6uenc%
7. .ROCED@RE'
3A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
415 1tud% the circuit pro/ided on the front panel of the board 2t is signal band
&? t%pe A& radio recei/er operates on ,,. 978 to 1E,.978 producing 2< of #,, 978
425 Connect all the respecti/e stages using patch cords as per dotted line sho(n
on the board ie total H lin0s
435 B% using $uning 0nob Jgang capacitorK select a desire station fre6uenc% <s
AdFust it properl% to get clear sound
4#5 Cbser/ed & note this A& input at antenna input at base of Y1 Also note
local oscillator fre6uenc% at ammeter of Y1 <inall% note 2< at section of 2<$+l or at base
of Y2
4,5 $hen obser/ed and note amplified 2< at section of 2<$+2 and 2<$+3
4E5 Note demodulated output also DC /oltages at respecti/e points
4G5 <inall% note amplification of audio signals of base of Ys & YE and at the
spea0er
4A5 Change the desire station fre6 and note the /oltage in respecti/e (a/eforms
4H5 $o 1tud% 1electi/it%
4a5 1tud% the sensiti/it% gi/en in theor% section
4b5 Appl% a standard A& modulated signal from A& generator to the !< 2)' terminal of
radio recei/er3 or at the antenna terminal as sho(n in 0it
4c5 AdFust & note the carrier fre6uenc% 4desired fre6uenc%5 & /oltage so that standard 0/P
can be obtained Cbser/e & note 0/P /oltage - after 2<$+1 <ind /oltage gain \A\ in dB
b% ta0ing the ratio of 0/P /oltage - & carrier 2)' /oltage -i
4d5 No( decrease the carrier fre6uenc% from the desired selected carrier fre6uenc% in steps
& note corresponding change in 0/P /oltage -3 li0e abo/e step
4e5 !epeat step 4d5 for increasing carrier fre6uenc% from the desired carrier fre6uenc% 'lot
the graph as sho(n in fig 4A5
41.5 $o 1tud% 1ensiti/it%:
4a5 1tud% the selecti/it% gi/en in theor% section
4b5 Appl% a standard A& modulated signal from A& generator to the !< 2)' terminal of
radio recei/er3 or at the antenna terminal as sho(n in 0it
4c5 AdFust & note the carrier fre6uenc% 4desired fre6uenc%5 & /oltage so that standard 0/P
can be obtained
3H
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
4d5 9eep 2)' carrier fre6uenc% constant sa% at ,,. 9783 adFust the carrier /oltage of
generator to obtained desired standard 0/P at 1<$+lor at 0/P detector Diode or at the
spea0er Note this carrier 2)' /oltage for gi/en carrier fre6uenc%
4e5 !epeat step 4d5 for different carrier fre6uencies up to 1E,. 978
'lot a graph as sho(n fig 4B5
4115 $o 1tud% <idelit%:
4a5 Appl% standard A& signal from A& generator to !< 2)' terminal of radio recei/er &
hear \beep\ sound
4b5 Cbser/e & note C)' /oltage at anode of detector diode
4c5 9eep the amplitude of &odulating 1ignal Constant & -ar% 2)p modulating signal
fre6uenc% from 1..78 to 1.978 in regular steps Cbser/e & Note the corresponding alp
-o at anode of diode on C!C 4d5 'lot graph of 2)' &odulating <re6uenc% on [+ A:is &
C)' -oltage -o of !ecei/er on "+a:is Determine the Band(idth
4125 1tud% the different faults as gi/en in faults section
8. RE#D*&AS'
2. RES@$+'
#.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
1 ?hat is meant b% image fre6uenc%I
2 ?hat are the /arious bloc0s of A& super heterod%ne recei/erI
3 ?hat is the name gi/en to the functions fulfilled b% the intermediate
fre6uenc% in a radio recei/erI
#1
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 8 Date'
S#M.$*&A9 .#M & RECO&S+R@C+*O&
#2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1 A2&:
$o stud% the Analog 1ignal sampling and !econstruction
$o stud% the effect of Amplitude and fre6uenc% /ariation of &odulating signal on the
output
$o stud% the effect or /ariation of sampling fre6uenc% on the demodulated output
1. ED@*.ME&+ RED@*RED'
Analog 1ignal 1ampling and !econstruction $rainer
Dual channel oscilloscope W 2. &7^ 41torage Cscilloscope5
'atch chords
3. +BEOR)'
1ampling process is an operation b% (hich an analog signal is con/erted 2nto a discrete W
time signal $he process is /er% useful in digital communication An analog signal can be
con/erted into corresponding se6uence of samples that ma% be spaced uniforml% or non+
uniforml% in time ;suall% the samples are spaced uniforml% and the corresponding sampling
process is called _uniform samplingR 2n order that the process has some practical utilit% 2t is
necessar% to choose the sampling rate properl% so that the se6uence of samples une6uall% defines
the original signal Consider an arbitrar% signal g4t5 is sampled instantaneousl% and at a uniform
rate3 once e/er% $s seconds $s is sampling period and fs @ 1)$s as the sampling rate $he
instantaneous form of sampling is called uniform sampling
'ractical 1ampling:
'ractical sampling differs from ideal sampling in the follo(ing respects
15 $he sampled signal in practice contains pulses finite amplitude and duration rather than
impulses
25 'ractical reconstruction filters are ne/er ideal filters
35 $he message to be sampled is time+limited signal it can not be band limited
$here are t(o t%pes of sampling:
15 Natural sampling
25 <lat top sampling
&atural Sampling'
Consider an obituar% analog signal g 4t5 sample b% a sampling function s4t5 consisting of a
train of pulses of amplitude A & duration $ 2n natural sampling the sampled signal consists
of a se6uence of pulses of /ar%ing amplitude (here tops are no flat but follo( the analog
signal g4t5
,lat +op Sampling '
#3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2n a flattop sampling3 the amplitude of each pulse in the sampled signal is 0ept constant o/er
duration $ Consider the situation in (hich the signal g4t5 is sampled instantaneousl% b% ideal
sampling at a rate 1)$s but the duration of each sample is lengthened for a time $ 1ince the
band(idth of transmission is in/ersel% proportional to pulse duration3 the t%pe of sampling
(ill reduce the band(idth re6uirement for transmission
7. .ROCED@RE'
15 1(itch on the ='o(er CN> 1(itch to suppl% mains po(er to the $rainer
25 Cbser/e the A< signal generator output 2t is a sine (a/e of fre6uenc% /ar%ing from
2.7^ to 2. 97^ and Amplitude /ar%ing from .+, - p+p
35 Cbser/e the sampling pulse generator output 2t is a s6uare (a/e of fre6uenc% /ar%ing
from 2 978 to 32 97^ and pulse (idth also adFustable
#5 Connect the sampling pulse generator output to the sampling pulse input of the
modulator &a0e sure that the fre6uenc% adFust pot is in its e:treme cloc0 (ise direction
and the pulse (idth adFust pot is in its e:treme anti cloc0 (ise direction
,5 No( adFust the output of the A< 1ignal generator to 1 9783 ,-p+p and connect the same
signal to Analog input terminal of the &odulator 2f the pulse (idth is no( made /ar%
narro( the 1 & 7 signal (ill be seen as if it is instantaneousl% sampled and held
E5 2f the Fumper ` 1# is remo/ed W Natural $op sampling output is obser/ed
G5 $he second set of sampling pulses (hich are dela%ed are generated b% ,,, and connected
to <lat $op 1ampler Cbser/e the output of the <lat $op+1ampler on the oscilloscope in
(hich the s(itch samples onl% during the 7old period $herefore <lat to 1amples is
obser/ed
A5 Connect the an% of the sampled output to the Demodulator (hich is a lo( pass <ilter (ith
3# 97^ Band (idth
H5 $he output of the filter is a replica of Analog input Cbser/e output for different t%pes of
sampling inputs
1.5 -ar% the Analog input fre6uenc% and obser/e the effect on the output 2n all the 3
sampling t%pes
115 -ar% the Amplitude of the Analog fre6uenc% and obser/e the effect on the output
125 -ar% the sampling fre6uenc% and obser/e the effect on the output
.REC#@+*O&S'
?hile connecting the sampling pulse generator output to the sampling pulse in put of the
modulator3 ma0e sure that the fre6uenc% adFustment pot is in its e:treme cloc0 (ise direction
& the pulse (idth adFustment pot is in anti cloc0(ise direction
8. E-.EC+ED :#CE,ORMS'
##
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com

#,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C#5COCE D@ES+*O&S'
Y15 1tate the sampling theorem
Y25 ?hat are the different t%pes of samplingI
Y35 ?hat happens (hen the sampling rate is less than 2
Y#5 2f the signal g 4t5 not band limited then (hat is effect on sampling
Y,5 7o( is the flattop sampling generatedI
YE5 ?hat is Aperture effect and ho( can it be rectified
#E
Modulating input signal
Reconstructed signal
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
#G
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 2 Date'
.@$SE :*D+B MOD@$#+*O&
/. #*M' $o generate 'ulse ?idth &odulation and Demodulation and to stud% the effect of
amplitude and fre6uenc% of the modulating signal on '?& pulses
1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED'
DC 'o(er 1uppl% . + 3.-
A< 1ignal Menerator 2. 78 W 2.978
'ulse ?idth Control ;nit
1a(tooth ?a/eform Menerator
1a(tooth Menerator & Comparator as '?& &odulator
Comparator & Lo( 'ass <ilter as '?& Demodulator
3. +BEOR)'
.@SE +*ME MOD@$#+*O&'
2n '$&3 the signal is sampled3 the pulses indicating sample amplitudes 7o(e/er3 one of
the timing characteristics of the sampled signal amplitude at that instant3 these characteristics ma%
be either (idth or position of the pulses
.@$SE :*D+B MOD@$#+*O&'
$he form of pulse time modulation is also 0no(n pulse duration modulation 4'D&5 or
pulse length modulation 4'L&5 in pulse (idth modulation3 the samples of the message signal are
used to /ar% the duration of the indi/idual pulses $he pulse ma% be /aried b% /ar%ing the time of
occurrence of the timing edge or both edges of the pulses in accordance (ith the sampled /alue of
the modulating (a/e $he message signal and a sa(+tooth (a/e are added and the combination is
applied to a slicer An ideal slicer has the properl% that its output is 8ero (here/er the input is
belo( the slicing le/el and is constant (hene/er the input e:ceeds this le/el
$he duration of each pulse is dictated b% the /alue of the message (a/e at the time of
occurrence of the trailing edge ;sing emitter coupled mono+stable multi+/ibrator can also
generate '?& $he emitter follo(er mono+stable multi/ibrator is an e:cellent /oltage+to+time
con/erter3 since its gate (idth is dependent on the /oltage to (hich the capacitor is changed 2f
this /oltage can be /aried in accordance (ith a single /oltage3 a series of rectangular pulses can
be obtained3 (ith (idth /ar%ing as re6uired
'assing '?& through a lo(+pass filter does de+modulation
#A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
4. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
#H
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
7. .ROCED@RE'
415 1(itch on the ='C?E! CN> s(itch to suppl% main po(er to the $rainer
425 Cbser/e the A< signal generator output 2ts fre6uenc% is /ar%ing from 2.78 to 2.978
(ith the !ange selection s(itch and the fre6uenc% adFust potentiometer and its amplitude
is /ar%ing from . to ,-p+p
435 Cbser/e the sampling pulse generator output 2ts output is a s6uare (a/e of fre6uenc%
/ar%ing from 2978 to 32978 (ith its pulse (idth also /ariable
4#5 Connect sampling pulse output of the sampling pulse generator to the sampling pulse
input of the '?& &odulator &a0e sure that the fre6uenc% pot in its ma:imum position
and pulse (idth pot is in its minimum position
4,5 $he beginning stage of the '?& modulator is pulse to sa(+tooth generator 1o3 that sa( +
tooth output is gi/en to one input of the comparator 4pin E of CA313.5
4E5 Appl% A< signal to the A< input of the '?& modulator 4at 19785
4G5 Cbser/e the '?& output 4at 'in 1 of $LCA#5 on one channel of a dual trace C!C and A<
signal on the second channel of the C!C
4A5 Cbser/e '?& output b% changing
4a5 A< 1ignal Amplitude
4b5 A< 1ignal fre6uenc%
4c5 1ampling pulse fre6uenc%
4d5 1ampling pulse (idth
4H5 During demodulation3 connect '?& output to the '?& input of the demodulator3 and
obser/e the demodulator3 and obser/e the demodulate output
41.5 Cbser/e the demodulated output b% repeating step + A
.REC#@+*O&S'
$he cross modulation products that fall in the signal band cause distortion during the
reconstruction $herefore3 it should be minimi8ed
,.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8.E-.EC+ED:#CE,ORMS'
8. RE#D*&AS'
,1
&odulating input signal
'?& signal
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
Y1 E:plain the '?&
Y2 E:plain the modulation and demodulation schemes for '?& s%stem
Y3 Compare 'A&3 '?& and ''& schemes
Y# E:plain the similarit% bet(een 'D& and ''&
Y, ?hat is a slicerI
,2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' = Date'
.@$SE .OS*+*O& MOD@$#+*O& & DEMOD@$#+*O&
/. #*M' $o stud% 'ulse 'osition &odulation & Demodulation circuit
1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED' ,,, 2Cs W 33 $L .A# 2C3 diodes+GA12 +13 GH12+13resistors+
19a3 339a3 #G 9a3 ,1 9a31. 9a31, 9a32G 9a3 3H 9a322& a3 capacitors+ #G.b<3 1
b<3 po(er suppl% *)+ 12-
3. +BEOR)'
'ulse &odulation ma% be used to transmit analog information such as continuous speech
of data 2t is a s%stem in (hich continuous (a/eforms are sampled at regular inter/als
information regarding the signal is transmitted onl% at the sampling times together (ith an%
s%nchroni8ing pulses that ma% be re6uired At the recei/ing end3 the original (a/eforms ma% be
reconstituted from the information regarding the samples3 if these are ta0en fre6uentl% enough
Despite the fact that information about the signal is not supplied continuousl% as in Amplitude
&odulation and <re6uenc% &odulation3 the resulting recei/er output can ha/e negligible
distortion
'ulse &odulation ma% be subdi/ided broadl% into t(o categories Analog and Digital 2n the
former3 the indication of sample Amplitude ma% be infinitel% /ariable (hile in the latter a code
(hich indicates the sample Amplitude to the nearest predetermined le/el is sent 'ulse 'osition
&odulation is an analog communication (hich is discussed in the follo(ing section
.@$SE .OS*+*O& MOD@$#+*O&'
,3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2n 'ulse position &odulation3 (e ha/e a fi:ed Amplitude of each pulse but the position of
each pulse is made proportional to the Amplitude of the &odulating signal at the instant
'ulse 'osition &odulation can be generated b% t(o &onostable &ulti/ibrators as sho(n
in <ig , 2n this3 the first multi/ibrator generates the pulse (idth &odulation and the second
&ulti/ibrator generates the pulse position modulation 2nitiall%3 the sampling cloc0 from the
trainer is gi/en to the pin+2 of the first ,,, 42C
3
5 4(hich is connected in &onostable mode5 and
the modulating signal is gi/en to the pin+, of the same ,,,42C
3
5 No( if (e obser/e the output at
pin+3 of the same first ,,,42C
3
53 (e get 'ulse ?idth &odulation $he (idth of each pulse is
/aried if (e change the Amplitude of the &odulating signal (hich is applied at pin+, of ,,,
42C
3
5
2n the abo/e <ig ,3 it is sho(n that the output of the 1st ,,,42C
3
5 is internall% connected to pin+2
of the 2nd ,,,42C
#
5 1o the generated 'ulse ?idth &odulation pulses are used to $rigger the
second &onostable &ulti/ibrator 1o position of each pulse is /aried in accordance (ith the
alread% generated pulse (idth modulation But the '?& depends on the input &odulating signal
1o totall% the generated pulse position modulation depends on the Amplitude of the modulating
signal 2f (e change the Amplitude of the modulating signal3 the position of the each pulse is
/aried But the (idth of the each pulse is constant3 because the time constant of the second
&onostable &ulti/ibrator is constant 4fi:ed5
4. .ROCED@RE'
415 1(itch CN the e:perimental 0it
425 Cbser/e the cloc0 generator output and modulating signal outputs
435 Connect the cloc0 generator output to the cloc0 input point of ''& modulator & obser/e
the same cloc0 on channel of a dual trace C!C
4#5 $rigger the C!C (ith respect to C71
4,5 Appl% a /ariable DC /oltage of A to 12 /olts from an% e:ternal regulated po(er suppl%
4E5 Cbser/e the ''& output on C72
4G5 B% /ar%ing the modulating /oltage3 ''& output cloc0 position changed3 but its (idth
maintains constant
4A5 2f (e obser/e the '?& output its (idth /aries accordingl% to the modulating /oltage
4H5 A /ariable amplitude modulating signal is gi/en to obser/e ho( the '?& & ''& signals
are /ar%ing for AC modulating /oltages
41.5 2n this case (e ha/e trigger the C!C (ith respect to modulating /oltage
,#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
7. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
,,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. E-.EC+ED:#CE,ORMS'
,E
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
,G
''& signal
&odulating input signal
Demodulated signal
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. RE#D*&AS'
,A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
415 E:plain the generation and demodulation of ''&
425 ?hat is the ad/antage of ''& o/er other pulse modulation techni6uesI
435 2s ''& an analog modulation techni6ue or Digital modulation techni6ueI `ustif% %our
ans(er
4#5 ?hat are other generation techni6ues of ''&I
4Cther than the one used in Lab5
4,5 ?hat are the B? !e6uirements of ''&I
,H
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' 0 Date'
E.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
+*ME D*C*S*O& M@$+*.$E-*&A #&D DEM@$+*.$E-*&A
/. #*M' $o stud% 2+channel $ime Di/ision &ultiple:ing and 1ampling of analog signal3 and its
pulse code modulation in none parit% mode in the transmitter section and to stud% the
demultiple:ing and reconstruction of the analog signal in the recei/er section
1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED'
'ulse Code &odulation $ransmitter 0itDCL+..3
'ulse Code Demodulation $ransmitter 0it DCL+..#
Dual $race Cscilloscope + 2. &78
'atch Chords
3. +BEOR)'
$ime Di/ision &ultiple:ing is based on the principle of time+sharing of the channel b%
t(o or more signals ;sing this techni6ue more than one signal can be sent through a single
channel $D& is used in Digital communication s%stems
$he analog signal 4sine (a/e5 of fre6uenc% ,..78 and 1978 and /ariable amplitude DC
1ignal DCl and DC2 are generated on board on DCL..3$his signal are fed to the input of the
sampling logic C7C and C72 and their samples are multiple:ed b% interlea/ing them properl% in
their assigned time slots
$he cr%stal oscillator generates a cloc0 of E#&78 and from (hich all the transmitter
data and timing signals are deri/ed <or fast mode operation the transmitter cloc0 is 2#. 9783
and sampling cloc0 is 1E978<or slo( mode operation the transmitter cloc0 is 123 78 and
sampling cloc0 is .AA78 ie to sa% t he sampling rate of the channel is 11 secs and serial data
transmission rate is A13msecs
$he multiple:ed data is pulse code modulated before transmission At the recei/er after
the pulse code demodulation3 the reco/ered multiple:ed data is sent to demultiple:ing logic $he
t(o de+multiple:ed samples are gi/en to reconstruction unit $he reconstruction unit consists of
lo( pass filters the high fre6uenc% components to reco/er the original base band signal at the
recei/er output C7C and C72
3. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
E1
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
7. .ROCED@RE'
15 Connect po(er suppl% in proper polarit% to the 0it DCL+.2 and s(itch it on
25 Connect 2,.783 ,..783 1 978 and 2978 sine (a/e signals from the function generator to
the multiple:er inputs channel C7.3 C713 C723 C73 b% means of connecting chords
35 Connect the multiple:er output $[D of the transmitter section to the de+multiple:er input
![D of the recei/er section
#5 Connect the output of the recei/er section C7.3 C713 C723 C73 to the 2N.3 2N13 2N2 and
2N3 of the filter section
,5 Connect the sampling cloc0 $[ CL9 and $[ 1"NC of the transmitter section to ![ CL9
and ![ 1"NC of the recei/er section respecti/el%
E5 $a0e the obser/ations as mentioned belo(

O!SERC#+*O&S'
Cbser/e the follo(ing signal on C!C and plot it on the paper
Cn 0it DCL+..3
15 2nput signals C7C3 C723 C72 and C73
25 Channel 1election signal
25 1ampling cloc0 + $[CL9
35 &ultiple:er output $[D
#5 Demultiple:er output C7.3 C713 C72 and C73
,5 !econstructed signal C;$ .3 C;$ 13 C;$ 2 and C;$ 3
E-.EC+ED :#CE,ORMS'
E3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. RE#D*&AS'
E#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
Y 15 ?hat are the different t%pes of multiple:ing techni6ue a/ailableI
Y25 E:plain the principle of $D& and <D& and compare FDM and $D&
Y35 ?hat is a commutator and decommutatorI ?here is it usedI
Y#5 ?hat are the applications of $D& and <D&I
Y,5 ?hat are the recent trends in the multiple:ing techni6uesI
E,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' /6 Date'
,RED@E&C) D*C*S*O& M@$+*.$E-*&A #&D DEM@$+*.$E-*&A
EE
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
/. #*M'
415 $o stud% the concept of <re6uenc% Di/ision &ultiple:er 4<D&5
425 $o stud% the operation of t(o channel <D&
435 $o stud% the concept of fre6uenc% di/ision Demultiple:ing
4#5 $o obser/e & note change in C)' (rto change in channel 2)'s
1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED'
CRO, function generator 43nos53 patch cords
2Cs @ #.1E3 2C ,,, & 2C G#1 !1 @ !2@ !3@ 1.0
3. +BEOR)'
&ultiple:ing is the s%stem (here man% separate information channels are transmitted
through single channel3 (ithout an% interference $here are t(o t%pes of multiple:ing
4c5 $ime di/ision multiple:ing 4$D&5
4d5 <re6uenc% di/ision multiple:ing 4<D&5
,re?uenc% Diision Multiple>ing ;,DM<'
2n this s%stem3 man% separate messages are transmitted o/er the same channel using
<re6uenc% sharing techni6ue <re6uenc% di/ision multiple:ing is based on the idea that a
number of signals can share the band(idth of a common communications channel $he multiple
signals to be transmitted o/er this channel are each used to modulate a separate carrier Each
carrier is on different fre6uenc% $he modulated carriers are then added together to form a
single comple: signal3 (hich is transmitted o/er the single channel
<ig 1 sho(s a general bloc0 dig of an <D& s%stem Each signal to be transmitted feeds
a modulator circuit $he carrier for each modulator fc is on a different fre6uenc% $he carrier
fre6uencies are usuall% e6uall% spaced from one another o/er a specific fre6uenc% range Each
2)' is gi/en a portion of band(idth $he t%pe of modulation used is 'A& But one can use an%
of the standard 0inds including A&3 11B3 <& or '& $he resulting C)' signal is a composite of
all carriers containing their modulation $his signal is then used to modulate a radio transmitter
Cn this 0it3 'A& techni6ues are used to modulate 2)'s at different carrier fre6uencies3 (hich are
added in linear mi:er producing <D& C)' as sho(n in <ig belo(
EG
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
+he transmitting end of ,DM s%stem
DS!5 SC !#$#&CED MOD@$#+OR'
2n communication s%stem the information 0no(n as modulating signal
is transmitted from transmitter to recei/er through a media 0no(n as channel $his channel
can be (ire or (ireless 2n (ireless s%stem3 if the amplitude of the carrier signal is /aried in
accordance to modulating signal then it is called as amplitude modulated (a/e and
techni6ue called as amplitude modulation 4A&5 2n recei/er s%stem original modulating
signal is reco/ered from transmitted A& signal3 such process is 0no(n as demodulation
2n an ordinar% sinusoidal modulated signal contains three components3
EA
1ignal 1
1ignal 2
1ignal 3
1ignal #
&odulator
&odulator
&odulator
&odulator
Linear mi:er
or summer
$ransmitter
All carriers are combined
into a single composite
signal that modulates a
transmitter
Antenna
Criginal data modulates carriers
of different fre6uencies
Carrier f
c1
Carrier f
c#
Carrier f
c3
Carrier f
c2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
at an upper side fre6uenc%3 at a lo(er side fre6uenc% <urther this signal is the e6ui/alent of
the carrier sinusoidal signal being multiplied b% the modulation signal (ith a DC
components added to it $he one+side fre6uencies are due entirel% to the product of the
carrier and the modulation signal3 (hile the carrier term is due onl% to the presence of the
DC offset in the modulation signal $herefore3 if the modulation circuit can be balanced so
that the DC term cancels3 but the product term does not cancel3 the output (ill contain onl%
one side bands terms 1uch a circuit is called a =Balanced &odulator\3 such circuit are used
in A& generation <igure sho(s 2C 1#HE as balanced modulator used to produce the single
side band A& (a/e (ith a suppressed carrier 2t is differential amplifier 2C consist of t(o
inputs connected to modulating signal input and carrier signal input and pro/ides Balanced
A& output at pin 12
,re?uenc% Diision Demultiple>ing'
Demultiple:ing is the process in (hich t(o signals are separated from the
fre6uenc% di/ision multiple:ed signal $he recei/er reproduces the original signal that modulated
the carrier namel%3 the conglomeration of sub carriers $he sub carriers are separated b% a set of
fre6uenc% filters3 each pro/iding a \pass band\ compatible (ith the specific sub carriers <ilter 1
passes a fre6uenc% band around the center fre6uenc% of carrier 1 4<l5 $he output of each filter
consists of an amplitude modulated sub carriers (here the modulating signal corresponds to the
respecti/e data source Note that t(o detector are used $he first\ detects\ or reproduces the
carrier modulations (hile the second reproduces the sub carrier modulation $his is to be
e:pected3 since the s%stem consist of t(o successi/e amplitude modulation 4A&) A&5?e no(
ha/e a communication s%stem (here each data source allotted a specific fre6uenc% slot $o
pro/ide D1B reception3 each filter must pro/ide a pass band for t(o fre6uenc% ranges3
corresponding to the upper and lo(er side bands $he t(o side band of a specific channel me
then combined to %ield the channel output $he s%stem discussed so far is an A&) A& s%stem
Cther modulation schemes such as A&)<& or <&)<& are fre6uentl% used in telemetr%
DS!5SC !#$#&CED DEMOD@$#+OR
EH
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
2n communication s%stem the information 0no(n as modulating signal is transmit from
transmitter to recei/er through a media 0no(n as channel $his channel can be (ire or (ireless
2n (ireless s%stem3 if the amplitude of the carrier signal is /aried in accordance to modulating
signal then it is called as amplitude modulated (a/e and techni6ue called as amplitude
modulation 4A&5 2n recei/er s%stem original modulating signal is reco/ered from transmitted
A& signal3 such process is 0no(n as demodulation
$he D1B + 1C s%stem is used for the transmitter for shifting the base band signal 4(ith
ma:imum fre6uenc% m5 to a higher carrier fre6uenc% cc $his modulated signal is transmitted
from the transmitter and it reaches the recei/er /ia a propagating media At the recei/er3 the
original base band signal f4t5 is desired to be reco/ered from the modulated signal $his is
achie/ed b% retranslating the base band signal from a higher spectrun1 4centered at cc5 to the
original spectrum $his process of retranslating is 0no(n as is 0no(n as demodulation or
detection $he original base band is reco/ered from he modulated signal b% the detection
process
A method for detecting the D1B+1C signal sho(n is fig3 is used at the recei/er end of
reco/er% of the message signal $he method of retranslation is similar that of translation 7ere
modulated signal f4t5 cos c t is multiplied (ith cos c t 4locall% generated carrier53 and passed
through a lo( pass filter
$he balanced modulator 2C 1#HE could be use for the demodulation of D1B1C signal
$he re6uired biasing is made to the 2C for obtaining the demodulated output $he 2C 1#HE is
primaril% a multiplier the effect of the multiplication is cancellation or addition of the input
signals and produces the output according to multiplication or addition performed
$he input to balanced modulator is the carrier that is the carrier the transmitted signal
G.
<4t5 Cos
2

C
t <4t5 Cos
C
t
&ultiplier
L'<
Cos
C
t
d f4t5
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
and the other input to the 2C is the D1B1C signal $he carrier frorn both the signals get canceled
and onl% the modulated signal is produced at the output $he output is obtained from pin no E of
the 2 C
4. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
7. .ROCED@RE'
G1
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
15 1tud% the circuit pro/ided on the front panel of the 9it
25 Appl% three modulating sine (a/e carrier 2)'s of 3. 78 Wl 978 from signal generator to 2)'+
13 2)'+2 respecti/el%
35 Connect the C!C at output side 4<D& C)'5
#5 1(itch on the po(er suppl%
,5 Cbser/e and note different carrier fre6uencies & different modulating fre6uencies
E5 No( change the amplitude of modulating signal & note the corresponding change in <D&
C)'
.ROCED@RE ,OR DEM@$+*.$E-*&A'
1tud% the circuit 1ho(n on the front panel of 0it
No( appl% <D& input to the input channel
At the C)' obser/e the separated and reco/ered data
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
Y15 ?hat are the different t%pes of multiple:ing techni6ue a/ailableI
Y25 E:plain the principle of $D& and <D& and compare FDM and $D&
Y35 ?hat is the transmission band (idth re6uired in <D&
Y#5 ?hat are the applications of $D& and <D&I
Y,5 ?hat are the recent trends in the multiple:ing techni6uesI
E-.EC+ED :#CE,ORMS'
G2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
G3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
G#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
G,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' // Date'
.$$ CB#R#C+ER*S+*CS #&D #..$*C#+*O&S
/. #*M' $o 1tud% the 'hase Loc0 Loop circuits using 2C ,E, and to determine
the 'LL characteristics

1. #..#R#+@S RED@*RED'
1NC Name of the De/ice !ange) No Y$"
1
2
3
#
,
2C ,E,
!esistors
Capacitors
'otentiometers
DC 'o(er 1uppl%

A2. e3
1,9 e 3
#G 9 e3
1. 9 e3
#G 9 e
1..p<3
.1 f <
. 1 f <
#G 9 e
* ) + 12 -
1
1
1
3
3
2
1
#
1
1
1

3. +BEOR)'
'hase Loc0ed Loop 4'LL5 de/ices and techni6ues are (idel% used in applications such as
automatic fre6uenc% trac0ing3 fre6uenc% multiplication and fre6uenc% s%nthesis etc $hree best
0no(n 'LL 2cs are the #.#EB C&C1 chip and NE ,E, and NE ,EG de/ices
'LL is a feedbac0 s%stem and comprises of the follo(ing four basic elements
1 'hase Comparator
2 Lo( 'ass <ilter
3 Error correction Amplifier
# -oltage Controlled Cscillator
$he -CC is a free running multi/ibrator (hose centre fre6uenc% is determined b% an e:ternal
timing capacitor and an e:ternal resistor 2ts centre fre6uenc% can also be shifted to either side b%
application of a DC control /oltage to appropriate terminal of the 2C $he fre6uenc% de/iation is
directl% proportional to the DC control /oltage and hence it is called a X-oltage Controlled
CscillatorX or in short a -CC $he -CC output is presented to a 'hase sensiti/e detector3 (here
its 'hase is compared (ith that of the incoming signal $he detector produces DC output (hose
magnitude is directl% proportional to the phase difference $his is called =Error 1ignal \ and is
first passed through a lo( pass filter to remo/e components of the -CC and input signal
fre6uenc%3 and then amplified b% a DC amplifier called \Error Amplifier\ $he DC output of the
amplifier is fed bac0 to the -CC to complete the loop3 and to shift the -CC fre6uenc% in a
direction that approaches more closel% to the fre6uenc% of the incoming signal and the error
signal becomes less and less Cnce this action starts3 (e sa% that the signal is in the \Capture
!ange\ $he -CC continuous to change fre6uenc% till its output is e:actl% the same as the input
GE
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
signal fre6uenc% $he circuit is then loc0ed After loc0ing3 if the input signal fre6uenc% changes3
the -CC fre6uenc% follo(s it e:actl% $hus the loop has three states: a5 free running b5 capture
and c5Loc0ed or $rac0ing <ig 1 sho(s the (a/eform of the /oltage at the output of the error
correction amplifier As capture starts3 a small sine (a/e appears $his is the XbeatX fre6uenc%
bet(een the -CC and the input signal Note that the negati/e half of the (a/eform is slightl%
longer than the positi/e half $his is the dc component of the beat (hich dri/es the -CC to(ards
the loc0
Each successi/e c%cle causes the -CC mo/es closer to the input signal $he -CC finall% loc0s
and the beat fre6uenc% becomes 8ero $he lo( pass filter is an important factor in controlling the
capture range 2f the -CC is too far a(a%3 the beat fre6uenc% (ill be too high to pass through the
filter and the 'LL (ill not respond $he signal is then said to be out of the capture band
Cnce the loc0 has been achie/ed3 the filter no longer restricts the 'LL $he -CC can
trac0 the signal (ell past the capture band limited b% the gain of the amplifier and the output
range of the -CC and the phase comparator $hus the trac0ing range is much (ider than the
capture range $he filter3 ho(e/er3 does limit the speed at (hich the 'LL can trac0 2f the
fre6uenc% changes too rapidl%3 the 'LL can become unloc0ed $he signal fre6uenc% should again
come (ithin the capture band for capturing again $he rate of change of phase is often e:pressed
in Xradians per secondX
$he lo( pass filter3 thus3 restricts the capture band and reduces the trac0ing speed But it
ser/es one /er% useful purpose $he charge on the filter capacitor pro/ides the 'LL a short term
Xmemor%X E/en if the signal drops into noise for se/eral c%cles3 the dc /oltage on the filter
capacitor (ill continue to shift the -CC at the same rate until it pic0s up the signal again $his
produces a high noise immunit% and loc0ing stabilit% $he output of -CC is an e:act replica of
incoming signal fre6uenc% minus the noise
787 5 .B#SE $OCKED $OO.'
$he ,E, 'LL is a self contained adaptable filter and demodulator for the fre6uenc% range
from ...1 78 to ,.. 978 $he centre fre6uenc% o f the 'LL is determined b% the free running
fre6uenc% of the -CC3 (hich can be adFusted e:ternall% (ith a resistor or a capacitor
GG
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
$he lo( pass filter 3 (hich determines the capture characteristics of the loop is formed b%
an internal resistor and an e:ternal capacitor $he pin configurations for ,E, are sho(n in fig
belo(
,ig 1. .B#SE $OCK $OO. 787 .in Configuration
$he e:ternal resistance ! should be limited in the range 29ohms to 2. 9ohms ?ith an
optimum /alue in the order of # 9 $he free running fre6uenc% fo can also be controlled b%
appl%ing an e:ternal /oltage to pin G $he effect of DC /oltage bet(een pins 1. and G on the
fre6uenc% fo and the output signal (a/eforms of the -CC are sho(n in figure XbX $he output
impedance of s6uare (a/e output at pin no # is lo( and a load of 19 or higher can be dri/en
directl% Cnl% high impedance loads should be connected to pin H for getting triangle (a/e
output A short circuit bet(een pins # and , connects the -CC output to the 'hase Detector $he
input signal can be coupled directl% if the dc resistance as seen from the connections at pin 2 and
3 are e6ual and there is no difference bet(een the dc /oltages at these pins At pin no E a dc
reference /oltage is obtained (hich is close to the dc /oltage of the demodulated output measured
at pin no G
$OCK R#&AE'
$he range of fre6uencies in the /icinit% of fo o/er (hich the -CC once loc0ed
(ith the input signa3 (ill remain loc0ed is called the Xloc0 rangeX and is gi/en b%
fL @@ Afo ) -co
2f a resistance is connected bet(een pin E and pin G the gain of the amplifier stage can be reduced
(ith little change in the dc /oltage le/el at the output $his allo(s the loc0 range to the reduced
(ith little change in the free running fre6uenc% fo 2n this (a% the loc0 range can be decreased
from *)+ E. ] to *)+ 2.] of fo at *E- suppl% /oltage $he dependence of loc0 range on this gain
setting resistor is sho(n in figure ,A belo( $he loc0 range also depends on the input signal
strength and on the suppl% /oltage $hese relationships are sho(n in figure ,B
C#.+@RE R#&AE'
$he range of fre6uencies about f o o/er (hich the loop (ill ac6uire loc0 (ith an
input signal3 initiall% starting out of loc0 is called the XCapture rangeX and is gi/en b% the
follo(ing e:pression
<L @ 41 ) 2g 5 : Jh 4 2 g fL ) 3E : 1... : C2 5 K
GA
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
Due to the highl% linear -CC3 the ,E, 'LL can loc0 and trac0 an input signal o/er a /er% (ide
range b% t%picall% *)+ E.] (ith high linearit%
,ig 3. !loc" diagram of 787 .$$
,ig 4. Effect of Control of fo and output waeforms of CCO in 787 .$$
,ig 7a. effect of gain setting fig 7b. On $oc" Range
Resistance and of input signal Strength
GH
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
4. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
.$$ @S*&A 787
7. .ROCED@RE'
/. 1(itch on the po(er suppl% to the circuit
1. Chec0 the -CC output at pin # of 2C ,E,
3. $he output is a s6uare (a/eform $he fre6uenc% of the (a/e form depends on C$ 4..1 f <5
and !1 4/ariable 1. 9 e potentiometer5
4. 1hort circuit the pins # and pin , and appl% an% signal of /ariable fre6uenc% to obser/e the
-CC output
7. Change the input fre6uenc% and obser/e the -CC output on the C!C
8. At some fre6uencies3 the -CC output is loc0ed to the input signal fre6uenc% $his can be
obser/ed b% increasing or decreasing the fre6uenc% of the -CC output b% changing input
fre6uenc%
2. $he fre6uenc% belo( or abo/e the /alue3 the -CC output is not loc0ed
=. B% changing the potentiometer pro/ided on the board3 loc0ing fre6uenc% range can be
changed
A.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
8. RE#D*&AS'
-CC Cutput fre6uenc% f. @
Loc0ing range @ fL2 W fL1 @
Capture range @ fC2 W fC1 @
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
1 ?hat is meant b% -CC
2 List some of the applications of 'LL
3 List some 2C s (hich are used as 'LLs
# ?hat is meant b% Capture range
, List the basic building bloc0s of 'LL
E Define capture range3 loc0 range and pull+in+timle
G ?hich is greater X Capture rangeX or XLoc0 rangeX
A ?hat is the maFor difference bet(een digital and analog 'LLs
H E:plain ho( 'LL can be used for A& and <& detection
A1
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A2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' /4 Date'
M*-ER CB#R#C+ER*S+*CS
/. #*M' $o Cbser/e the characteristic of a transistor &i:er circuit and to
measure its con/ersion gain
1. #..#R#+@S'
1ignal generator3 Cathode !a% Cscilloscope3 patch cords3 transistor 4B`$ ++ 2N23EH53
resistors 4#G93 1.93 1953 double tuned 2< tuner)single tuned circuit3 capacitors
3. +BEOR)'
<re6uenc% con/ersion is achie/ed through &i:er circuits A mi:er is a non+linear circuit
(ith t(o input signals and one output signal $he output signal is a distorted combination of the
t(o input signals A mi:er circuit finds its application in a super heterod%ne recei/er in
con/erting a !< signal into an 2< signal (ith the help of a local oscillator <re6uenc% con/ersion
is the changing of the fre6uenc% of a carrier (ith its modulation from one fre6uenc% to another
$his occurs (hen the signal is mi:ed (ith a second signal such as the output of an oscillator in
such a manner that output contains products of the t(o signals3 one of these products (ill
contains the sum and difference fre6uencies of the t(o input signals Cther components are
present3 as (ell3 but all components e:cept the desired one ma% be remo/ed b% band pass
filtering $here are t(o methods to accomplish the mi:ing function3 additi/e mi:ing and
multiplicati/e mi:ing $he output fre6uenc% is termed the 2ntermediate <re6uenc% 42<5
4. C*RC@*+ D*#AR#M'
7. .ROCED@RE'
1 &a0e the connections as per the circuit diagram sho(n
2 Appl% 1.. 9783 . + 2 - pea0 to pea0 signal to the base of the transistor and HH 9783 1- pea0
to pea0 signal to the emitter of the same transistor circuit
3 Connect the terminals across !L to the cathode !a% oscilloscope and obser/e the
(a/eform
# &easure the fre6uenc% of the output (a/eform on the C!C Cbser/e that it is 1 978 (hich
is the difference bet(een the t(o signals applied
A3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
, -ar% the signal fre6uenc% applied at the base and note do(n the output amplitude on the
C!C $he output reaches to a ma:imum -alue at a particular fre6uenc%
E Calculate con/ersion gain using the follo(ing formula
Con/ersion gain @ output /oltage ) base signal /oltage
G 'lot the con/ersion gain 4dB5 /ersus the fre6uenc% of the signal at the base
A Cbser/e that the signal output has a fre6uenc% that is the difference bet(een the signal
fre6uenc% at the base and the signal fre6uenc% at the emitter
8. RE#D*&AS #&D S#M.$E C#$C@$#+*O&S'
1l No <re6uenc% at
Emitter f%49785
C)p /oltage
-out 4-5
Con/ersion
gain J-out)-:K
Con/ersion gain
4dB5
1. log 1. 4-out)-:5
1
2
3
#
,
E
G
!ase Signal oltage C> F
!ase Signal fre?uenc% f> F
Conersion Aain F OIp oltage I !ase signal oltage F CoutIC>
2. RES@$+'
=. C*C# E COCE Duestions'
1 E:plain the operation of a mi:er circuit
2 ?hat is the need for the mi:er circuit in the radio recei/ersI
3 Describe the general process of fre6uenc% changing in a super heterod%ne
recei/er ?hat are some of the de/ices that can be used as fre6uenc% changersI
# ?h% some of the mi:er circuits must be separatel% e:cited
, Describe the operation of self+e:cited additi/e mi:er and the multiplicati/e
mi:ing
E Describe the operation of multiplicati/e mi:er using dual gate &C1<E$
G ?hat is three point trac0ingI
A 7o( do trac0ing errors arise in the first placeI
A#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
A,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' /7 Date'
S+@D) O, S)&CBRO&O@S DE+EC+*O& O, #M S*A&#$
#*M'
AE
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
+BEOR)'
2n the s%nchronous A& detector3 also 0no(n as coherent A& detector3 the signal
modulated in amplitude is mi:ed to a coherent carrier signal and the result then passes across a
lo( pass filter3 (hich supplies the desired demodulated signal
AG
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
AA
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
RES@$+'
AH
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
H.
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' /7 Date'
AE&ER#+*O& #&D DEMOD@$#+*O& O, SS! S*A&#$
#*M'
AE&ER#+*O& O, SS! S*A&#$
H1
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
+BEOR)'
2n respect to the amplitude modulation the single side band presents the follo(ing
ad/antages:
$he band of the modulated signal is reduced to half $his means that3 in the same range
of fre6uencies3 there can be a double number of communication channels
All po(er emitter b% the transmitter is to the information to be transmitted3 different from
the A& in (hich most po(er is associated to the carrier
$he most e/ident ad/antages of the 11B as compared to A& are mentioned belo(:
7igher circuit comple:it% in the modulator as (ell as in the demodulator
Need to locall% generate the carrier in the recei/er to detect the modulated signal
correctl%
A''L2CA$2CN1 C< $7E 11B:
!adio transmission
&ulti+channel telephone transmission (ith the techni6ue of <D&
7igh+speed data transmission 4modem -3,)-3E)-3G5
H2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
H3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
SS! AE&ER#+*O& !) ,*$+ER*&A'
$he purpose of the methods used for the generation of an 11B 1ignal to suppress the carrier and
one side band $he most used method is the filtering3 (hich is actuated in t(o conse6uent phases
1 An amplitude modulation (ith suppressed carrier is generated3 also 0no(n as double side
band 4D1B5
2 A band pass filter e:tracts one of the t(o side bands
$he most common modulators are the balanced modulators and the ring modulators $he filters
used for the separation of one side band must present a high steepness of the attenuation cur/e
bet(een the pass band and the attenuated band Yuart83 ceramic3 acti/e or passi/e L+C filters are
used as function of the operating fre6uencies
SS! S*A&#$ DEMOD@$#+*O&'
$he 11B signal demodulation re6uires the presence of the carrier3 (hich must be locall%
generated in the recei/er
$o obtain the modulating signal from the modulated signal3 multipl% the modulated signal and the
locall% generated carrier <ilter out the result to e:tract the modulating signal $he circuit carr%ing
out the multiplication of the t(o signals can be the same used to generate the modulation (ith
suppress carrier in transmission ?hen used as demodulator the circuit is commonl% called
product detector
DEMOD@$#+*O& O, SS! S*A&#$'
H#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
RES@$+'
H,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
HE
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
HG
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' /7 Date'
S+@D) O, .B#SE MOD@$#+ED S*A&#$
#*M'
HA
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
.B#SE DEMOD@$#+*O&
HH
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1..
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1.1
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
+heor%'
2t is the t%pe of modulation in (hich the phase of the high fre6uenc% sine (a/e 4Carrier5
is /aried in accordance (ith the instantaneous /alue of the modulating signal
'hase modulator is an amplifier (ith resonant load3 (hose resonance fre6uenc% is /aried3 (ith
the /aricap diode3 b% the modulating signal 2f the circuit is tuned to the input fre6uenc%3 the
output signal results in phase (ith the input one Cn the contrar% the signal sho(s lag or lead B%
/ar%ing the resonance fre6uenc% of the circuit %ou can introduce a shift bet(een one fi:ed input
signal 4carrier5 and the output signal 4phase modulated signal5 $he ma:imum phase shift SN3
(hich can be obtained (ith a phase modulator3 is /er% lo(4fraction of radiance53 to increase it the
modulated signal can be fre6uenc% multiplied $he phase shift results e6ual to N times the
starting de/iation
SNN @ N i SN
RES@$+'
1.2
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1.3
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
1.#
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
E>periment' /8 Date'
Simulation of #M9 ,M using M#+$#! Software
&A$LAB
j
is a high+le/el language and interacti/e en/ironment for numerical
computation3 /isuali8ation3 and programming ;sing &A$LAB3 %ou can anal%8e data3
de/elop algorithms3 and create models and applications $he language3 tools3 and built+in
math functions enable %ou to e:plore multiple approaches and reach a solution faster than
(ith spreadsheets or traditional programming languages3 such as C)C** or `a/a
k

"ou can use &A$LAB for a range of applications3 including signal processing and
communications3 image and /ideo processing3 control s%stems3 test and measurement3
computational finance3 and computational biolog% &ore than a million engineers and
scientists in industr% and academia use &A$LAB3 the language of technical computing
&A$LAB is a proprietar% product of &ath?or0s3 so users are subFect to /endor loc0+in
J3KJ32K
Although &A$LAB Builder products can deplo% &A$LAB functions as librar% files
(hich can be used (ith NE$
J33K
or `a/a
J3#K
application building en/ironment3 future
de/elopment (ill still be tied to the &A$LAB language
Each toolbo: is purchased separatel% 2f an e/aluation license is re6uested3 the
&ath?or0s sales department re6uires detailed information about the proFect for (hich
&A$LAB is to be e/aluated 2f granted 4(hich it often is53 the e/aluation license is /alid
for t(o to four (ee0s A student /ersion of &A$LAB is also a/ailable
1.,
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
%Amplitude Modulation
fc=10000;
fs=1000000;
f=1000;
m=0.5;
a=1/m;
opt=-a;
t=0:1/fs(2/f)-(1/fs));
x=cos(2pift);
!1=modulate(x"fc"fs"#amds$-tc#"opt);
fi%u&e(1);
plot(!1);
title(#unde& modulated 'a(e#);

m=1;
opt=-1/m;
t=0:1/fs:0.001;
!2=modulate(x"fc"fs"#amds$-tc#"opt);
fi%u&e(2);
plot(!2);
title(#c&itical modulated 'a(e#);

m=1.2;
opt=-1/m;
t=0:1/fs:0.001;
!)=modulate(x"fc"fs"#amds$-tc#"opt);
fi%u&e());
plot(!));
title(#o(e& modulated 'a(e#);
1.E
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
*utput +a(efo&ms:
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
under modulated wave
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
critical modulated wave
1.G
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
0 500 1000 1500 2000
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
over modulated wave
1.A
K.Sridhar Raju www.engglabs.blogspot.com
%f&e,uenc! Modulation
fc=500;
fm=200;
-f=)0;
fs=.00;
dt=1/fs;
t=0:0.00005:0.02;
ms%=cos(2pifmt);
/M=2cos(2pifct02pi-fcumsum(ms%)dt);
su$plot(2"1"1);
plot(t"ms%);
su$plot(2"1"2);
plot(t"/M);
title(#f&e,uenc! modulation#);
Message and Modulated :aeforms
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
-2
-1
0
1
2
frequency modulation
1.H