http://gsp.sagepub.

com/
Global Social Policy
http://gsp.sagepub.com/content/9/3/355
The online version of this article can be found at:

DOI: 10.1177/1468018109343640
2009 9: 355 Global Social Policy
Gordon Walker
Contextualization and Evolution
Globalizing Environmental Justice : The Geography and Politics of Frame

Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
can be found at: Global Social Policy Additional services and information for

http://gsp.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:

http://gsp.sagepub.com/subscriptions Subscriptions:
http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Reprints:

http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:

http://gsp.sagepub.com/content/9/3/355.refs.html Citations:

at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from

Globalizing
Environmental Justice
The Geography and Politics of Frame Contextualization
and Evolution
GORDON WALKER
Lancaster University, UK
abstract The use of the language of environmental justice
as a frame for collective action on socio-environmental
concerns has now evolved and extended far beyond its
original formulation in the USA. This article examines two
ways in which the use of the environmental justice frame has
globalized. The first involves the international emergence of
ideas, meanings and framing processes in new settings around
the world. The horizontal diffusion of an environmental
justice frame is traced, examining processes of transfer,
reproduction and contextualization that are taking place
within the political and institutional cultures of different
countries. The cases of the UK and South Africa are
examined in detail. The second involves the vertical
extension of the environmental justice frame to encompass
concerns that do not end at national borders but that involve
relations between countries and global scale issues such as
trade agreements, transfers of wastes and climate change. The
implications of these two shifts, the tensions that have
emerged around them and their relevance to the pursuit of
progressive global social policy objectives are considered.
keywords environmental justice, framing, globalization, South
Africa, UK
ARTI CLE 355
Global Social Policy Copyright The Author(s), 2009. Reprints and permissions:
http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav 1468-0181 vol. 9(3): pp 355382; 343640;
DOI:10.1177/1468018109343640 http://gsp.sagepub.com
gsp
1. Introduction
Environmental justice became in the 1980s a language and a frame for mak-
ing normative claims about the relationship between environment and social
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
difference. The first conjunction of the two words to provide a label for specific
forms of political activismis universally attributed to campaigners in the USA,
working to resist the imposition of toxic and polluting facilities in minority
and poor communities (Bullard, 1999; Taylor, 2000). The ideas, meanings,
aspirations and boundaries of the environmental justice movement were con-
structed in ways that reflected the context of US politics at the time, in particular
the coming together of previously separate traditions of civil rights, anti-toxic,
community and occupational health politics (Capek, 1993; Faber, 2005). The
use of the language of environmental justice has now extended far beyond its
origins. The limited early delineation of the socio-environmental concerns of
the environmental justice movement in the USA has been extended materi-
ally, spatially and politically, to produce a far more expansive field of activism
and contested claim-making. As a range of commentaries have recently
observed (Carruthers, 2008; Schlosberg, 2007; Schroeder et al., 2008; Sze and
London, 2008; Walker and Bulkeley, 2006) it is now possible to speak of envi-
ronmental justice in far more global terms and as a dynamic frame for activism,
research and policy that has international as well as local manifestations and
agenda. This is an important development which has implications for how we
understand environmental justice as a concept, its fixity and contextuality, and
for how environmental justice frames, as used in both collective action and
policy communities, are becoming more or less powerful and influential.
In this article I utilize a simple categorization for analysing the globalization
of environmental justice framing in two related dimensions. The first dimension
involves the horizontal emergence of the language and rhetoric of environ-
mental justice in new settings around the world. Here the international uti-
lization of the frame is mapped, and processes of diffusion, reproduction and
contextualization that have taken place within the political and institutional
cultures of different countries are analysed. Two countries, the UK and South
Africa, are examined in detail, considering the dynamics that have been
involved and the degree of influence of the US environmental justice frame in
each country in comparison to other indigenous factors. The second dimension
of globalization involves the vertical extension of the scope of environmental
justice frames to encompass concerns that do not end at national borders but
that involve relations between countries (Anand, 2004) and global scale issues
such as trade agreements, transfers of wastes and climate change. Through
such scaling up, environmental justice activismcan no longer be characterized
as being only about local militant particularisms (Harvey, 1996) and the
intra-national distribution of environmental bads (Dobson 1988), which
again has implications for how we understand its scope and the practice of
local and transnational activism. It will be argued that environmental justice
has become a far-reaching, mobile and evolving frame for understanding and
acting on socio-environmental concerns, subject to necessary but sometimes
problematic processes of recontextualization. There are tensions involved in
these processes around for example the scope for managerialist redefinition
356 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
and loss of radical potential which the cases examined in this article will be
used to explore. There are also questions as to how productively the use of the
new language of environmental justice can give additional voice and influence
to struggles that pre-exist its arrival and application. Within these dynamics
there is the potential for productive interactions with wider global social policy
objectives and with the diversity of actors who are seeking to provide a counter-
weight to the ideologies and operating practices of transnational corporations
and international organizations. I begin the discussion by focusing on the
notion of framing and briefly on how the environmental justice frame first
emerged in the USA.
2. Framing, Collective Action and Environmental
Justice in the USA
The concepts of frames and framing are well established particularly in the
analysis of social movements and collective action, although they are not
restricted in their application to this domain of political life. Drawing on
Goffmans (1974) initial theorization of framing as a schemata of interpretation,
this body of work has argued that the work of framing is central to the activities
of social movements, involving the ongoing production and reproduction of
ideas and meanings and ways of understanding the world. Actors within social
movements, along with and in competition with others who are also aiming
to assert their own preferred ideas and meanings, are signifiers, actively doing
the work of framing as a process of reality construction (Benford and Snow,
2000). Framing typically has a profile of different elements, including normative
articulation, diagnosis of problems and responsibilities and prognostic assertions
of solutions and process of change. Collective action frames also vary consid-
erably in their scope, elasticity and flexibility, some being tightly limited to a
set of closely related problems, others to a far broader canvas to the degree
that they become master frames that may transcend the particularities of
specific social movements (Taylor, 2000).
Gamson (1992) contends that notions of justice and injustice are always part
of the frames of collective action, identifying victims of injustice and stressing
their victim status to call attention to situations and circumstances that need
to be addressed. While others have argued that this is not necessarily the case,
there is no doubt that justice and injustice claims are commonplace with the
work of social movements of many different forms (Benford and Snow, 2000).
Environmental justice can therefore be readily interpreted as a collective
action frame and the environmental justice movement in the USA has accord-
ingly been analysed in terms of the framing work that this has involved
(Sandweiss, 1998; Taylor, 2000). Capek (1993) provides one of the first such
analyses, identifying the salient characteristics of the environmental justice
frame as it emerged from local community struggles over the siting of toxic
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 357
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
and waste sites in minority communities in different parts of the country. She
argues that local residents ability to mobilize against perceived threats to
their safety was intimately linked to their adoption of an environmental jus-
tice frame and that this was constructed through an interplay between the
scales of the local community and the national level of the anti-toxics move-
ment. More recently Benford (2005) has examined the evolution of the envi-
ronmental justice frame in the USA over a 20 year period, emphasizing the
fact that frames are not static and given, but through the active work of fram-
ing are open to continual redefinition and reformulation. He traces how an
initial innovative discourse of environmental racism, which resonated well
with minority communities mobilizing against risks to their safety and well-
being, broadened to the environmental justice frame (a master frame for
Taylor, 2000), which was both more elastic and inclusive of the many dimen-
sions of environmental discrimination that were being diagnosed, as well as
more positive in its ability to assert rights and visions of what the achievement
of greater justice might constitute. Following the movements significant
impacts both through local legal challenges and pressurizing for policy inno-
vation at a national level (Bullard, 1999), Benford outlines how more recently
it has struggled to maintain its salience and momentum in the face of politi-
cal change and counterframes emerging that have been strongly critical of the
economic impacts of environmental justice activism and its more radical
implications (Chang and Hwang, 2000).
Drawing on this body of analysis and taking the evolution of the environmental
justice frame in the USA into account, we can identify a set of key characteristics:
1. It has emphasised an identity politics of race reflecting its emergence from
a history and infrastructure of grassroots civil rights activism. This made
it not only an innovative and radical frame but also a new brand of envi-
ronmentalism (Schlosberg, 1999; Taylor, 2000), involving a far more
diverse constituency of activists than in the traditional environmental
movement, a diversity that has extended over time to include many different
racial, ethnic and cultural groups. It would be wrong though to characterize
the US environmental justice frame as being only about a politics of race,
as other forms of class and identity politics including gender (Kurtz, 2007;
Stein, 2004) have been involved, to some degree reflecting a wider critique
of racial politics in the post civil rights era.
2. It has maintained a resolute focus on questions of justice to people in the
environment (Agyeman et al., 2003: 327), rather than a politicized concern
for justice to nature a separate question of ecological justice in the
categorization of Low and Gleeson (1998). This anthropogenic placing of
people and communities at the centre of the frame, particularly those
who are marginalized economically and politically as well as environmen-
tally, again distinguished environmental justice from the traditional
frames of environmental groups in the USA that focused on wilderness
and conservation concerns (Shrader-Frechette, 2002).
358 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
3. In terms of its environmental boundaries, the early formulation of
environmental justice was narrowly focused on forms of technological
pollution, waste and risk particularly those forms of environmental bad
associated with the siting of landfill, incinerators, chemical plants and
the like. This narrowness has since given way to a far broader profile of
environmental concerns (Taylor, 2000) moving beyond only environmental
burdens to include access to environmental benefits and resources of various
forms (Mutz et al., 2002) and concerns that some argue could or should
be classified as social rather than environmental (Benford, 2005). These
shifts have extended the constituency of interested locally and nationally
organized groups and increased the scope for productive interaction
between environmental and social policy activists.
4. It has similarly evolved beyond an initial emphasis on issues of distributive
justice, to be more inclusive of other forms of normative claimand assertion.
Environmental justice activismhas always been concerned with more than
distribution, including demands for participatory justice in particular
(Schlosberg, 2007; Shrader-Frechette, 2002; Wenz, 1988), but distributive
claims about who gets what in the environment have dominated most
representations. This is partly because of the close association between
initial phases of activism and statistical studies which analysed patterns of
distribution of environmental bads in relation to the racial and income
profiles of affected communities. These found repeated patterns of apparent
bias and disproportionate concentration in poor, African American and
Hispanic areas (Bowen, 2002; Brown, 1995; Mohai and Saha, 2006) and
the courts were used to challenge siting decisions that further reproduced
these biases.
5. In diagnosing the causes of inequality and injustice, or assigning blame
and responsibility it has been focused on industry and corporate actors
for example making siting decisions or operating installations to varying
standards (Gouldson, 2006) and on the institutionalized (and racist)
practices of the state operating regressive and exclusionary decision making
and regulatory processes.
6. It has been explicitly inclusive of multiple interconnected scales of analysis,
but until recently (see later discussion) these have been largely contained
within the borders of the USA. A key part of the environmental justice
frame has been both the horizontal interconnections made between multiple
local grassroots struggles across the USA and the vertical scaling up to
national claims and regulatory settings (Kurtz, 2002; Towers, 2000).
However, despite rhetorical references to a wider global sense of justice
for all people, for example in the Principles of Environmental Justice laid
out in 1991 (Bullard, 1999), for some time these horizontal and vertical
scalar connections remained firmly bounded within national borders.
7. While a broadly based environmental justice frame has been based in a
vibrant social movement as well as in the work of academics with which
the movement has beenclosely connected(Cable et al., 2005) other versions
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 359
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
of an environmental justice frame have emerged within the US government
and its agencies, in part because of the success of activists in demanding
policy attention. The creation of an Office of Environmental Justice within
the Environmental Protection Agency and the signing of Executive Order
12898 in 1994 requiring federal regulatory agencies to make environmental
justice a part of all they do were key steps in this process. The consequence
has been the emergence of a managerial framing of what environmental
injustice constitutes, a frame that is highly circumscribed in comparison
with that of the activist community and problematic in both its conceptu-
alization and implementation (Block and Whitehead, 1999; Holifield,
2001, 2004).
While not exhaustive, these seven dimensions of the framing of environmental
justice in the USA provide a sufficient characterization with which to now
proceed to examine how the use of an environmental justice frame has
emerged in other places, across new networks and at a global scale.
3. Globalizing Horizontally: New Places and Contexts
One of the less explored currents of work on collective action frames is how
they spread and move into new political and cultural contexts. Benford and
Snow (2000) highlight this gap in understanding, but suggest that processes
of strategic selection and strategic fitting will be involved strategic selection
encompassing situations in which there is intentional cross-cultural borrowing
and adoption of the borrowed frame, or some of its components. Strategic fitting
encompassing situations in which there is intentional cross-cultural promotion,
with active tailoring and fitting of the objects or practices of diffusion to a new
cultural context. In both case it is clear that significant changes, reformulations
and transformations of the frame may take place. We can identify other
potential dynamics as well, including, for example, frames being adopted at
different scales of collective action to those in which they originated and
frames transferring away from social movements actors towards others that
see strategic advantage in their adoption. Before exploring these possibilities
further it is useful to get a view of the extent of the movement and adoption
of environmental justice frame around the world.
The movement of the environmental justice frame beyond the borders of
the US has happened over an extended period, although as Debbane and Keil
(2004) show each particular case of transfer may happen relatively rapidly.
The first manifestations of labelling and naming using the term environmental
justice can be found in the early to mid-1990s, with a more expansive diffusion
taking place after 2000.
1
A snapshot taken in mid-2008 provides an indication
of howfar the use of the language had by then reached. Table 1 lists the countries
in which the specific term environmental justice has been applied and written
360 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
about in relation to indigenous environmental concerns, based on a search of
academic and grey literature databases and web searches. This listing is
indicative at best, as there are problems in relying on database and web
searches. On the one hand an environmental justice frame may be in use
within a country without this having been written about (in English) or
named precisely in this way; and conversely environmental justice may be
used as a framework for academic analysis rather than this being explicitly part
of the discourse of those involved in activism or policy debates. As discussed
further later, it would also be wrong to interpret the adoption of an environ-
mental justice frame, as synonymous with the extension or development of an
indigenous environmental justice movement this being far more than a mat-
ter of framing. Even so the list of 37 countries in Table 1 is extensive and
demonstrates that the language of environmental justice (at least) has been in
use in each of the major global regions and in some cases across many of the
countries within these regions.
This indication of the scale and extent of environmental justice framing
activity militates against simple generalization or distillation of the mechanisms
of diffusion and adoption that have been involved. It is clear though that delib-
erate transnational networking between environmental justice activist groups
in different countries has been part of the story, paralleling wider trends across
various forms of social movement in which globalization frombelow (Brecher
et al., 2000), through international alliances, coalitions and networks, has been
observed (Bandy and Smith, 2005; Routledge et al., 2006; Smith and Johnston,
2002). For example, the Environmental and Economic Justice Project based in
Los Angeles set up in 1993 worked to support international networking and the
building of grassroots organizations in developing countries through convening
international meetings and activist exchanges (Faber, 2005). The Coalition
for Environmental Justice, a civic action network of activists, lawyers, and
researchers from environmental and human rights organizations in Bulgaria,
Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, Romania, and Slovakia, was established
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 361
table 1 Countries included in written material using an environmental justice frame
Region Countries
Africa Nigeria, Ghana, South Africa, Tanzania, Cameroon,
Zambia, Angola, Mozambique
Asia Taiwan, Israel, India, Singapore, Philippines
Australasia Australia, New Zealand
Europe United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, France, Spain,
Belarus, Bulgaria, Hungary, Macedonia, Romania, Slovakia,
Czech Republic, Latvia
North America United States, Canada
South and Central Brazil, Peru, Nicaragua, Ecuador, Columbia, Mexico
America
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
in 2003 to actively promote an environmental justice frame across Central and
Eastern Europe. Network activities included linking up with environmental
justice activists in the USA to form a Transatlantic Initiative on Environmental
Justice in 2005 (Pellowet al., 2005), and the laying out of an agenda of key issues
for Central and Eastern Europe particularly focusing on the Roma who are
discriminated against across the region (Steger, 2007). There have been a num-
ber of such transnational initiatives using an environmental justice frame
within other regions including South America (Carruthers, 2008), Africa
(Kalan and Peek, 2005) or focused on particular environmental issues such as
an anti-toxics agenda (Pellow, 2007).
Such networks do appear to have played a significant role in promoting the
diffusion of language and ideas from the USA (encompassing both strategic
selection and fitting in Benford and Snows terms) as well as generating inter-
action and learning between countries within regions although these may not
be the only mechanisms involved. Amore in-depth analysis is required not only
to understand how frames have emerged in new places, but also to understand
how an environmental justice frame once travelled becomes contextualised in
its new cultural and political setting or becomes locally grounded (Debbane
and Keil, 2004: 210). For this reason two cases will be examined in closer detail
the UK and South Africa cases that contrast in many ways but, as we shall
see, also show similarities in the contextualization processes involved.
3. 1. THE ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE FRAME IN THE UK
In 1998, Dobson noted that in comparison to the emphatic arrival of justice
on the environmental agenda in the USA, there had been no direct equivalent
in Britain (Dobson, 1988: 26). The closest contemporaneous parallel to the
US experience had been the UK Black Environmental Network (BEN),
which in the 1980s highlighted the white, middle-class nature of much envi-
ronmentalism and worked with local black communities to develop environ-
mental awareness and involvement in conservation work (Agyeman, 1987).
However BEN remained small scale and failed to mobilize any significant
constituency of support or to develop a more radical campaigning profile. A
number of factors may have contributed to this a far weaker infrastructure
and tradition of radical civil rights politics in the UK, the spatial patterning
of where ethnic minorities were concentrated that did not so obviously coin-
cide with patterns of environmental degradation (Walker et al., 2001) and a
lack of grassroots protest activity around which to organize a wider campaign.
Similarly, while there was a history of opposition to the siting of toxic
and polluting facilities in the UK including the formation of networking
initiatives such as Community Lobby Opposing Unhealthy Tips and
Communities Against Toxics these had failed to develop any form of col-
lective agenda around justice arguments.
In contrast then to the grassroots emergence of environmental justice in the
USA it was a mainstreamand established environmental group, Friends of the
362 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Earth (FoE), which first started to work with an environmental justice frame
in the UK. In the mid-1990s FoE had begun to develop a more socially aware
and urban theme to its work (for example related to fuel poverty issues)
and to work in closer collaboration with social and development NGOs
(e.g. through the Real World Coalition formed in 1996) and an environmen-
tal justice frame fitted well with these developments. Through collaborations
with academics working to formulate a UK environmental justice agenda
(Stephens et al., 2001) and networking with US activists (Bob Bullard was
brought to the UK as a guest speaker at a number of academic and NGO
events), there was both a drawing on the US environmental justice frame and
a purposeful redefinition to fit the UK political context at the time. In particular,
an opportunity was seen to make the environment more directly relevant to
the recently installed New Labour administration that had campaigned
strongly on social exclusion and inequality issues. A series of pamphlets and
publications produced by others NGOs, consultancies and political groups
were highlighting the linkages between the NewLabour governments priorities
on social exclusion and the social dimensions of environmental concerns.
Jacobs (1999), for example, in a pamphlet for the Fabian Society developed argu-
ments around environmental exclusion as a component of a newenvironmental
modernization agenda.
This combination of both drawing on the US frame alongside redefinition
of its elements into the UK context can be seen across FoEs work at this time.
Its first significant move was to undertake research that closely mirrored the
US model of analysing the distribution of polluting industrial facilities to
reveal biases in siting patterns (Friends of the Earth, 2000, 2001). In making
this step it explicitly sought to convey a new style of gritty urban environmental
concern (with some parallels to the positioning of activists in the USA) this
is the sharp end of social exclusion. On top of unemployment and crime these
families and communities face the grime of industrial pollution. Here pollution
is as far from a middle-class concern as it can get (Friends of the Earth, 2000:
2). However, the research focused not on siting in relation to patterns of race
or ethnicity, but on patterns of income a social class orientation that
reflected the political context at the time and the lack of strong race-based
civil rights mobilization in the UK. Key agenda-setting publications developed
by FoEin collaboration with academics and other NGOs are similarly positioned
introducing environmental justice by referring to the US experience, before
then laying out a set of concerns that are quite distinct from the emphases of
the US frame (Boardman et al., 1999; Stephens et al., 2001) These include
international and intragenerational issues, inequalities in access to environ-
mental resources including food, energy and water, transport needs and risks
and aesthetic, mental and spiritual needs (such as quiet and access to the coun-
tryside). Again the lack of a distinct racial dimension is apparent in, for example,
the way the foreword to one such publication positions the significant social
divisions in class and age terms, environmental problems are serious and
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 363
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
impact most heavily on the most vulnerable members of society, the old, the
very young and the poor (Boardman et al., 1999: 1).
Another distinctive feature of the diffusion of the environmental justice
frame into the UK was its ready adoption into the discourses and policies of
governmental bodies (Agyeman and Evans, 2004; Bulkeley and Walker,
2005). Whereas it took many years of concerted campaigning in the USA to
get the Environmental Protection Agency to begin examining questions of
environmental justice, its equivalent in the UK, the Environment Agency
(EA), proactively did so early on as part of its own strategic political positioning
(Chalmers and Colvin, 2005). The EA included a debate on environmental
equality at its 2000 Annual General Meeting and initiated its own analysis of
patterns of the social distribution of various environmental indicators in two
commissioned research projects on environment and social justice and
addressing environmental inequalities both focused not on race but on social
deprivation following the classic US environmental justice method of statis-
tically analysing spatial data sets at national and regional scales (e.g. Walker
et al., 2003, 2007). The reframing work undertaken by the EA included not
only its definition of relevant social and environmental concerns (including
flooding and water quality, both central to its regulatory remit), but also the
naming of the frame itself. While clearly derived initially from the US envi-
ronmental justice frame, the EA settled on naming its own agenda as being
one of environmental inequalities with a position statement under this head-
ing produced in 2004 (EA, 2004). This was seen as both less politically con-
tentious and more aligned with familiar policy discourses such as that on
health inequalities.
A framing process going on more widely within government led by the
Department of Environment Food and Rural Affairs which coordinated a
cross departmental working group on environment and social justice and
commissioned a wide ranging evidence review (Lucas et al., 2004) also
served to incorporate environmental justice ideas into pre-existing sustainable
development frames (Agyeman and Evans, 2004), rather than taking these up
to form a distinctive new theme. Sustainable development was well estab-
lished as a master frame in the UK by the late 1990s and through incorpo-
rating the interaction between social and environmental dimensions of
sustainability, was seen to readily accommodate questions of social difference
and inequality. In this vein the 1999 National Sustainable Development strat-
egy stated that everyone should share the benefits of increased prosperity and
a clean and safe environment Our needs must not be met by treating oth-
ers, including future generations and people elsewhere in the world, unfairly
(UK Government, 1999).
In various ways then the adoption and reframing of environmental justice
inthe UKwas contextualizedintocontemporary cultural andpolitical conditions,
moving fromthe margins to the mainstream (Agyeman and Evans, 2004: 159),
but also arguably in the process being stripped of some of its more radical and
364 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
distinctive qualities. Its adoption by elites in existing established environmental
groups and government agencies (Bulkeley and Walker, 2005), its lack of
grassroots mobilization and its renaming and incorporation into existing
frames, each to some degree weakened the frames substance and significance
in comparison to the US version. This is brought home by the contrast
between two self named Environmental Justice Summits held on either side
of the Atlantic the first in the USA in 1991 brought together hundreds of
representatives of grass roots organizations from around the country working
explicitly within an environmental justice frame; the second held in London
in 2008 and organized by Capacity Global (the only clear example of a group
organized around an environmental justice frame in the UK) with funding
support from a government department, involved 50 people, most of whom
were academics and representatives of government agencies or of national
level NGOs and consultancies.
While this analysis may characterize the London-focused picture in the
UK, in Scotland it has been significantly different, demonstrating that forms
of contextualization can take at levels belowthat of the nation-state. In Scotland,
political opportunities were presented by the devolution of substantial
responsibilities of governance to the Scottish Parliament in 1999. Friends of
the Earth Scotland (FoES) deliberately chose this moment to adopt a more
substantial and radical environmental justice campaign than elsewhere in the
UK (Scandrett, 2007) interlinking local and global issues and supporting this
with various forms of training and networking activity intended to empower
local level activism(Dunion, 2003). Having been promoted strongly by FoES,
a version of the environmental justice frame focused in this case on local envi-
ronmental conditions (or environmental incivilities) also moved into gov-
ernment with Jack McConnell, Scotlands first Minister declaring in 2002
that: I am clear that the gap between the haves and have-nots is not just an
economic issue. For quality of life, closing the gap demands environmental
justice too. That is why I said that environment and social justice would be
the themes driving our policies and priorities ... (McConnell, 2002). This
speech, briefly at least, catalysed the explicit use of the term environmental
justice as a policy objective, with a dedicated team established in the Scottish
Executive, various resource commitments made to fund research (Curtice
et al., 2005; Fairburn et al., 2005), support community action and review
the implications for planning legislation and pollution regulation (Jackson
and Illsley, 2007; Poustie, 2004). The 2002 Scottish Sustainable Development
strategy was also explicit in its appeals to environmental justice stating that
sustainable development is about combining economic progress with social
and environmental justice we should have regard for others who do not
have access to the same level of resources, and the wealth generated (Scottish
Executive, 2002). Despite such rhetorical commitments Scandrett (2007) is
critical of the way in which the environmental justice frame in Scottish policy
has evolved, in particular its failure to in any way challenge the interests of
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 365
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
capital. The election of the Scottish National Party to power in 2007 and the
inevitable development of new policy discourses around environmental con-
cerns have also done little to maintain the strength of the environmental jus-
tice frame either in policy or within the campaigning work of FoES.
3. 2. THE ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE FRAME IN SOUTH AFRICA
The first traces of the emergence of an environmental justice frame in South
Africa can be found in 19921993 a few years before those in the UK. The
most significant early event is seen by various commentators as the Earthlife
International Conference in 1992 that instigated the formation of the
Environmental Justice Networking Forum (EJNF) in 1994 (which has since
grown into a network with over 400 members across a diversity of civil society
organizations [Duma, 2007]). Here the US influence appears to have been
significant in various ways. A participant account by Kalan and Peek (2005)
traces early initiatives by students from South Africa studying in the USA to
connect the environmental struggles in the USA with those of their home
country. The South African Exchange Programme on Environmental
Justice (SAEPEJ) sought to develop two-way exchanges of various forms
exchanges of information and research, the meeting of people fromgrassroots
and communities mobilising around similar environmental problems in the
USAand South Africa and even the collection of samples of toxins fromSouth
Africa that were then taken for analysis in labs the USA. For Bobby Peek who
formed groundWork in 1999 as a group seeking to promote environmental
justice activism both within South Africa and more broadly across the region,
the link to the USA was crucial: the language that was appearing in the civil
rights movement and around the environmental justice movement during the
late 1970s and early 1980s was something that came to South Africa in the late
1980s and early 1990s (Kalan and Peek, 2005: 261). The two way nature of
the exchange is also clear however, with learning about organizing at a local
level in South Africa instructive for US activists and the understanding that
these things happen globally (Kalan and Peek, 2005: 260) pushing US
groups towards a more international perspective. Their account shows how
the movement of knowledges and commitments embodied in particular peo-
ple can be important in frame diffusion (Faber, 2005).
Struggles against the operation of oil refineries and other sources of pollution
in the heavily industrialized basin of South Durban were also significant in
giving a focus and profile for the emergency of environmental justice
activism. As Barnett and Scott (2007) trace in some detail, the South Durban
concentration of industrial development took shape during the apartheid era,
with non-white communities forcibly relocated into the area in the 1950s and
60s under the Group Areas Act. Concerns about high levels of ground, air and
water pollution were already long standing and there was a strong profile of
local civic organisation and political activism that had inputs into the ANCs
environmental policy in the early 1990s. This provided the foundation for the
366 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
formation of the umbrella organisation the South Durban Community
Environmental Alliance (SDCEA) in 1996, which took up an agenda explicitly
using the language of environmental justice that was by then circulating within
NGO networks. Over subsequent years the work of the SDCEA has made
South Durbans two oil refineries (two of only four in the country) emblematic
of environmental justice conflict (Barnett and Scott, 2007:: 2616) and a
model for how to engage in community mobilization in other pollution
hotspots around the country.
In the environmental justice frame that has emerged in South Africa there
are many parallels with the US (Debbane and Keil, 2004; McDonald, 2002).
Most significantly the connections between the civil rights movement in the
USA and anti-apartheid struggles in South Africa meant that the discourse of
environmental racism resonated strongly in a country where the racialization
of space had been institutionally organized and maintained through state
power. Other parallels included the focus on toxic and polluting activities and
on anti-corporate campaigns, and the deliberate contrast drawn between new
activist discourses and traditional South African environmental concerns of
wilderness and nature conservation based in colonial and post-colonial ideology
(Martinez-Alier, 2002).
There is a further parallel in the way that principles of environmental justice
have been given a legislative status at a national level. The post-apartheid
arrival of democracy in South Africa in 1994 had the task of addressing deep
inequalities, including environmental inequalities of various forms that dis-
criminated against the majority black population. The Bill of Rights of the South
African Constitution accordingly included several statements of environmental
rights: everyone has the right to have access to sufficient food and water
an environment that is not harmful to their health or well-being ... to have the
environment protected, for the benefit of present and future generations
(Republic of South Africa, 1996: s.27.1, s.24).
This positioning of environmental rights at the heart of the newconstitution
appeared a powerful assertion of the environmental justice frame in principle
extending over and beyond the embedding of Executive Order 12898 in the
USA. However, a number of observers have critiqued the way that environ-
mental management has since been practised, the lack of procedural as well as
distributive justice through meaningful opportunities to participate and
the obstacles presented by other more powerful framings of environmental
governance. As in the UK, Patel (2006) argues that the sustainability frame,
well established in South Africa (ORiordan et al., 2000), has been dominant,
often interpreted in technical and managerial ways that have failed to shake
off the legacies of established colonial approaches toenvironmental management.
She contends that consequently social and environmental justice dimensions
in particular have failed to be addressed within sustainability programmes.
Even where matters of procedural justice have been given attention, for exam-
ple in revamped Environmental Assessment regulations, the distributional
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 367
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
consequences of decisions have been neglected in the face of development
imperatives (Patel, 2009). Bond (2000) similarly sees a neo-liberal ecological
modernization perspective at work overriding the individual rights supposedly
protected by the constitution, while Oelofse et al. (2006) point to both
reliance on technocentric scientific approaches (Scott and Oelofse, 2005) and
an institutional implementation deficit as limiting the way that environmental
objectives have been pursued. Debbaine and Keil (2004) point to particular
tensions of these forms in the case of management of water and water supply
in the post-apartheid period. In these ways the enshrining of environmental
justice rights in the constitution has not, as yet at least, had a significant
impact on the established dominant policy frames of key actors, such as
the Department for Environment and Tourism, or on the deeply embedded
structural legacies of apartheid (Kalan and Peek, 2005).
For environmental justice activists tensions have emerged around these and
other challenges standing in the way of overcoming deep and lasting legacies
of environmental inequality. While the focus on the distributive and procedural
rights of historically marginalized township communities has remained in
place, the scope of their frames has extended into a diversity of socio-
environmental issues affecting everyday well-being (McDonald, 2002). These
have included the provision of basic resource and infrastructural needs such
as water and electricity (Bond, 2000; Debbane and Keil, 2004), health and
safety for workers in the mining sector and the health risks of asbestos and
herbicides (Martinez-Allier, 2002). This has stretched the coherence of
environmental justice as a label for collective action and groups have readily
worked with environmental justice, sustainability and health frames, strategi-
cally shifting the labelling they use in different contexts and interactions. In
part, as a consequence, McDonald (2005) argues that there have been signif-
icant differences of opinion among environmental justice groups in South
Africa over the importance of race, gender and class as social framings and the
potential to achieve meaningful reform within a market-based economy.
Barnett and Scott (2007) in their analysis specifically of the work of the South
Durban Community Environmental Alliance identify many such tensions, for
example, in the potential for the group to become co-opted through inclusion
in formulaic decision-making processes and in its relationship with international
donor NGOs pushing for cooperative rather than confrontational ways of
working with the state and business. In moving towards partnership working
and procedural inclusion the SDCEA has faced major challenges in reconciling
these strategies with foundational demands for historical redress and account-
ability for discrimination and environmental harm experienced over the long
history of apartheid rule.
3. 3. CONTEXTUALIZATIONS AND REFRAMINGS
In the examples of the UK and South Africa we can see various forms of
contextualization or grounding of the environmental justice frame. There are
368 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
similarities and contrasts between the experiences in each country. Similarities
include a clear reference to and borrowing from the environmental justice
frame in the USA and examples of international networking and interactions
that promoted frame diffusion. Second, an attachment of this borrowed lan-
guage onto pre-existing concerns about specific environmental wrongs, pro-
viding a new impetus and edge to local activism through which new networks
and initiatives could be developed. Third, the importance of particular political
events new democratic institutions, devolution, new administrations in
providing openings for the introduction of an environmental justice frame
into political debate and policy commitments. Fourth, an environmental justice
language having been taken up not only within social movements, but also
by government bodies who have introduced their own meanings and repre-
sentations. Fifth, differences having opened up between activist and govern-
mental framings in terms of their constituent elements, interpretation and
application. Sixth, environmental justice being set alongside or within an existing
sustainable development master frame, both by campaign groups and govern-
ments, leading to tensions as to their compatibility and relative importance.
Contrasts in the contextualization of environmental justice in the two countries
centre particularly on the extent to which the frame has been part of grassroots
networking and has encompassed a discourse of environmental racism. Faber
(2005) identifies a number of different competing discourses dominating
environmental justice politics, only one of which is based around racial identity.
In the UK, the environmental justice frame has been promoted primarily by
a mainstream environmental NGO. A wide range of socio-environmental
issues have been included within the frame but without an emphasis on racial
or ethnic identity politics. In Fabers (2005) categorization, a socialist politics
has dominated focused primarily on shared material interests or social class
although in Scotland there has been more substantial grassroots activism and
the politics have had something of a nationalist flavour. In South Africa, there
is more evidence of environmental justice emerging as a frame for grassroots
mobilizations, following more closely the US trajectory, and including the
resonance of race as a key if not dominant discourse. Because of this and its
foundation in anti-apartheid politics, the environmental justice frame in
South Africa has maintained a more radical edge, with activists positioned
more clearly in opposition rather than in consensus with governmental actors,
although strategic tensions around this have been identified.
This profile of similarities and differences both between the two cases and
in comparison with the USA is sufficient to demonstrate that the environmental
justice frame is not singular, but rather flexible and dynamic, open to recon-
struction as its moves both in space and time. In this way both Debbane and
Keil (2004) and Williams and Mawdsley (2006) argue that the geography of
environmental justice matters, in that it has to be defined within the context
for each site in which it is used, cannot be readily universalized under only one
conceptualization. As an environmental justice frame globalizes its initial
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 369
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
meaning derived from the US context it is not simply reproduced although
neither is it entirely abandoned. It provides a vocabulary of political oppor-
tunity (Agyeman and Evans, 2004) that is productive in place and time, in
which some common elements are distilled, but important distinctions born
of history, place and contemporary political dynamics are also to be found. As
Heeten Kalaan states very directly in the context of the South African experience:
just because the termenvironmental justice was coined in the US, that doesnt mean
you have a monopoly on the term. People have been doing this kind of work all
around the world and may not be calling it environmental justice. The US environ-
mental justice movement has given the rest of us an incredible tool by giving us a lan-
guage to talk about it, giving us the Principles of Environmental Justice. However,
that doesnt mean that you monopolize the issue. (Kalan and Peek, 2005: 255)
Before returning to discuss further the implications of these observations we
can now move to examine another sense in which the environmental justice
frame has globalized, not only in space, but also in its scales of concern.
4. Globalizing Vertically: New Scales and Concerns
For those looking from the outside a striking feature of the US environmental
justice frame, in its earlier manifestations, was its introspection.
2
As already
noted its dominant concerns were with who got what within the cities
and regions of the USA (Dobson, 1988), not with questions of distribution,
disproportionate impact or marginalization extending beyond the borders of the
USA to encompass people elsewhere and the implications of international or
global environmental processes (Newell, 2005). For some observers, enthusiastic
in other ways about the new form and constituency of environmentalism that
had emerged in the USA, this was a significant limitation (Martinez-Allier,
2002), meaning that it was failing to grapple with the justice issues which were
paramount for many environmental and social advocates outside of the USA
and already situated within a sustainable development frame.
The shift towards environmental justice framing beginning to vertically
upscale its scope of concerns is not disconnected with the horizontal travelling
of ideas and meanings discussed in the previous section. Part of the contextu-
alization processes taking place in frame movement involves redefinition of
the scope and reach of the frame and this redefinition can readily encompass
not just indigenous local and national issues, but also international and global
ones. For example in Scotland, when Friends of the Earth first formulated its
environmental justice campaign theme, it adopted a definition of environ-
mental justice that neatly and succinctly expressed the simultaneous local and
global reach of justice issues no less than a decent environment for all: no more
than a fair share of the Earths resources (Friends of the Earth Scotland, 1999).
Here justice is conceived not only in terms of local rights to environmental
370 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
quality, but importantly also global responsibilities deriving from patterns of
consumption (Dunion and Scandrett, 2003) a dimension entirely lacking
from the early phases of US activism. Similarly when environmental justice
became a frame used by transnational activist networks, this was not restricted
in substantive terms to connecting up mobilizations focused on local within-
country disputes (over facility siting, access to clean water and so on). It also
included the positioning of transnational responsibilities for harm in distant
locations firmly within the frame, connecting globalized economic and political
relations with their environmental consequences. For example, the agenda of
the Coalition for Environmental Justice transnational network in Central and
Eastern Europe includes the exporting of risks from richer to poorer countries
alongside a range of country specific concerns (Steger, 2007).
Looking then across the international and global scope of the various envi-
ronmental justice frames that have been adopted internationally as well as
the development of the frame in the US which in the 1990s increasingly began
to look beyond its own borders (Bullard, 2005) partly because of the impacts
of international networking described in the previous section a diversity of
internationally structured issues can be identified. These include the move-
ment and disposal of hazardous wastes (Adeola, 2000; Pellow, 2007), trade
agreements (Newell, 2007; Schlosberg, 2007), resource extractions of various
forms (Martinez-Alier, 2001), bioprospecting and genetic property rights
(Vermeylen, 2007), climate change (Trainor et al., 2007) and cross-border
energy issues (Carruthers, 2008). For the purpose of this paper three of these
the environmental justice dimensions of trade relations, waste export and
climate change will be considered in more detail.
The engagement of environmental justice activism with international trade
and trade policy has been most directly analysed by Newell (2007) in the con-
text of various forms of mobilization in South America against both continent
wide and sub-regional trade agreements. He argues that groups working with,
or drawing in part on, an environmental justice frame have been able to bring
a stronger environmental critique of regional trade integration in the
Americas that is far more grounded in justice to people and communities than
the nature conservation agendas advanced by mainstream environmentalists
involved in trade agreement campaigning. This deliberately atypical form of
environmentalism, grounded in campesino and indigenous peoples move-
ments (and thereby claiming a broad constituency of support) has been driven
by the local experience of living with neo-liberal approaches to the control of
resource rights and basic services such as water provision. Furthermore, he
argues that an environmental justice frame has provided the basis for cri-
tiquing the procedural elements of trade policy who participates, on whose
behalf and who gains from trade policy and at whose expense (Newell, 2007:
238). Even where trade agreements have in principle acceded greater trans-
parency and been opened up to a greater diversity of voices, the practices of
involvement have been shown to be exclusionary and inaccessible to groups
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 371
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
with a weaker resource base. Schlosberg (2007) makes a similar point in arguing
that groups mobilized against global trade agreements in various parts of the
world have not only been concerned with inequalities in the distribution of
consequent environmental bads (pollution, waste and resource depletion), but
also with matters of social and cultural recognition and participatory justice.
As with campaigning on trade agreements, environmental justice mobiliza-
tion around the trade in and export of hazardous wastes has been able to bring
new impetus and dimensionality to longer standing forms of activism (Hilz,
1992). Protests against the international dumping of hazardous wastes
which in the 1980s targeted Africa in particular labelled this practice as
racist through seeking the backyards of people seen as less significant or able
to resist corporate power, with clear parallels to the claims and language of
environmental justice activists in the USA (Pellow, 2007). Ironically though
this push towards exporting hazardous wastes was in part a consequence of the
activismof environmentalists including environmental justice advocates in
the developed world mounting increasingly successful campaigns against local
waste management operations (Bryant, 2003). In this sense the lack of a global
perspective within the environmental justice frame enabled the externalizing
of the distributional inequalities of waste problems beyond national borders
and beyond the view of not only the regulatory systems of waste producing
countries but also the campaigning view of environmental justice activists.
The dilemmas this poses have increasingly been recognized and environmen-
tal justice groups have necessarily developed a more global view, working
through transnational networks to resist illegal and state sanctioned waste
dumping and incineration that follows the path of least resistance both at
home and overseas. For electronic wastes (Iles, 2004) US-based academics
and campaigners working with an environmental justice frame (such as the
Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition) have been active in tracing complex transna-
tional linkages of production, supply, use, disposal and recycling, following
waste flows from what used to be seen as a relatively benign form of industrial
activity into the lives of poor and marginal communities in Asia, Africa and
other parts of the developing world and working with transnational and local
groups to contest waste management decision and practices. Iles (2004: 88)
argues in a comprehensive analysis that applying an environmental justice
framework in this case demands attention be given to the largely unknown but
complex distribution of e-waste and recycling impacts for both workers and
communities, and to root causes rather than only technical solutions. Again
activist critique has centred not only on the distributive inequalities in impacts
of patterns of waste flow, processing and disposal but also patterns of respon-
sibility for generating these flows (including the perverse effects of regulatory
initiatives in source countries) and on the procedural and participatory justice
failures of international negotiation processes and agreements such as the Basel
Convention (Adeola, 1997), even though this in theory has justice principles
at its heart (Okereke, 2006).
372 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Inequalities in access to international climate change negotiations have
also been part of the claims of climate change activists, but the multidimen-
sional justice implications of climate change clearly extend much further
(Beckman and Page, 2008; Paavola, 2008; Page, 2007). While as for other
international concerns, environmental justice collective action has not newly
discovered the justice implications of climate change mitigation and adap-
tation, it is significant that these have increasingly been positioned within
an environmental justice frame. In North America, part of the agenda has
remained inward looking, focused on the disproportionate impacts that cli-
mate change will have on its own poor and minority communities through
impacts of heat waves, storms and floods (Radick, 2008), but a far more
global perspective has also emerged. Examples of climate justice campaign-
ing can now be found among many established environmental justice groups
such as WeAct in New York, which is holding its 20th year anniversary con-
ference in 2009 on the theme of Climate Justice but there have also been
specific new mobilizations. These include the Environmental Justice and
Climate Change Initiative based in the USA, which describes itself as a
movement from the grassroots to realize solutions to our climate and energy
problems that ensure the right of all people to live, work, play, and pray in
safe, healthy, and clean environments (Environmental Justice Climate
Change Initiative, 2008). This acts to bring together environmental justice,
climate justice, religious and policy networks to promote just and meaning-
ful climate policy through leadership training and advocacy work. In Canada
Just Earth, describing itself as a coalition for environmental justice focused
on carbon mitigation similarly puts forward profiles of actions for individu-
als and organisations and a declaration calling for the setting of ambitious
targets and commitments by the Canadian government. While clearly only
part of far broader campaigning on climate change issues such initiatives are
significant in firmly bringing climate change into the environmental justice
movement and acting to instantly globalize the profile of what is in, rather
than out of scope.
These various examples of the globalization of concerns positioned within
an environmental justice frame show again how it has been open to evolution
and recontextualization over time. In the process of scaling up other dimen-
sions have also had to evolve, further distancing these evolved framings from
the characteristics of the early US collective action frame. With climate
change in particular the assignment of blame and responsibility has extended
beyond corporate and state actors to include the consumption practices of
nations and their (more wealthy) citizens, a crucial development arguably for
more directly revealing the structural fault lines in relationships between the
Global North and South. Again particularly in relation to climate change the
driving concern for justice to people has also extended temporally to include
those people that are part of future as well as current generations (Schlosberg,
2007); while the established prognostic focus on demanding action by
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 373
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
national and local levels of government has had to reach further to include
transnational and global intergovernmental regimes.
5. Conclusion
. . . the environmental justice movement is potentially of great importance, pro-
vided it learns to speak not only for the minorities inside the USA but also for the
majorities outside the USA (which locally are not always defined racially) and pro-
vided it gets involved in issues such as biopiracy and biosafety, or climate change,
beyond local instances of pollution. (Martinez-Alier, 2002: 14)
. . . if the environmental justice movement is to survive at all it must go global. It
must go global, because the sources and causes of environmental inequality are
global in their reach and impact. (Brulle and Pellow, 2005: 296)
These two calls for the globalizing of the environmental justice frame make
the case for the various forms of diffusion and evolution that have been traced
in this article. The language of environmental justice has now taken on an
increasingly global formand perspective and its reach nowextends far beyond
the USA and hence into very different socio-political circumstances. It is
becoming an international master frame that, as Dawson (2000) argues, does
not appear to require a particular political or economic context in which to
flourish. In moving horizontally across space, vertically across scales, and
temporally as socio-environmental and political conditions have shifted, the
environmental justice frame has shown the capacity to evolve and recontextu-
alize. In both its horizontal and vertical movement the environmental justice
frame is sometimes proving instrumental in identifying new concerns and
new material cases of inequality and injustice. It is more often though becom-
ing attached to existing local, regional and international issues, framing and
labelling these as matters of justice and thereby identifying them as part of
wider systemic processes and wider demands for fairness and the protection
of basic needs and rights (Schroeder et al., 2008). Its significance is therefore
both materially and discursively structured.
In some ways it is ironic that the environmental justice framing has emerged
from the USA, a country so deeply implicated in patterns of economic and
environmental exploitation around the world and in the causes of global scale
problems such as climate change. Indeed this has itself created some difficulties
and tensions for activists in countries such as South Africa that have strategi-
cally not wanted to be seen to be simply following a US created discourse and
model of campaigning (Kalan and Peek, 2005). However, it has become clear
from the preceding analysis that whilst the early US experience and networking
with US activists has been influential, there is a large degree of local reinter-
pretation, and reframing going on. As Debbane and Keil (2004) argue, a relative
and scaled understanding of what constitutes environmental justice is needed,
374 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
rather than one based on notions of simple universality and conformity derived
from the US model. That is not to say that the environmental justice frame is
born anew in each place it emerges, or that it has evolved out of all recognition
from where it began. There are clear common reference points around for
example the incorporation of core demands for distributive and procedural jus-
tice, and, Schlosberg (2007) has argued, for individual and community level
recognition and capability to function but the ways in which these are inter-
preted, combined and operationalized is open to variety and diversity.
While the capacity to co-evolve with socio-environmental and political
change and to go global can be seen as both positive and necessary for envi-
ronmental justice frames to continue to be relevant and to do work for
activist groups and the communities they represent, the analysis in this article
has also identified tensions within this process (see also the concerns of
Dawson, 2000). While there is much positive talk around international net-
working and coalition building within a common environmental justice
frame, there can be conflicts between the aspirations of activist groups posi-
tioned in and concerned with different places and scales of concern. Effective
local environmental justice action to resist unwanted development in com-
munities in the USA or UK may still have the paradoxical effect of pushing
this overseas into less regulated spaces, despite attempts to demand common
standards and forge transnational resistance networks. There is also demon-
strable scope for the radical edge of claims for environmental justice and the
realization of environmental rights to become blunted through reframing,
relabelling and incorporation into the managerialist frameworks of govern-
ment bodies and more conformist NGOs. Here the interaction between envi-
ronmental justice and sustainable development frames has proved particularly
problematic. For some observers their coming together is necessary and pro-
ductive (Agyeman et al., 2003), but for others the tendency of sustainability
perspectives to emphasize compatibility with the market, consensus approaches
and ecological modernization solutions can mean that questions of inequality
and impacts on vulnerable and excluded groups are too easily downplayed if
not pushed aside. This more than anything emphasizes the need to keep the
distinct language and approaches of environmental justice framing activity
alive, not as something static, but as a continually reproducing space for
asserting the importance of not seeing one global populace and one environ-
ment, but a diversity of unequal interactions between multiple environments
and multiple forms of social difference.
Finally as globalized environmental justice activism takes on this dynamism
it is important that the scope for interactions with other forms of collective
action beyond the environmental justice frame is recognized. This includes
not only other forms of environmental activism but also collective action
focused on achieving more progressive global social policy. The blurring of
the boundaries of what constitutes the environmental and the social and the
formation of coalition networks that transcend specific frame agendas, have
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 375
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
characterized the activity of global social movements campaigning against the
power and regressive practices of transnational corporations and international
organizations. In this context while collective action under an environmental
justice frame needs to assert and maintain its distinctive arguments, claims
and discourses, it also needs to find opportunities for forging common ground
with others concerned with patterns and processes of inequality and injustice
from local to global levels.
acknowledgements
I am grateful for the helpful comments and suggestions of three referees and
the interactions with various activists and policy makers that have informed
the analysis in this article.
notes
1. This is not to suggest that protest against environmental injustice only started at
this time. There is a long history in many places around the world of collective
action against environmental abuse, in particular the impacts of resource exploitation
on indigenous communities. The temporal positioning here is concerned specifically
with the use of the language of environmental justice in the naming and framing
of environmental concerns, campaigns and groups.
2. As noted earlier, while a rhetoric of international and global environmental justice
could be found, the practice of the majority of environmental justice activism in
the USA was far more local.
references
Adeola, F.O. (2000) Cross-national Environmental Injustice and Human Rights
Issues: A Review of Evidence American Behavioral Scientist 43(4): 686706.
Agyeman, J. (1987) Black People in a White Landscape: Social and Environmental
Justice, Built Environment 16(3): 232236.
Agyeman, J., Bullard, R. and Evans, B. (eds) (2003) Just Sustainabilities: Development in
an Unequal World. London: Earthscan.
Agyeman, J. and Evans, B. (2004) Just Sustainability: The Emerging Discourse of
Environmental Justice in Britain?, Geographical Journal 170(2): 155164.
Anand, R. (2004) International Environmental Justice: A North South Dimension.
Burlington, VT: Ashgate.
Bandy, J. and Smith, J. (eds) (2005) Coalitions Across Borders: Transnational Protest and
the Neoliberal Order. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Barnett, C. and Scott, D. (2007) Spaces of Opposition: Activism and Deliberation in
Post-apartheid Environmental Politics, Environment and Planning A 39: 261231.
Beckman, L. and Page, E. (2008) Perspectives on Justice, Democracy and Global
Climate Change, Environmental Politics 17(4): 52735.
Benford, R. (2005) The Half-Life of the Environmental Justice Frame: Innovation,
Diffusion and Stagnation, in D.N. Pellow and R.J. Brulle (eds) Power, Justice and the
Environment: A Critical Appraisal of the Environmental Justice Movement (pp. 3754).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
376 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Benford, R.D. and Snow, D.A. (2000) Framing Processes and Social Movements: An
Overview and Assessment, Annual Review of Sociology 26: 1139.
Block, W. and Whitehead, R. (1999) The Unintended Consequences of Environmental
Justice, Forensic Science International 100(12): 5767.
Boardman, B., Bullock, S. and McLaren, D. (1999) Equity and the Environment.
London: Catalyst Trust.
Bond, P. (2000) Economic Growth, Ecological Modernization or Environmental
Justice?: Conflicting Discourses in South African Today, Capitalism, Nature,
Socialism 11(1): 3161.
Bowen, W. (2002) An Analytical Review of Environmental Justice Research: What
Do We Really Know?, Environmental Management 29(1): 315.
Brecher, J., Costello, T. and Smith, B. (2000) Globalization from Below: The Power of
Solidarity. Cambridge: South End.
Brown, P. (1995) Race, Class, and Environmental Health: Review and Systematization
of the Literature, Environmental Research 69(1): 1530.
Brulle, R.J. and Pellow, D.N. (2005) The Future of Environmental Justice
Movements, in R.J. Brulle and D.N. Pellow (eds) Power, Justice and the Environment:
A Critical Appraisal of the Environmental Justice Movement (pp. 293300). Boston,
MA: MIT Press.
Bryant, B. (2003) History and Issues of the Environmental Justice Movement , in
G.R. Visgilio and D.M. Whitelaw(eds) Our Backyard, AQuest for Environmental Justice
(pp. 324). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Bulkeley, H. and Walker, G. (2005) Environmental Justice: A New Agenda for the
UK, Local Environment 10(4): 32932.
Bullard, R. (ed.) (2005) The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics
of Pollution. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books.
Bullard, R.D. (1999) Dismantling Environmental Racismin the USA, Local Environment
4(1): 519.
Cable, S., Mix, T. and Hastings, D. (2005) Mission Impossible?: Environmental Justice
Activists Collaborations with Professional Environmentalists and with Academics, in
D.N. Pellowand R.J. Brulle (eds) Power, Justice and the Environment: ACritical Appraisal
of the Environmental Justice Movement (pp. 5576). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Capek, S.M. (1993) The Environmental Justice Frame: A Conceptual Discussion
and an Application, Social Problems 40(1): 524.
Carruthers, D.V. (2008) The Globalization of Environmental Justice: Lessons from
the U.S.-Mexico Border, Society and Natural Resources 21(7): 55668.
Chalmers, H. and Colvin, J. (2005) Addressing Environmental Inequalities in UK
Policy: An Action Research Perspective, Local Environment 10(4): 33360.
Chang, J. and Hwang, L. (2000) Its A Survival Issue: The Environmental Justice
Movement Faces the New Century, Colour Lines 3(2): 18.
Curtice, J., Ellaway, A., Robertson, C., Morris, G., Allardice, G. and Robertson, R.
(2005) Public Attitudes and Environmental Justice in Scotland: A Report for the Scottish
Executive on Research to Inform the Development and Evaluation of Environmental Justice
Policy. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive.
Dawson, J.I. (2000) The Two Faces of Environmental Justice: Lessons from the Eco-
nationalist Phenomenon, Environmental Politics 9(2): 2260.
Debbane, A.M. and Keil, R. (2004) Multiple Disconnections: Environmental Justice
and Urban Water in Canada and South Africa, Space and Polity 8(2): 20925.
Dobson, A. (1988) Justice and the Environment: Conceptions of Environmental Sustainability
and Dimensions of Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 377
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Duma, B. (2007) Environmental Justice Networking Forum: An Organisations
Struggle to Regain its Stronghold, accessed 27 October 2008, http://www.
sangonet.org.za/portal/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4739
&Itemid=374
Dunion, K. (2003) Troublemakers: The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Scotland.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Dunion, K. and Scandrett, E. (2003) The Campaign for Environmental Justice in
Scotland as a Response to Poverty in a Northern Nation, in J. Agyeman, R. Bullard and
B. Evans (eds) Just Sustainabilities: Development in an Unequal World (pp. 31122).
London: Earthscan.
Environment Agency (EA) (2004) Addressing Environmental Inequalities. Position
Statement. Bristol: Environment Agency.
Environmental Justice Climate Change Initiative (2008) Home Page, accessed 26
October 2008, http://www.ejcc.org
Faber, D.R. (2005) Building a Transnational Environmental Justice Movement:
Obstacles and Opportunities in the Age of Globalization, in J. Bandy and J. Smith
(eds) Coalitions Across Borders: Transnational Protest and the Neoliberal Order (pp. 43
68). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Fairburn, J., Walker, G. and Smith, G. (2005) Investigating Environmental Justice in
Scotland: Links Between Measures of Environmental Quality and Social Deprivation
Report. Edinburgh: Scottish and Northern Ireland Forum for Environmental
Research.
Friends of the Earth (2000) Pollution Injustice. London: Friends of the Earth (England
and Wales).
Friends of the Earth (2001) Pollution and Poverty: Breaking the Link. London: Friends
of the Earth (England and Wales).
Friends of the Earth Scotland (1999) The Campaign for Environmental Justice.
Edinburgh: Friends of the Earth Scotland.
Gamson, W.A. (1992) Talking Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Goffman, E. (1974) Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience.
New York: Harper.
Gouldson, A. (2006) Do Firms Adopt Lower Standards in Poorer Areas?: Corporate
Social Responsibility and Environmental Justice in the EU and the US, Area
38(4): 40212.
Harvey, D. (1996) Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference. Oxford: Blackwell.
Hilz, C. (1992) The International Toxic Waste Trade. NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Holifield, R. (2001) Defining Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism, Urban
Geography 22(1): 7890.
Holifield, R. (2004) Neoliberalism and Environmental Justice in the United States
Environmental Protection Agency: Translating Policy into Managerial Practice in
Hazardous Waste Remediation, Geoforum 35(3): 28597.
Iles, A. (2004) Mapping Environmental Justice in Technology Flows: Computer Waste
Impacts in Asia, Global Environmental Politics 4(4): 76107.
Jackson, T. and Illsley, B. (2007) An Analysis of the Theoretical Rationale for Using
Strategic Environmental Assessment to Deliver Environmental Justice in the Light
of the Scottish Environmental Assessment Act, Environmental Impact Assessment
Review 27(7): 60723.
Jacobs, M. (1999) Environmental Modernisation: The New Labour Agenda. London:
Fabian Society.
378 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Kalan, H. and Peek, B. (2005) South African Perspectives on Transational Environmental
Justice Networks, in D.N. Pellow and R.J. Brulle (eds) Power, Justice and the
Environment: A Critical Appraisal of the Environmental Justice Movement (pp. 25363).
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kurtz, H.E. (2002) The Politics of Environmental Justice as the Politics of Scale:
St James Parish, Louisiana and the Shintech Siting Controversy, in A. Herod and
M. Wright (eds.) Geographies of Power: Placing Scale (pp. 24973). Oxford: Blackwell.
Kurtz, H.E. (2007) Gender and Environmental Justice in Louisiana: Blurring the
Boundaries of Public and Private Spheres, Gender, Place and Culture 14(4): 409.
Low, N. and Gleeson, B. (1998) Justice, Society and Nature: An Exploration of Political
Ecology. London: Routledge.
Lucas, K., Walker, G., Eames, M., Fay, H. and Poustie, M. (2004) Environment and
Social Justice: Rapid Research and Evidence Review. London: Sustainable Development
Research Network and Policy Studies Institute.
Martinez-Alier, J. (2001) Mining Conflicts, Environmental Justice, and Valuation,
Journal of Hazardous Materials 86(13): 15370.
Martinez-Alier, J. (2002) The Environmentalism of the Poor: A Study of Ecological Conflicts
and Valuation. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
McConnell, J. (2002) First Ministers Speech on the Scottish Executive Policy on
environment and sustainable development to the Dynamic Earth Conference,
Edinburgh, 18 February 2002. Accessed 16 August 2005, http://www.scotland.gov.
uk/News/ News-Extras/57
McDonald, D.A. (2002) Environmental Justice in South Africa. Cape Town: University
of Cape Town Press.
McDonald, D.A. (2005) Environmental Racism and Neo-Liberal Disorder in South
Africa, in R.D. Bullard (ed.) The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and
the Politics of Pollution. San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books.
Mohai, P. and Saha, R. (2006) Reassessing Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in
Environmental Justice Research, Demography 43(2): 38399.
Mutz, K., Gary, C.B. and Douglas, S.K., (eds) (2002) Justice and Natural Resources:
Concepts, Strategies, and Applications. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Newell, P. (2005) Race, Class and the Global Politics of Environmental Inequality,
Global Environmental Politics 5(3): 7094.
Newell, P. (2007) Trade and Environmental Justice in Latin America, New Political
Economy 12(2): 23759.
ORiordan, T., Preston-Whyte, R. and Manqele, M. (2000) The Transition to
Sustainability: A South African Perspective, South African Geographical Journal
82(2): 134.
Oelofse, C., Scott, D., Oelofse, G. and Houghton, J. (2006) Shifts Within Ecological
Modernization in South Africa: Deliberation, Innovation and Institutional
Opportunities, Local Environment 11(1): 6178.
Okereke, C. (2006) Global Environmental Sustainability: Intragenerational Equity and
Conceptions of Justice in Multilateral Environmental Regimes, Geoforum37(5): 72538.
Paavola, J. (2008) Science and Social Justice in the Governance of Adaptation to
Climate Change, Environmental Politics 17(4): 64459.
Page, E.A. (2007) Fairness on the Day after Tomorrow: Justice, Reciprocity and Global
Climate Change, Political Studies 55(1): 22542.
Patel, Z. (2006) Of Questionable Value: The Role of Practitioners inBuilding Sustainable
Cities, Geoforum 37(5): 68294.
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 379
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Patel, Z. (2009) Environmental Justice in South Africa: Tools and Trade-offs, Social
Dynamics 35(1): 94110.
Pellow, D.N. (2007) Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental
Justice. Boston, MA: MIT Press.
Pellow, D.N., Steger, T. and McLain, R. (2005) Proceedings from the Transatlantic
Initiative to Promote Environmental Justice Workshop, Central European University,
Budapest, Hungary, 2730 October, http://cepl.ceu.hu/system/files/Final (accessed
28/10/2008)
Poustie, M. (2004) Environmental Justice in SEPAs Environmental Protection Activities: A
Report for the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Glasgow: University of
Strathclyde Law School.
Radick, L. (2008) Global Warming More Harmful to Low-income Minorities, Medill
Reports, accessed 26 October 2008, http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/
washington/news.aspx?id=95563&print=1
Republic of South Africa (1996) The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa.
Cape Town: RSA.
Routledge, P., Nativel, C. and Cumbers, A. (2006) Entangled Logics and Grassroots
Imaginaries of Global Justice Networks, Environmental Politics 15(5): 83959.
Sandweiss, S. (1998) The Social Construction of Environmental Justice, in
D. Camacho (ed.) Environmental Injustices, Political Struggles (pp. 3158). Durham,
NC: Duke University Press.
Scandrett, E. (2007) Environmental justice in Scotland: Policy, Pedagogy and Praxis,
Environmental Research Letters 2(4): 045002.
Schlosberg, D. (1999) Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Schlosberg, D. (2007) Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements and Nature.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schroeder, R., Martin, K.S., Wilson, B. and Sen, D. (2008) Third World Environmental
Justice, Society & Natural Resources 21(7): 54755.
Scott, D. and Oelofse, C. (2005) Social and Environmental Justice inSouthAfricanCities:
Including Invisible Stakeholders in Environmental Assessment Procedures,
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 48(3): 44568.
Scottish Executive (2002) Meeting the Needs: Priorities Actions and Targets for
Sustainable Development in Scotland, Paper 2002/14, Scottish Executive,
Edinburgh.
Shrader-Frechette, K. (2002) Environmental Justice: Creating Equality, Reclaiming
Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Smith, J.G. and Johnston, H., (eds) (2002) Globalization and Resistance: Transnational
Dimensions of Social Movements. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Steger, T. (ed.) (2007) Making the Case for Environmental Justice in Central and Eastern
Europe. Budapest: CEUCenter for Environmental Policy andLaw(CEPL), The Health
and Environment Alliance (HEAL) and The Coalition for Environmental Justice.
Stein, R. (2004) New Perspectives on Environmental Justice: Gender, Sexuality and Activism.
Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Stephens, C., Bullock, S. and Scott, A. (2001) Environmental Justice: Rights and Means
to a Healthy Environment For All. Swindon: ESRC Global Environmental Change
Programme.
Sze, J. andLondon, J.K. (2008) Environmental Justice at the Crossroads, Sociology Compass
2(4): 133154.
380 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
Taylor, D.E. (2000) The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm: Injustice Framing
and the Social Construction of Environmental Discourses, American Behavioural
Scientist 43(4): 50880.
Towers, G. (2000) Applying the Political Geography of Scale: Grassroots Strategies
and Environmental Justice, Professional Geographer 52(1): 2336.
Trainor, S.F., Chapin, F.S., Huntington, H.P., Natcher, D.C. and Kofinas, G. (2007)
Arctic Climate Impacts: Environmental Injustice in Canada and the United States,
Local Environment 12(6): 62743.
UK Government (1999) A Better Quality of Life: The UK Strategy for Sustainable
Development. London: Her Majesties Stationery Office.
Vermeylen, S. (2007) Contextualizing Fair and Equitable: The Sans Reflections
on the Hoodia Benefit-Sharing Agreement, Local Environment 12(4): 42336.
Walker, G. and Bulkeley, H. (2006) Geographies of Environmental Justice,
Geoforum 37(5): 65559.
Walker, G., Burningham, K., Fielding, J., Smith, G., Thrush, D. and Fay, H. (2007)
Addressing Environmental Inequalities: Flood Risk. Bristol: Environment Agency.
Walker, G., Mitchell, G., Fairburn, J. and Smith, G. (2003) Environmental Quality and
Social Deprivation. Phase II: National Analysis of Flood Hazard, IPC Industries and Air
Quality. Bristol: The Environment Agency.
Walker, G.P., Fairburn, J. and Bickerstaff, K. (2001) Ethnicity and Risk: the
Characteristics of Populations in Census Wards Containing Major Accident Hazards
in England and Wales, Occasional Papers Series A. Stoke on Trent: Department of
Geography Staffordshire University.
Wenz, P.S. (1988) Environmental Justice. Albany, NY: Suny Press.
Williams, G. and Mawdsley, E. (2006) Postcolonial Environmental Justice:
Government and Governance in India, Geoforum 37(5): 66070.
rsum
La Globalisation de la Justice Environnementale: la Gographie
et la Politique de la Contextualisation et de lvolution du Cadre
Lemploi du langage de la justice environnementale, comme cadre pour laction col-
lective en ce qui concerne les proccupations socio-environnementales, a volu bien
au-del de sa formulation originale aux Etats-Unis. Cet article examine deux faons
dans lesquelles lemploi du cadre de justice environnementale sest globalis. La pre-
mire entrane la naissance des ides, des significations et des processus dencadrement
dans plusieurs cadres nouveaux autour du monde. Larticle tudie la diffusion hori-
zontale dun cadre de justice environnementale, en tudiant les processus de transfert,
de reproduction et de contextualisation qui ont eu lieu dans les cultures politiques et
institutionnelles de diffrents pays. Les cas du Royaume Uni et de lAfrique du sud
sont examins en dtail. La deuxime faon entrane la prolongation verticale du
cadre de justice environnementale afin dinclure les proccupations qui ne terminent
pas aux frontires nationales, mais qui entranent des relations entre les pays et les
sujets dimportance mondiale, tels que les accords commerciaux, les transferts de
dchets et le changement climatique. On considre les implications de ces deux
changements, les tensions qui ont surgi, et leur pertinence avec la poursuite des objec-
tifs progressifs de politique sociale globale.
Walker: Globalizing Environmental Justice 381
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from
resumen
La Globalizacin de la Justicia Medioambiental: La Geografa y
la Poltica de la Contextualizacin y la Evolucin del Marco
El uso del lenguaje de la justicia medioambiental como marco para la accin colectiva
en las preocupaciones socio-medioambientales se ha desarrollado mucho ms all de
su formulacin original en los EEUU. Este documento examina dos maneras en las
cuales el uso del marco de justicia medioambiental se ha globalizado. La primera se
trata de la aparicin internacional de ideas, significados y procesos de marco en nuevos
entornos alrededor del mundo. El documento detalla la difusin horizontal de un
marco de justicia medioambiental, examinando los procesos de transferencia, repro-
duccin y contextualizacin que han ocurrido dentro de las culturas polticas e institu-
cionales de varios pases. Los casos del Reino Unido y de la Sudfrica estn examinados
rigurosamente. La segunda manera se trata de la ampliacin vertical del marco de justicia
medioambiental para englobar las preocupaciones que no terminan a las fronteras
nacionales, sino que suponen relaciones entre los pases y los asuntos a escala global,
como los acuerdos comerciales, la transferencia de desechos y el cambio climtico. Se
considera las implicaciones de estos dos cambios, las tensiones que surgieron a su alrede-
dor, y su relacin con la bsqueda de objetivos progresivos de poltica social global.
bi ographi cal note
GORDON WALKER is Professor in the Department of Geography at the Lancaster
Environment Centre, Lancaster University. Please address correspondence to:
Gordon Walker, Department of Geography, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1
4YQ, UK. [email: [email protected]]
382 Global Social Policy 9(3)
at UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN on December 5, 2010 gsp.sagepub.com Downloaded from