Temperature sensors
Temperature sensors are devices used for measuring and monitoring the temperature at a particular
point in the system. These produce signals that allow the controller to measure the error and transmit a
signal to a control device or trigger an alarm as per the requirement.
Basic Types of Temperature Sensors
There are two main types of temperature sensors:
Contact Type
These types of temperature sensor are required to be in physical contact with the object being sensed
and use conduction to monitor changes in temperature. They can be used to detect solids, liquids or
gases over a wide range of temperatures. Following are contact type sensors:
Thermocouples
RTD and Thermistors
Non-Contact Type
These types of temperature sensor use convection and radiation to monitor changes in temperature.
They can be used to detect liquids and gases that emit radiant energy as heat rises and cold settles to
the bottom in convection currents or detect the radiant energy being transmitted from an object in the
form of infra-red radiation (the sun). Types include:
Radiation Thermometers (Infrared )
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Thermocouple
Working
The thermocouple is made up of two strips of two different
metals (such as iron and constantan) joined at one end. The effect
of temperature change is the generation of an electromotive force
(emf) at the juncture of the two strips. One strip is inserted into
the system while the other is at the reference temperature. As the
temperature rises, the emf produced rises, even though not
necessarily linearly. Hence, the varying parameter is the emf
produced and the linearity between the varying parameter and
temperature is moderate.
Different combinations of metals have different durability and strength levels, researchers have
produced standardized combinations to optimize outcome potential.
Classification
Thermocouple pairings are classified into four main types - the home body class, the upper crust class,
the rarified class and the exotic class. Standard or commonly used metals form the home body class,
platinum combinations belong to the upper crust class, refractory metals form the rarified class and the
exotic class which is for specific applications, consists of special combinations of rare metals.
The home body and upper crust classes have special alpha codes assigned to them, denoted by a single
capital letter. However, the rarified and exotic classes do not because they are less frequently used.
There are ten combinations of thermocouples Type J, K, C, E, T, M, N, B, S and R.
Order
Thermocouples are modelled as first order devices. A one-degree-of-freedom first-order system is
governed by the first-order ordinary differential equation:
a
1
dy/dt +a
0
y = F(t) (1)
where y (t) is the response of the system (the output) to some forcing function F (t) (the input). Eq. (1)
may be rewritten as
dy/dt + y = kF(t) (2)
where =a1/a0 has the dimension of time and is the time constant for the system and k = 1/a0 is the
gain.
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Response
The dynamic response of a sensor is often an important consideration in designing a measurement
system. The response of a temperature sensor known as a thermocouple may be modeled as a first-
order system. When the thermocouple is subjected to a rapid temperature change, it will take some
time to respond. If the response time is slow in comparison with the rate of change of the temperature
that you are measuring, then the thermocouple will not be able to faithfully represent the dynamic
response to the temperature fluctuations.
A model of the response of a thermocouple is based on a simple heat transfer analysis. The rate at
which the sensor exchanges heat with its environment must equal the rate of change of the internal
energy of the sensor. If the dominant mechanism of heat exchange is convection (neglecting conduction
and radiation), as it is for a thermocouple in a fluid, then this energy balance is:
hA(T
T)= mc dT/dt (3)
'h' is the convection coefficient, A is the surface area of the sensor, T is the temperature, m is the
thermocouple mass, and c is the heat capacity. Writing Eq. (3) in the form of Eq. (2)
dT/dt + T =T
(4)
where the time constant is
= mc/hA (5)
As a first-order system, the transient response of the thermocouple to an instantaneous change in
temperature is given by Eq. (5). The smaller the diameter of the thermocouple, the faster the
thermocouple will respond. Grounding the junction will also improve the response time by
approximately 50 percent. The usual response time of thermocouples is in the range 2-5 seconds, and is
considered fast.
Advantages
Compared with resistance thermometers they offer the clear advantage of a higher upper temperature
limit, up to several thousand degrees Celsius. Their long-term stability is somewhat worse (a few
degrees after one year); the measuring accuracy is slightly poorer (on the average +0.75% of the
measurement range). They are frequently used in ovens, furnaces, flue gas measurements and other
areas with temperatures above about 250C.
Thermocouples are the least expensive and the most commonly used sensors. They can be grounded
and brought into contact with the system. They are self-powered, and do not require an external supply.
They are rugged and therefore, suitable for use in harsh conditions. They do not heat up.
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Disadvantages
Thermocouples are less stable and require extension leads. Electrical noise inducing errors in
temperature indication is a problem mostly with thermocouples. They are also less accurate and
sensitive and require cold junction compensation since they measure temperature difference between a
reference temperature and the temperature inside the system. The measured temperature is not the
absolute temperature. As it is inconvenient to provide a cold junction (reference temperature), an
artificial cold junction needs to be provided using a different type of temperature measuring device that
measures the temperature of the cold junction.
Applications
Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, thermoelectric cooling,
diesel engines, safety measurements and other industrial processes. They have applications in the steel
industry. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be
measured with high accuracy.
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Resistive Temperature Devices
Working
These make use of changes in resistance of a metal caused by changes in temperature. There are two
main types - thermistors and Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs). RTDs rely on resistance change in
a metal, with the resistance rising more or less linearly with temperature. Thermistors are based on
resistance change in a ceramic semiconductor; the resistance drops nonlinearly with temperature rise.
The varying parameter for both types is resistance.
RTD Thermistor
The temperature range for RTD is -200 - 500 C while for thermistors it is 40-260 C.
Another important classification of these devices is: positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative
temperature coefficient (NTC). The resistivity of negative temperature coefficient devices lowers with
increase in temperature whereas the opposite is true for positive temperature coefficient devices. The
resistance of PTC thermistors increases due to the hindrance to the flow of electrons caused by the
increased molecular vibration of the metal. In NTC thermistors, flow of electrons increases with
temperature as more charges become available for an electric current.
Order
RTDs are fairly linear but the thermistor has an exponential function. For RTDs the relationship
between temperature and resistance can expressed as follows. Resistivity and temperature can be
expressed as:
k
t
= k
o
*1 + (t - t
o
)] (6)
where k
t
= resistivity at temperature t (ohm, )
k
o
= resistivity at standard temperature to (ohm, )
= temperature coefficient of resistance (1/
o
C)
t = temperature (
o
C)
t
o
= standard temperature (
o
C)
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Resistance of a metal is given by:
R = k L / A (7)
Where R = resistance (ohm, )
k = constant of proportionality or resistivity of the material (ohm, )
L = length of conductor (m)
A = cross sectional area of conductor (m
2
)
Combining (6) and (7):
R / R
o
= t + 1 (8)
Hence it can be seen that the relationship is linear.
The thermistor has a high degree of non-linearity. Over a small temperature range it can be
considered a first order system.
R=kT (9)
T
= 1/R(T) . dR/dT (10)
Thermistors can be classified into the two types mentioned earlier, depending on the sign of k. If k is
positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTHERMOCOUPLE) thermistor, or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance
decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient
(NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as close to zero as possible
(smallest possible k), so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range.
However, beyond this range temperature range, accurate temperature measurements require that the
resistance/temperature curve of the device must be described in more detail. The Steinhart-Hart
equation is a widely used third-order approximation.
The equation is derived from mathematical curve-fitting techniques and examination of the Resistance
versus Temperature characteristic of thermistor devices. In particular, using the plot of the natural log of
resistance value, in(R) versus (1/T) for a thermistor component to consider (1/T) to be a polynomial in
in(R), an equation of the following form is developed:
T = 1/ (A
0
+ A
1
(in R
T
) + .. + A
N
(len
t
)
N)
(11)
Where T is the temperature in Kelvin, and A
0
....A
N
are polynomial coefficients that are mathematical
constants.
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The order of the polynomial to be used to model the relationship between R and T depends on the
accuracy of the model that is required and on the non-linearity of the relationship for a particular
thermistor.
It is generally accepted that use of a third order polynomial gives a very good correlation with measured
data, and that the "squared" term is not significant.
The equation then is reduced to a simpler form, and it is generally written as:
T = 1/(A
0
+ A
1
(ln R
T
) + A
3
(lnR
T
)
3
) (12)
The coefficients depend on the type of thermistor being modeled. The equation is relevant for the
complete useful temperature range of a thermistor.
Response
The RTD has a response time of 2-5 seconds whereas the thermistor has a response time of 1-2 seconds.
RTDs are generally considered to have a slow response whereas thermistors are generally considered
fast.
Advantages
The main advantages of RTDs are their high level of accuracy, stability and linearity. RTDs are the most
accurate sensors for industrial applications and also offer the best long-term stability. They have a wide
temperature operating range; high temperature operating range; inter-changeability over wide range
and good stability at high temperature. They are easy to recalibrate.
Thermistors provide a high sensitivity; high accuracy; have a low cost; are rugged and hence suitable for
use in harsh conditions; flexible and interchangeable. For the high performance they offer, thermistors
are very cost-effective. Although thermocouples are the least expensive and the most widely used
sensor, a thermistor generally provides the greatest value for its price.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of using RTD's include low sensitivity; higher cost than thermocouples, no point
sensing, sensitivity to shock and vibration and requirement for three or four-wire operation.
Thermistors are non-linear. Self-heating is a problem and proper care must be taken to limit the sensing
current to a low enough value that self-heat error is minimized to an acceptable value. Thermistors with
very high resistances may cause electrical noise in some cases.
Applications
RTDs are used in the textile, food and chemical industries. Thermistors are also commonly used in
modern digital thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging.
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Infrared Temperature Sensors
Working
IR thermometers are temperature sensors which infer
temperature using blackbody radiations being emitted
from the object without making any contact with it. It
has a temperature range of -50 - 3000 C.
Order
Planks law is the basic principle for IR thermometry. Planks law predicts very accurately power
emitted by a blackbody per unit area per unit wavelength or complete radiation.
Its written as;
Response
They have a fast response time.
Advantages
They have a quick response and are versatile, non-invasive and portable.
Disadvantages
They have a poorer accuracy than other types of temperature sensors. It is difficult to determine
infrared detection area where accuracy is needed. IR sensors can only record surface temperatures and
are incapable of measuring very minute targets.
Applications of IR Thermometers
They have applications in cement kiln - burning zones; pre-heaters; combustion or Incinerator -
hot gases and utility boilers; rotary kiln; energy conservation - insulation and heat flow studies;
thermal mapping; remote sensing (thermal mapping) - clouds, earth surfaces, lakes, rivers,
roads, volcanic surveys; vacuum chambers - refining, processing, deposition; etc
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Comparison
Type of
sensors
Active
material
Changin
g
paramet
ers
Temperat
ure range
C
Linearity Respons
e time
Accuracy Application
s
1 Thermocou
ple
Two
dissimilar
metals
Voltage -270 to
1750
Moderat
e
2-5 sec Less Steel
industry
Thermoelec
tric cooling
Safety
2
Resistive
temperatur
e devices
RTD:
platinum
wire
Thermist
or: metal
diode
ceramic
Resistanc
e
RTD:-200
to 500
Thermisto
r:-40 to
260
RTD:
excellent
Thermist
or: poor
logarith
mic
function
RTD: 2-5
sec
Thermist
or: 1-2
sec
RTD:
more
Thermist
or: less
Textile
Chemical
Food
3
Infrared
radiators
Pyroelect
ric
material
Infrared
intensity
-50 to
3000
Excellent Fast Less Brewing
Meteorolog
y
Climatology
