1

AbstractThe current distribution networks are going to be

challenged by new developments on the side of generation and
simultaneously also on the side of consumption. Therefore this
paper provides an overview of LV network design aspects with
emphasis on the implications of the future challenges on LV
networks. The attention is especially given to the future aspect of
the network design, substation automation, protection and
mitigation of the issues accompanying distributed generation.
The current operational and power quality measurements
undertaken in LV distribution networks are presented as well as
new additional measurements. The need to increase flexibility
and assets utilization of LV networks is discussed together with
the technical means enabling them. The outcomes related to the
future LV network design are presented in conclusions.

Index TermsPower distribution, Power system planning,
Substation automation, Smart grids
I. INTRODUCTION
OR a long time, the production, distribution and
consumption of electrical energy has been organized in the
same manner; electricity has been generated mainly in large
central power plants and those power plants were coupled by a
transmission network, which transports the generated
electricity at a high voltage level across the country. At
different substations, the power is brought to a lower voltage
level. From these substations, the power is then distributed at a
medium voltage (MV) level and subsequently at low voltage
(LV) level suitable for the end users.
The electricity networks have been designed to move
electricity from large power plants, generating electricity
mostly from fossil fuels, to end users. Mostly due to the
environmental goals and due to the concerns about the security
of supply, alternative energy sources are being introduced (i.e.
renewables). As a result of this development, an increasing
penetration of small-scale distributed generators (DG)
connected directly at the distribution level is envisioned in the
future. DGs will alter the power flows in the network and will
require more attention and different operational strategies

Petr Kadurek is a PhD candidate in the Electrical Energy Systems (EES)
group of the Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands,
(corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]).
J. F. G. Cobben is currently working at Alliander, one of the Dutch
distribution network operators and as a part-time professor at the EES group
of the Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, (e-mail:
[email protected]).
W. L. Kling is currently a full time professor and the chairman of the EES
group of the Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands, (e-mail:
[email protected]).
from the network operator [1].
Several challenges lay ahead for Distribution System
Operators (DSOs) in the future, on the one hand they will have
to accommodate the increasing penetration of DG among the
distribution network. And on the other hand, they will have to
provide sufficient connection capacity for increase in
customers loading, especially for envisaged transitions
towards electro mobility and electrical heating (i.e. heat
pumps) [2]. The primary task of the DSO is to guarantee
economic, safe, reliable and efficient energy distribution to
end users. Therefore, they have to install new networks,
maintain network assets and monitor them. The scope of the
DSO operation is restricted due to the unbundling of
electricity utilities and current legal framework. However, this
legal framework also inhibits DSOs in deploying some
applications, which can help to improve network operation
(inter alia application of energy storage). The execution of
DSOs operational tasks will be more complicated in future.
The network operators will have to investigate how the safety,
reliability and efficiency of the electricity supply can be
warranted under the changing circumstances, how to provide
sufficient connection capacity to the customers with adequate
quality of supply and how can the transition towards Smart
Grids be achieved [3].
The development towards the future distribution network
will bring the extension of functionality of components like
electricity meters and distribution substations, which will be
enhanced with measurements and communication
possibilities. The monitoring of distribution networks will be
crucial in the future to precisely evaluate the current state of
the distribution network as well as to enable their higher
utilization and to timely plan reinforcements or maintenance
of them.
A. Main contribution
This paper addresses the operational and quality of supply
aspects of the future LV distribution networks. With regard to
those aspects, the appropriate measurements in the LV
networks are proposed to enable reliable and flexible
operation of LV networks in the future. The placement of the
measuring devices among the distribution and their sampling
frequency are discussed. The main functionalities,
responsibilities of DSO and the overview of current LV
network design are described in section II. The developments
and future challenges related to the LV distribution networks
are presented in section III and the implications for the
operation and power quality of future LV networks are
Future LV distribution network design and
current practices in the Netherlands
P. Kadurek, Student Member, IEEE, J. F. G. Cobben, W. L. Kling, Member, IEEE
F
2
assessed in section IV. The design and experiences with future
substation design in the Netherlands are presented in section
V. The recommendations and conclusions are presented in
section VI.
II. CURRENT LV NETWORKS
A. Functionality of LV networks and DSOs responsibility
In the past, the large electricity companies in Europe were
vertically integrated, mostly covering the distribution,
generation and supply under one holding. The European
Parliament and Council put into force the directive related to
unbundling of electricity companies in European Union in
2003 and a replacing directive in 2009 [4]. In the Netherlands,
the vertically integrated structure of the electricity companies
has been also divided. The distribution network companies
have completely separated their activities from the vertically
integrated holdings (ownership unbundling in the
Netherlands), with the aim to enhance competition, guarantee
access to new market entrants and improve transparency [5].
In this legal framework, the DSO has defined competences,
especially to be responsible for operation, maintenance and
development of the distribution networks to ensure the long
term ability of them to meet reasonable electricity demands
and facilitate distributed production. For those tasks, DSO
should take into account the economic conditions, security,
reliability, environmental aspects and energy efficiency of
electricity distribution [5], [6].
B. Network topology
The majority of the distribution networks have been
designed decades ago to meet the customer needs at that time
and to provide reliable connection to end users. The networks
have been designed for predicable loads of the customers
connected and for a relative small annual load increase (2 %)
over the planned life time (40 years). Simultaneously, the
network design has been based on low load factor (0.1), where
the load factor is the ratio of average peak load to maximal
peak load for all consumers connected.
The generic MV (10 kV) and LV (0.4 kV) networks in the
Netherlands are entirely underground cable network mostly
radially operated. The typical MV/LV substation (usually with
400 kVA MV/LV transformer) is supplying 200 - 240 LV
customers on average (single phase or 3 phase connections
equally distributed). The LV customers are connected via
several outgoing feeders from the MV/LV substation up to
500 meters far away from the substation. The typical
distribution networks in the Netherlands have been planned as
an inevitable part of the urban planning of larger residential
areas. An example of LV network topology, taking into
account also the future presence of DGs, advanced metering
and monitoring infrastructure, is depicted in Fig. 1.
The LV residential customers have usually relatively high
rating of the main circuit breaker (typically 40 A single phase
connections, 25 A three phase connections). Together with the
low load factor, this enables LV customer high connection
flexibility to simultaneously draw high power from the LV
network without interruption at customers POC.

Fig. 1. Schematic topology of the future LV network in the Netherlands,
which will be in future integrated with DGs, advanced measurement (1,2) and
smart metering (3,4). The LV in the Netherlands is an entirely underground
cable network supplying about 240 LV customers on average, equally
distributed among three phases.
III. FUTURE CHALLENGES REGARDING LV NETWORKS
The current distribution networks have been designed to
effectively meet the predicted demands at that time, when they
were designed (see section II). This section discusses the most
important implications and future challenges for the future
distribution networks, considering the common aspects of the
networks in European Union and United States [7].
A. Changing role of the electricity customers
The passive role of the electricity customers is going to
change. Traditionally, the customers have been only passive
users of electricity, but in the future they are expected to
actively participate in the power systems. It is envisioned that
the customers are going to be actively involved in electricity
generation, demand response and grouped in means of virtual
power plant with high reliability [8]. Where the DSO will have
to enable the accommodation of the different customer
appliances and mitigate the local restrictions to fully access
their future potential [9].
The project like the Powermatching city in the
Netherlands investigates the customers participation on
electricity markets [10] or like in the case of Norway the
availability of residential demand response [11]. Especially
the demand response and customers response to the price
signals is envisioned to have significant impact on power
systems by reshaping the demand rather than the supply side
or participate when the system reliability is jeopardized in the
future [12], [13].
B. Distributed generation and challenges for the DSO
Thanks to the subsidies and feed-in schemes from the
governments, the customers are installing DG and
participating on electricity generation [14]. With the cost of
the DGs falling, the wide-spread of DGs is further envisioned
after reaching the competitive prices with electricity supplied
from the distribution network [15]. The customers will in
future also supply the electricity generated back to the
distribution network. The large numbers of small-scale DGs
will be connected to the distribution network without
commissioning procedure. However, the DSO will have to
3
still accommodate the increasing penetration of DGs and
provide electricity connection with certain power quality in
accordance to the standard of supplied voltage [16]. The issues
accompanying the implementation of DG among the LV
network are becoming real challenges for DSOs (for instance
voltage rise [17]). Those issues will be further emphasized
with increasing penetration of electric vehicles or heat pumps
simultaneously operating with those DG, which can lead even
to a deterioration of network components [18].
C. Increasing demand
The electricity consumption is predicted to increase in the
future, the forecast increase for European Union (EU 27) is
1.5 % annually and about 1 % for US [12], [19]. In the
Netherlands, the transmission network operator estimates the
scenario with an anticipated increase up to 3 % by the year
2030 [20]. The switch towards electro-mobility with electric
vehicles (EV) can further significantly increase the load in the
distribution networks.
D. Measuring infrastructure
The design approach of the future distribution networks will
have to change; the lack of monitoring in distribution network
can create barriers for implementation of network supervision
and automation. Therefore, the advanced measuring and
metering infrastructure should take a common place among
the distribution networks in the future. The monitoring
infrastructure should enable more accurate estimation of the
current state of those networks, i.e. advanced data analysis
[21], [22], power quality analysis [23], and fraud
detection [24].
IV. OPERATIONAL AND POWER QUALITY ASPECTS OF FUTURE
LV NETWORKS
Until recently, only few monitoring and active devices
existed in the electric distribution system. Network monitoring
has been conducted on random basis or as follow up to
complaints of the customers [25]. This passive approach for
LV networks was acceptable because the whole distribution
system was relatively static. However, this is not going to be
acceptable any more in the future, as discussed in previous
sections.
Based on the challenges presented in section III, the
implications for the operational and power quality aspects of
future LV networks are presented in this section.
A. Advanced and overloading protection schemes
The current protection scheme of the LV networks is based
on the presumption of unidirectional power flows in the
networks. The genuine protection scheme applies the
protection at the customers point of connection (POC), at the
substation to protect the main feeders and to protect the
MV/LV transformer to guarantee protection selectivity. At
each POC, single- phase customers are protected by a circuit
breaker or fuse, usually with rated current of 40 A
(there-phase customers with 25 A per phase). The customers
are connected to the main feeder, which is protected in the
MV/LV substation (200 - 250 A fuses per phase) and the
secondary side of MV/LV transformer is protected by the
circuit breaker or fuses in accordance to the transformer size.
However, the presence of DGs and the increasing loading
will make the power flows in LV network more complex and
the current protection scheme wont be suitable to protect the
network assets any more (inter alia with high penetration of
DG and simultaneous high loading like charging of EVs). This
situation is schematically demonstrated in Fig. 2, where the
overloading of network component is depicted.

Fig. 2. The schematic model of a generic LV network and overloaded
network element. The protection devices for each feeder at the LV side of
MV/LV substation, DG and loads among one feeder are depicted.

The overloading of the network components (and even
deterioration) can occur without tripping of the protection
devices at POCs or in the MV/LV substation. In addition, the
overloading can occur even without violating the voltage level
for customers supplied. Additional measures have to be taken
to adequately protect network assets and to avoid
interruptions. Therefore, additional protection should be
applied, utilizing distributed power flow estimation and
measurements from smart meters, to evaluate each part of the
network separately for overloading. The local processing of
the data and network modeling can assist to tackle the
overloading issues in the future LV networks, as presented
in [18].
B. Voltage level control
The current LV networks are supplied by MV/LV
transformer with off-lad tap changer, to adjust the voltage for
the supplied LV network and to offset the voltage drop in MV
network. The tap changer can be adjusted offline during the
installation or after topology changes in the MV network.
However, due to the presence of DGs, the voltage conditions
is going to vary more during the normal network operation.
The voltage variations due to DGs will be present in both MV
and LV networks.
The smart transformer is a MV/LV transformer equipped
with a power electronic tap changer, which is capable of
adjusting the secondary voltage on-line [26]. The capabilities
offered by smart transformer can be utilized in future
distribution networks in several ways; to mitigate the MV
voltage fluctuations [27] or to mitigate the voltage level
problems due to increasing penetration of DGs in the LV
network [28]. With the smart transformer, the voltage at the
LV side is no longer directly linked to the loading in the
network or to the voltage in the MV network and thus new
4
control and accommodation options are available in the
networks also on the LV level.
The advantages of the smart transformer are presented in a
case study [28], where the impact on the genuine LV network
in the Netherlands is investigated. The smart transformer can
mitigate the voltage level problems in the LV network and
significantly increase the amount of DGs accommodated
among LV network. The worst case scenario, as a scenario
featuring a high DG penetration with net generation up to the
transformer rating and with DGs (in this case intermittent
photovoltaic generators) connected only to 3 out of 4 LV
feeders, is presented and evaluated in [28]. The voltage level
profiles for all LV customers connected are depicted as box
plots for the situation with traditional transformer and with
smart transformer, see Fig. 3. The central marks of the boxes
are the median values, the edges of the boxes are the 25
th
and
75
th
percentiles and the outliers are plotted individually. In
accordance to the standard for the supply voltage EN50160,
the voltage limits (U
n
10 %) are plotted in figure as vertical
dashed lines.

Fig. 3. The voltage level profiles for all customers connected in the LV
network accommodating significant amount of DGs. Two cases are displayed;
with smart transformer (ST) and without ST.
C. Fault localization
The fault protection scheme in LV networks should react
fast and selectively disconnect only the smallest possible
number of customers connected. The majority of faults in LV
networks are due to excavation works, but faults can originate
also spontaneously due to the cable aging. LV networks in the
Netherlands are mostly radially operated networks. When the
fault occurs in the LV network, the whole feeder will be
disconnected in the substation and all customers connected to
this feeder will experience interruption. In radial networks
with no opportunity for network reconfigurations, the
customers will be disconnected until the fault will be repaired.
In current networks, the repair crew is dispatched after the
interruption is reported by a customer. However, the fault
localization can be complicated when the fault occurs
spontaneously without visual signs, which usually assist the
repair crew to easily identify the fault location.
Therefore, one of the important aspects for future LV
networks will be the speed of fault location. The fast fault
location can significantly reduce the interruption time for the
customers supplied. Better fault localization will be available
for the future LV networks, where the fault current can be
noticed with measurements conducted in the MV/LV
substation or can be localized utilizing the measurements from
smart metering infrastructure. The smart metering
infrastructure has to provide frequent information, which
availability can assist the DSO in observation of the fault in
the LV network. In the Netherlands this function is defined in
the standard for smart metering, which requires 15 minutes
measurements [29].
However, smart meters measure also the instantaneous
values which can be used for more effective fault localization.
The smart meters should send the voltage measurements from
the time of the fault, to enable a more accurate and quick fault
location. The smart meters are connected as three-phase
meters also for single-phase customers. Therefore, even if the
power line communication is used, not faulted phases can be
utilized for data transfer to the data aggregator.
The fault localization utilizing smart meter measurements
is presented here. In a typical LV network topology, a fault in
a feeder with 40 single-phase customers has been investigated.
The customers are equally distributed over three phases, where
each third POC is connected to the same phase. A single phase
fault was simulated in the main feeder near POC 20. The fault
occurs at t = 2 s and is switched off in the distribution
substation at t = 2,06 s. The r.m.s. voltages at all POCs on the
faulted phase during the fault are depicted in Fig. 4.
1.99 2 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08
0
50
100
150
200
250
Time [s]
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]


POC 1
POC 4
POC 7
POC 10
POC 13
POC 16
POC 19
POC 22
POC 25
POC 28
POC 31
POC 34
POC 37
POC 40

Fig. 4. The voltage level profiles of customers (POCs) connected at the
faulted phase of the LV feeder during the time, when the fault occurs (t = 2 s).

The r.m.s. voltage profile for all POCS on the faulted phase
during the fault (t = 2,03 s) is depicted in Fig. 5.
From results depicted in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, the conclusion
can be derived about the fault location, which has taken place
between POC-19 and POC-22. This information will provide a
repair crew with a good approximation of fault location in the
network and will speed up the power restoration. In the
simulation, the fault was switched off after 0,06 s, but
currently in real situation, a fault may be disconnected faster if
the feeder is protected by fuses. Nevertheless, more (remotely
controlled) circuit breakers will be used to provide protection
of future LV feeders and those circuit breakers will be
operated at the speed as presented in this simulation.
One of the characteristics of the smart meters in future
should be also the possibility to measure and communicate the
voltage measurements during the faults enabling a quick fault
location and reduction of interruption times for the customers
connected.
5
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Point of connection
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]

Fig. 5. The voltage level of customers (POCs) connected at the faulted phase
of the LV feeder in the time of fault (t = 2.03 s).
D. Assets management
The basic presumption for LV distribution networks design
is reasonable and economical accommodation of LV
customers. The current LV networks design is based on
average electricity consumption per customers connected and
on well-predictable load increase over the designed network
life-time, which is about 40 years [30].
However, the distribution network design has to reflect the
future challenges which are going to influence the LV
distribution networks, as discussed in section III. The future
distribution networks will have to accommodate an increasing
loading of customers, which can significantly change and will
be less predictable. The main drivers increasing consumption
are going to be the shift to electro-mobility and electrical
heating (inter alia heat pumps). Currently, only the maximal
load is registered on the MV side of the MV/LV substation
and those reading are available only once a year on average.
Those measurements are too scarce to provide a good insight
into utilization of the distribution network assets. Therefore,
smart meters are considered as an important source of data for
evaluation of the future distribution networks, their utilization
and their operation [18]. The smart meters will be able to
provide accurate estimation of customers consumption
patterns, which will help to better predict customers behavior
and their load increase. This information can be further
utilized; in designing incentives for peak load reduction, in
energy storage placement, or by DSO to timely and
economically plan the network reinforcements.
Apart from the traditional assets management, a proactive
assets management can emerge and can be applied during the
network operation. The proactive asset management can
consider cost-effective aspects of distribution network
operation like minimization of the distribution network losses
(e.g. copper and transformer losses). In the Netherlands, the
energy covering the network losses had to be purchased by
DSO on the electricity market and thus it creates a direct
incentive for more active approach to loss reduction. The
precision and the availability of the customers load profiles
and the connection details (substation, feeder and phase
connection) can be updated by smart metering
infrastructure [31]. Based on those data, DSO can evaluate
the adequacy of the current connection to the distribution
network for each customer. The DSO can also evaluate the
possibility of phase swapping and the expected benefits
reducing the network losses (e.g. project of EDF), as presented
in [32].
Therefore a phase swapping switch should be considered as
a part of the future smart metering. Related to the reduction of
the network losses, the switching costs will be reduced and the
remote switching will enable better minimization of
distribution losses thanks to more proactive and frequent
phase swapping in a cost-effective way. The system presented
by EDF can be further enhanced and the objective of
distribution losses minimization can be achieved with
reduction of the overall operation costs, despite large number
of phase swapping operations [32]. In addition, smart meters
equipped with phase swapping switch can reduce the
interruption time experienced by customers. The single phase
interruptions are the most common in LV networks and the
customers, equipped with smart meter allowing phase
swapping, can be temporarily switched to other phase in
operation.
V. FUTURE DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION DESIGN
Related to the challenges for the future distribution
networks, as presented in previous sections, an advanced
substation design is needed. Therefore, a consortium of
industry and DSOs in the Netherlands has examined the
concept of Intelligent Distribution Substation (IDS) applied in
MV/LV distribution networks to investigate the benefits and
practical possibilities of improving power quality, substation
automation, monitoring and network capability to
accommodate increasing amounts of DGs [33].
The IDS utilizes the combination of advanced measurement
system, storage system and LV voltage level control. The
measuring system records power quality indices for each
feeder separately (incoming, outgoing and internal feeders) to
enable more precise evaluation of occurring disturbances. The
storage system is applied for peak load reduction and
simultaneously the storages inverter is used for mitigation of
harmonic distortion. The means of resistive harmonic damping
(virtual impedance) and passive harmonic damping are
implemented by in the inverter of the IDS [34].
The smart transformer is 10/0.4 kV transformer equipped
with power-electronic tap position on the primary allowing
online LV voltage level control. The smart transformer
decouples MV and LV voltage levels, mitigates the voltage
fluctuations and improves the voltage quality for supplied
customers [34], [35].
The IDS substation has been tested and is currently installed
as a part of the distribution network in the Netherlands to
investigate the possible benefits of flexible substation design
on distribution networks.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Distribution System Operators will have to provide an
adequate electricity connection capacity to all connected
entities, despite of all the complex settings which will
challenge the network operators in the future. As part of those
future developments, the measurements and the measures to
increase the flexibility of the LV network are presented in this
paper. The conclusions concerning distribution network
design, operational and power quality aspects are addressed.
At the MV/LV level, the IDS can be considered as a
6
milestone towards the future more intelligent and flexible
distribution networks, highlighting the need for more
automation and supervision in the distribution networks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research has been performed within the framework of
the IOP EMVT research program Intelligent Power Systems
that is supported financially by Agentschap NL. Agentschap
NL is an agency of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs.
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