Middlesex University, London

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BIS 4425


Regulation of Electronic Commerce
and Information Technology

The Internet Technology and Governance
(Unit 2)

2013-14

Dr Carlisle George
Principal Lecturer & Barrister
Middlesex University, London (UK)
[email protected]
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Learning Outcomes
! Discuss the history of the Internet
! Discuss how the modern Internet functions
! Briefly explain the basic concepts of Internet
technology and how it works
! Describe the Domain Name System (DNS)
! Discuss the concept of net neutrality
! Describe the concept of Internet Governance
! Describe the nature and functions of Internet
standards-setting bodies.
! Describe Internet registration bodies
The Internet
! Inter + net
" Inter (Latin for between) + Net (short for Network)
" A system that connects together many individual
computer networks. Network of networks
" Allows transfer of digital data or bits across networks
! Original idea traced to MIT psychologists J.C.R
Licklider. Developed with Wes Clark.
" Licklider was interested in using wires to tie expensive
mainframe computers together
" He published papers in 1960 and 1962 on his ideas.
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Brief history of the Internet- 1
! Oct 1957 Soviet Union launched first man-made
object into space.
" Caused shock/surprise to US military & scientific community
" US vowed never to be taken by surprise again
" Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) created - tied
to Office of US President, funded by US Dept of Defense.
" One problem: How to share computer resources efficiently.
" Part of answer: have a network of machines.
" Oct 1962 - (ARPA) appointed Licklider Project Director of
ARPAs Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO)
" Licklider with colleagues developed ARPANET (Advanced
Research Agency Network)
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Brief history of the Internet- 2
! ARPANET used packet switching technology instead of
circuit switching technology to transmit messages.
! Packet switching
" Messages broken up into small packets before they are sent.
" Each packet is transmitted individually across the network
" Packets may follow different routes to the destination
" At destination, packets reassembled into original message.
! Circuit switching
" Dedicated channel established for duration of transmission
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Brief history of the Internet- 3
! ARPANET employed an interface message
processor (IMP) to enable a host computer to talk
to the ARPANET network
! 29
th
Oct 1969 Successful login at Stanford
Research Institute from a host computer at
University of California Los Angeles (UCLA).
! Note ARPANET was a closed SINGLE network,
dissimilar to modern Internet (network of networks)
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Brief history of the Internet- 4
! After ARPANET another network (using wireless
technology) called ALOHANET was built at the Univ.
of Hawaii.
" Range of ALOHANET limited, open to attack (if large
transmitters were built)
! An alternative to ALOHANET was to use satellites for
transmissions (especially intl transmissions)
" SATNET (satellite network) was later developed
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Brief history of the Internet- 5
! With ARPANET, ALOHANET and SATNET interest
grew in how to link them. Network of networks
needed.
! International Working Group formed in 1972, with
Vince Cerf (Prof at Stanford University) as its chair.
! 1972 Bob Khan (who had worked on the ARPANETs
IMPs) was invited to join ARPAs IPTO to work on
the Internetting Project.
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Brief history of the Internet- 6
! Problem: how to connect together all independent
networks? Solution - Open Architecture Networking

! Open Architecture Networking
" Each individual network retains its unique network
architecture, while connections between networks take place
at a higher Internetworking Architecture Layer.
" Individual networks can be separately designed/developed.
" Any type of network included. Any geographic scope
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Internetwork Open Layer
ARPANET ALOHANET SATNET
Brief history of the Internet- 7
! Problem How to enable each host on the network
(of networks) to talk to each other.
" Network Control Protocol (NCP)/rules developed - Bob Khan
" Protocol = an algorithm (set of rules) for recognising and
dealing with a piece of information.
" Transmission Protocol (TCP) developed to box up
information and address it Vince Cerf & Bob Khan (1973)
" TCP slow rate of internet growth. TCP developed further.
! January 1978 TCP split up into a dual protocol
called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
or TCP/IP
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How the modern Internet
functions
! Modern Internet uses (TCP/IP) protocol
! TCP: Controls exchange of packets between hosts
" Breaks the data into packets ready for transmission and
recombines them on the receiving end.
" Mechanism for checking whether packet has arrived
" Checks packet has not been corrupted in transit
" Checks for re-sending if transmission fails
! IP: Sets rules for determining what the receiving host should
do with the packet
" Defines the addressing system, numbering of packets
" Handles the addressing and routing of the data and makes sure it
gets sent to the proper destination
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How TCP/IP works
! Example: Carl & Jackie are on the Internet
" Each of their computers have a unique network address
" Carl sends a message to Jackie: Meet Me for Lunch.
! TCP splits messages into packets and numbers them
" [Meet]
1
[Me]
2
[for]
3
[Lunch]
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! Each package placed into a digital enveloped & passed to the IP
protocol.
! IP would address the envelopes with Jackies address before
sending them out across the network.
! The network carries the envelopes to their destination
! On arrival TCP opens the envelopes, checks all packets have been
delivered safely, then reassembles message.
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Middlesex University, London
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IPv4
! Since 1981 TCP/IP was built on version 4 of the Internet
Protocol (IPv4). It has limitations.
! It uses 32 bits for the IP address hence has small address
space. Example IP Address: 158.94.0.11
! Total number of unique addresses possible is 2
32
=
4294967296, i.e. approx 4.4 billion

! Need for a larger address space to expand the internet hence
development of version 6 of the Internet Protocol (IPv6) began.
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IPv6
! Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) sometimes referred to as
IP Next Generation or Ipng will take over IPv4.
! IPv6 uses 128 bits rather than 32 bits allowing 2
128
unique
host interface addresses = 340 undecillion.
! if the earth were made entirely out of 1 cubic millimetre
grains of sand, then you could give a unique [IPv6] address
to each grain in 300 million planets the size of the earth
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address
! In the future every device (your car, fridge, stove etc) can
have its own IP address and hence be joined to a network.
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IPv6 - some improvements
! Larger Address Space
! Better Management of Address Space - more capable way of
dividing the address space + using the bits in each address.
! Easier TCP/IP Administration
! Modern Design For Routing - enables efficient routing.
! Better Support For Multicasting
! Better Support For Security
! Better Support For Mobility - builds on Mobile IP and provides
mobility support within IP itself.
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Internet characteristics
! It is not an entity but a communications infrastructure
! It is a network of networks all internetworking with each other
by passing data packets
! The internet expands and contracts as connections are made
and broken. No fixed infrastructure flexible
! No central regulatory authority
! Owned by no one
! Services: WWW, FTP, email, Usenet
! Transports digital information from one computer to another.
! Meaning of information irrelevant to its transport
! Meaning determined by software receiving information
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What is the Internet - 2?
Host
Host
Host
Host Host
User
User
User
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What is the Internet - 3?
Connectivity
regional ISP
NAP NAP
NSP
NSP
regional ISP
local ISP
local ISP
Large Network Service Providers (NSPs)
Also called National/International
Backbone providers (NBPs)
(e.g. AT&T, IBM)

NSPs interconnect privately
or at Network Access Points
(NAPs)

Local Internet Service
Providers (ISPs) connect
to regional ISPs
User
Middlesex University, London
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- Large network called Network Service Providers or NSPs
- Each NSP is required to connect to 3 Network Access Points or NAPs
- NSPs also interconnect at Metropolitan Area Exchanges or MAEs.
- MAEs serve the same purpose as the NAPs but are privately owned
Internet Infrastructure - 1
http://www.theshulers.com/whitepapers/internet_whitepaper/index.html
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Internet Infrastructure - 2
http://www.theshulers.com/whitepapers/internet_whitepaper/index.html
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Internet Communication
Client/server technology
! Communication is via client/server technology using
TCP/IP Protocols
! One communicating party runs client software, which
requests information, and the other runs server software
which meets that request.
! E.g. Viewing a Web page. Enter URL of page in browser
(client software). Web server containing page responds
to request by sending packets to browser software, which
reassembles them and displays page
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The Domain Name System - 1
! Server addresses are identified to humans by domain
names.
! Domain names - alphanumeric form (e.g. mdx.ac.uk)
! Computer known as a Domain Name Server (DNS)
matches the domain name (mdx.ac.uk) to the
numerical IP address (158.94.0.118)

! Not possible to allocate two servers the same IP
address or two IP addresses the same domain name
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The Domain Name System - 2
Some issues

! Scarcity of internet resource - only one - smith.co.uk
" technical, semantic, economic, origin uniqueness

! Legal mechanism for allocating resources and solving
disputes necessary
" (Discussed in a later lecture)
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The Domain Name System - 3

Some characteristics of Domain names

! Memorable, e.g. www.mdx.ac.uk instead of
158.94.0.118

! Semantic association with operator of server, e.g. mdx
! May be similar to registered trade marks or unregistered
trading names. E.g. cnn.com, bbc.co.uk
! May contain trade marks.
! These additional purposes give rise to legal disputes
Middlesex University, London
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The Domain Name System - 4
! Domain names sllocated by a process of simple
registration with the appropriate registrar (e.g. UK-
Nominet, USA- InterNic) & fee
! www.nominet.org.uk
! First-come-first serve process held valid by courts
Pitman Training Ltd v Nominet UK[1997]
FSR 797
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The Domain Name System - 5
! Domain name system (DNS) serves the central
function of facilitating users ability to navigate the
internet
! The DNS is administered by IANA. Operates on
hierarchy of names. Generic top level domains
(gTLDs) and country code top-level domains
(ccTLDs). Countries can have second level domains
(SLDs)
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The Domain Name System 6
(gTLDS)
1980s Several Generic Top Level Domains - (gTLDs)
! Some open (no restrictions) .com, .net & .org
! Some restricted
.int - only for international organisations
.edu - only for 4 year, degree granting colleges/Uni.
.gov - only for government
.mil - only for military of the USA

! 2000: biz, .info, .name, .pro, .aero, .coop, and .museum
! 2011: further expansion of gTLDs Any domain
name suggested by applicants including different
languages/characters, comprising numbers, brand names etc
" Examples: .law, .money, .science, .university, .apple, .mit, .bbc 28
The Domain Name System 7
(ccTDLs)
! There are about 249+ country code top-level domains
ccTDLs
! Each domain bears a two letter country code derived
from Standard 3166 of Intl Standardization
Organization (ISO 3166).
! E.g. .uk (United Kingdom), .ca (Canada),
.jp (Japan), .af (Afghanistan)
.eu (Europe)
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The Domain Name System 8
(SLDs)
! The UK TLD is separated into sub categories
called second level Domains (SLDs)
! examples
.co.uk - commercial purposes
.org.uk - non commercial organisations
.plc.uk - companies
.me.uk - personal for anyone

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Domain Name Service Hierarchy
http://www.theshulers.com/whitepapers/internet_whitepaper/index.html
- The Domain Name Service is structured as a hierarchy.
- The computer requesting a name resolution will be re-directed 'up' the
hierarchy until a DNS server is found that can resolve the domain requested
Middlesex University, London
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Net Neutrality
! The principle that data packets on the internet should
move impartially without regard to content,
destination or source. (Murray, 2010)
! Issue How much should ISPs be allowed to actively
manage the bandwidth of certain websites based on type
of content provided?
! Any controls will create a tiered system and affect ability
of users to access and download data from a particular
website.

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Advocates of Net Neutrality
Includes: Consumer groups, content providers, Internet founders

! The internet should be a free an open technology.
! Internet plurality everyone has the right to free, open access
! Preserves fundamental internet standards
! Preserves end to end principle of the Internet
! A tiered system will favour large, well-established content
providers who can afford to pay a premium.
! Tiered system will lead to Premium service vs degraded service
! Preferential treatment of certain internet traffic will affect
competition and innovation (esp. new entrants).
! Discrimination against certain applications or data types.
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Opponents of Net Neutrality
Includes: Many ISPs, Telecoms companies, network operators

! Rise of Internet traffic puts burden on infrastructure hence best
to control data rates for different types of content
! Allow allocation of bandwidth for more urgent applications
! Have a tiered system that would prioritise certain types of
traffic for those able to pay.
! Revenue gained by premium payers can be used to invest in
better networks and improve bandwidth
! Make more efficient use of the network (a limited resource)
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Net Neutrality National Laws
! In June 2010 Chile was the 1st country to enshrine
the net neutrality concept into national law.
! In June 2011 the Netherlands was the 2nd country.
" The Dutch Parliament passed a law stopping mobile
operators from blocking or charging extra for voice calling
done via the net
! Many other countries are debating laws to preserve
net neutrality.
! No national legislation in the UK.
! Japan Net neturality in common carrier.
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Net Neutrality EU position
! In April 2011 the European commission decided
against introducing legislation to protect net neutrality.
! The Commission noted that media scrutiny and giving
consumers enough information about their internet
service provider will be sufficient to protect an "open
and neutral" internet.
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Net Neutrality - USA
! Dec 21, 2010, USA Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) approved new rules
" cable television and telephone service providers banned
from preventing access to competitors or certain web sites
such as Netflix.
! Sept 2011 new USA Federal Communications
Commission rules - Preserving a Free and Open
Internet.
" ISPs must have transparency of network management
practices, not block lawful content, nor unreasonably
discriminate in transmitting lawful network traffic
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Internet Governance
(Definition, WGIG, 2005)
! ..the development and application by
Governments, the private sector and civil society, in
their respective roles, of shared principles, norms,
rules, decision-making procedures, and
programmes that shape the evolution and use of
the Internet.

! Report of the Working Group on Internet Governance, Chteau de Bossey June
2005 (page 4). http://www.wgig.org/docs/WGIGREPORT.pdf

! (WGIG, 05)
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Public policy areas that are relevant
to Internet governance (WGIG, 05, page 5)
Issues relating to four key public policy areas:

! (1) Infrastructure & management of critical Internet resources
e.g. Admin of domain name server & IP addresses.
! (2) The use of the Internet e.g. spam, network security,
cybercrime.
! (3) Relates to use of Internet but have an impact much wider
than the Internet, e.g. intellectual property rights or intl trade.

! (4) The developmental aspects of Internet governance, e.g.
capacity-building in developing countries. 38
Governance issues of
highest priority - (WGIG, 05)
! Administration of the root zone files & system
! Interconnection costs
! Internet stability, security and cybercrime, spam
! Meaningful participation in global policy development
! Capacity-building
! Allocation of domain names
! IP addressing
! Intellectual Property Rights
! Freedom of expression
! Data protection and privacy rights
! Consumer rights
! Multilingualism

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Internet standards-setting
organisations/bodies
! Protocols, and the parameters required to use
networks, are essential in order to operate on the
Internet
! A number of bodies have become responsible for
those protocol standards and parameters.
" Internet Society (ISOC)
" Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
" The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
" Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)
" Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
" Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG)
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Some Standards Bodies - 1

Internet Society (ISOC)
! Facilitates open development of standards, protocols,
administration and the technical infrastructure of the
Internet
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
! ISOC mandates the IAB to oversee the architecture of the
Internet, including its protocols and other standards.
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Some Standards Bodies - 2
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
! It operates as an activity of ISOC and is responsible to it.
! Concerns itself with the engineering & architecture of Internet.
! Principal body that develops, tests and implements new
Internet technological standards, including protocols.

Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)
! The management group of the IETF.
! Vets and approves IETF standards, and generally manages the
standards process according to the policies and procedures
ratified by the ISOC Trustees.
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) & Steering Group (IRSG)
! Focuses on research
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Internet Registration Authorities
(ICANN)
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names & Numbers
(ICANN)
! Coordinating the assignment of Internet technical parameters
as needed to maintain universal connectivity on the Internet;
! Performing and overseeing functions related to the
coordination of the Internet Protocol ("IP") address space;
! Performing and overseeing functions related to the
coordination of the Internet domain name system ("DNS"),
" including the development of policies for determining the
circumstances under which new top-level domains are
added to the DNS root system;
! Overseeing operation of the authoritative Internet DNS root
server system;
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Some Registration Authorities
(IANA)
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
! Subsidiary organization of ICANN
! Oversees IP address allocation
! Manages the DNS (this includes root server system
oversight and top-level domain delegation)
! Coordinates protocol parameter assignment.
! All Internet domain names and IP addresses are
allocated from IANA, either directly or indirectly
ICANN management - 1
! Sept 2009 - A new agreement between ICANN and the
U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC)

" Called The Affirmation of Commitments
" US Government released control over ICANN
" Gave greater independence for ICANN,
" Gave more countries oversight of ICANN (multi-national model)
" The DOC involved in ICANN's Governmental Advisory
Committee
" Mandated Reviews of ICANN's performance every 3 years,
by an Accountability and Transparency Review Team.
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ICANN management - 2
! Some critics question
" The independence of new review teams overseeing ICANN.
" Whether the new agreement represents average Internet
users.
# ICANN's chairman or CEO and the chairman of ICANN's Governmental Affairs
Committee (GAC), selected by all the nations involved with ICANN, would
have the final say on the makeup of review teams.
# The review panels are not external to ICANN but made up of ICANN allies.

! Another criticism of the new agreement is that it was
negotiated between ICANN and DOC in secret
! Gross, G (2009). New ICANN Agreement Runs Into Criticism
! http://www.pcworld.com/article/172986/new_icann_agreement_runs_into_criticism.html 47
References
! The TCP/IP Guide. http://www.tcpipguide.com
! How Does the Internet Work?
http://www.theshulers.com/whitepapers/internet_whitepaper/index.html
! Q&A: The network neutrality debate
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-10924691
! EU decides against stricter net neutrality rules
http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2011/apr/19/eu-
internet-neutrality-legislation
! Netherlands makes net neutrality a law
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-13886440
! Murray, A (2010), Information Technology Law, Chap 2, pp 16-34.
! Report of the Working Group on Internet Governance, June 2005
http://www.wgig.org/docs/WGIGREPORT.pdf
! A Concise Guide to the Major Internet Bodies:
http://www.acm.org/ubiquity/views/pf/v6i5_simonelis.pdf 48