QQM 1023 Managerial Mathematics

lim f(x)
xÆ a

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS

Perhaps you have heard about speed limit. What does the word “limit”
means to you??

Or maybe you have been in a parking-lot situation in which you must

“inch up” to the car in front, but yet you do not want to bump or touch
it. This notation of getting closer and closer to something, but yet not
touching it, is very important in mathematics and is involved in the
concept of limits.

Basically, we will let a variable “inch up” to a particular value and

examine the effect it has on the values of a function.

6.2 DEFINITION OF LIMITS

Limits is based on the idea “getting closer to something”

or “approaching something but yet not touching it”.

• The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is the number L, written

lim f ( x) = L
x →c
provided that f(x) is arbitrarily close to L for all x sufficiently close to,
but not equal to, c.

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• We emphasize that, when finding a limit, we are concerned not with

what happens to f(x) when x equals c, but only with what happens
to f(x) when x is close to c.
• Moreover, a limit must be independent of the way in which x
approaches c. That is, the limit must be the same whether x
approaches c from the left or from the right(for x < c or x > c,
respectively).

• For example:

Let say; ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, the limit for this function as x is

approaching the value of 1 is denoted by:

lim f ( x ) = lim(2 x + 1)
x→2 x→2

• In this case, x can approach 1 from both side:

i) Left : denoted by x → 2− , means x can take values that are

less than and close to 2 (1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999….etc)

ii) Right: denoted by x → 2+ , means that x can take values

that are greater and closer to 2 (2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001…)
• There are three ways for us to obtain the limits of a function:
ÆUsing the table of values
ÆFrom the graph
ÆUsing Algebra

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6.3 ESTIMATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: USING THE TABLE

Suppose that we are given a function,

f ( x) = 3x 2 − 1
and we would like to examine what is the value (limit) of this function as

the input (x) approaches 4. In other word we try to solve this question;

(
lim f ( x ) = lim 3x 2 − 1
x →4 x →4
)
As we know, x can approach 4 in either way, left or right;

Step 1:

x approach 4 from left: x → 4 − therefore the value of x must be less

than but close to 4:

x = 3.9 , x = 3.99 , x = 3.999 , x = 3.9999

Closest to 4
Closer to 4
Closer to 4
Less than

Substitute the selected values of x to examine the effect on f (x):

f ( x ) = 3x 2 − 1
When x = 3.9
f (3.9 ) = 3(3.9 )2 − 1 = 44.63

f ( x ) = 3x 2 − 1
When x = 3.99
f (3.99 ) = 3(3.99 )2 − 1 = 46.7603

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x = 3.999 and
Carry on with value of x that are closer to 4 like
x = 3.9999 . What can you conclude?? Æ as x approach 4 (from
left) f(x) will approach ??

You can also observe the limit for a function through table:
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999

f (x)
x → 4−
Table:

From the table, we can see that, as x approach 4 from the left, f ( x )

is getting closer (approach) to the value of 47 or

(
lim− f ( x ) = lim− 3x 2 − 1 ≈ 47
x→4 x→4
)
Step 2:

Similarly, now let us examine if x approach 4 from the right: x → 4+

where the values of x must be greater than 4. Select a few values of x
that are greater than 4 (but remember it must be close to 4) like

x = 4.1, x = 4.01, x = 4.001 and x = 4.0001. Examine the

effects on f(x) from the table:

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001

f (x)
Table: x → 4+

From the table, we can see that, as x approach 4 from the right, f (x)
is getting closer (approach) to the value of 47 or

(
lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ 3x 2 − 1 ≈ 47
x→4 x →4
)
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Step 3:

As lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) ≈ 47
x→4− EQUAL x→4+

Therefore we can conclude x → 4 (

lim f ( x ) = lim 3x 2 − 1 = 47
x →4
)

DEFINITION 6.3.1:
The limit of a function exist, if and only if the limit
of the function measured from both side (left/right)
are equal.

NOTES: If
lim f ( x ) ≠ lim+ f (x ) ,
x→a − x→a
therefore
lim f ( x ) DOES NOT EXIST
x→ a
a = any value

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Example 1:

x3 − 1
Given f (x) = , find the limit for f ( x ) as x approach 1.
x −1
Solution :

Step 1:

Build the table for x approaching 1 from the left : x <1

x 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

f (x)
Table : x → 1−

As x approaching 1 from the left, we can see that f (x ) is

approaching 3 or:

 x3 −1
lim f ( x ) = lim−   ≈ 3
x →1− x →1
 x − 1 
Step 2:

Build the table for x approaching 1 from the right : x >1

x 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001

f (x)
Table : x → 1+

As x approaching 1 from the right, we can see that f (x ) is

approaching 3 or:

 x3 −1
lim f ( x ) = lim+   ≈ 3
x →1+ x →1
 x −1 

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Step 3:

As lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) ≈ 3
x →1− EQUAL x →1+

 x3 −1
Therefore, lim f ( x ) = lim  = 3
x →1 x →1
 x − 1 

Example 2:
1
lim
Determine whether x →3 ( x − 3) exist or not?

Solution :

Step 1:

Build the table for x approaching 3 from the left : x<3

x 2.9 2.99 2.999 2.9999

f (x)
Table : x → 3−

As x approaching 3 from the left, we can see that f (x ) is

approaching -10000 or:

1
lim− f ( x ) = lim− = −10000 ≈ ??
x →3 x →3 (x − 3)
(where the closer x gets to 3, the smaller f ( x ) will be Æ approaching -
∝)

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Step 2:
Build the table for x approaching 3 from the right : x>3
x 3.1 3.01 3.001 3.0001

f (x)
Table : x → 3+

As x approaching 3 from the right, we can see that f (x ) is

approaching 10000 or:

1
lim+ f ( x ) = lim+ = 10000 ≈ ??
x→3 x→3 (x − 3)
(where f ( x ) is getting bigger as x approach 3 from right)

Step 3:

As
lim f ( x ) ≠ lim+ f ( x )
x →3− x →3

1
lim f ( x ) = lim =
Therefore, x →3 x →3 ( x − 3) ????

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6.4 ESTIMATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: FROM THE GRAPH

Another way to obtain the limit of a function is from the graph.

Example 3:

Based on the graph for the function f ( x ) , we can examine the

limit for this function as x approach 1:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

→ → x → 1− 1+ ← x ← ←

a) Find

i) lim f (x ) ii) lim f ( x )

x →1− x →1+

iii) lim f ( x )
x →1

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Example 4:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

→ → x → 2− 2+ ← x ← ←

b) Find

i) lim f ( x ) ii) lim f ( x )

x →2 − x →2 +

iii)
lim f ( x )
x→2

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Example 5:

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x

→ → x → −1− − 1+ ← x ← ←

c) Find

i) lim f ( x ) ii) lim f ( x )

( )
x → −1− ( )
x → −1+

iii) lim f (x ) iv) f (− 1)

x →( −1)

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6.5 ESTIMATING LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: BY USING ALGEBRA

PROPERTIES OF LIMITS:

PROPERTY 1

lim c = c
i) x → a where c is a constant

Example 6:

a)
lim 7 =
x→2

b)
lim e =
x →5

PROPERTY 2

lim x n = a n
ii) x → a

Example 7:

a) x →3
lim x 2 =

b) lim x1 / 3 =
x → 27

c) lim x1.3 =
x →e

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Let say:

lim f ( x ) = L and
lim g ( x ) = M
x→a x→a

where L and M are real numbers, therefore:

PROPERTY 3

lim[ f (x ) ± g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x )

iii) x → a x→a x→a

= L ± M

PROPERTY 4

lim[ f ( x ).g (x )] = lim f (x ). lim g ( x )

iv) x → a x→a x→a

=LxM

PROPERTY 5

lim[c. f (x )] = c. lim f (x )
v) x → a x→a

=cL
PROPERTY 6

lim n f ( x ) = n lim f ( x )
vi) x → a x→a

n
= L

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Example 8:

Given f ( x) = 2 x + 3 and g ( x) = x 2 + 1 . Find

a) lim(2 x + 3) =
x→2

b) lim( x 2 + 1) =
x→2

c)
[
lim (2 x + 3) − ( x 2 + 1) =
x→2
]

d) lim(2 x + 3)( x 2 + 1) =
x→2

e) lim e( x 2 + 1) =
x→2

f) lim (2 x + 3) =
x→2

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PROPERTIES OF LIMITS FOR RATIONAL FUNCTION:

If:

lim f ( x ) = L and
lim g ( x ) = M
x →a x→a

where L and M are real numbers, therefore:

f (x )
h(x) =
The limit for the rational function :
g (x ) , is obtain by

f (x ) L
lim h( x) = lim =
x→a x → a g (x ) M
However, there are 4 possibilities for the values of L and M that will
define the limit for this function:

POSSIBILITY 1 L ≠ 0 and M ≠ 0
Therefore;

f (x ) L
lim = ≠0
x→a g (x ) M

Example 9:
Given:
f ( x) = 5 x − 4 and g ( x) = 3x + 7

Find:
a) lim (5 x − 4) =
x →3

b) lim(3 x + 7) =
x →3

(5 x − 4)
c) lim =
x →3 (3 x + 7)

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Example 10:
Find:
x−2
a) lim
x →3 x −8

x2 − 5
b) lim =
x →2 1 − x

POSSIBILITY 2 L =0 and M ≠ 0
Therefore;

f (x ) 0
lim = =0
x→a g (x ) M
Example 11:
x−4
lim
a) x→4 =
x+2

2x − 4
b) lim =
x →2 3

POSSIBILITY 3 L ≠ 0 and M = 0

Therefore;

f (x ) L
lim = → DOES NOT EXIST
x→a g (x ) 0

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Example 12:

x
a) lim =
x →3 x−3

4x
b) lim =
x→3 2 x − 6

POSSIBILITY 3 L = 0 and M = 0

f (x ) 0 LIMIT MIGHT/MIGHT NOT EXIST

lim = →
x→a g (x ) 0
• To determine whether the limit exist/not, check whether we
can simplify the function.

Example 13:

x−2
lim
a) x→2 =
x2 − 4

3x 2 − 7 x + 2
b) lim =
x →2 x−4

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CONCEPTS OF INFINITY (∞)

i) a+∞=∞
ii) ∞+a=∞
iii) a - ∞ = -∞
iv) ∞-a=∞
v) a.∞ = ∞
vi) a(-∞) = - ∞
vii) a=0
∞
viii) ∞=∞
a
ix) ∞n = ∞; for n>0
x) ∞n = 0; for n<0
xi) ∞n = 1; for n=0

xii)
n
∞ =∞
* a is constant

6.5.1 LIMIT AT INFINITY (∞)

i) Limits at infinity for a constant function:

lim a = a where a is constant.

x →∞

Limit of a constant function will always remain no matter what value

does x approaching.

Example 14:

Find:
a) lim π =
x →∞

b) lim 2.718 =
x → −∞

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ii) Limit at infinity for polynomial function:

lim ax n = a.∞ n where a is constant.

x →∞
To find limit at infinity for a polynomial function, simply substitutes the
input (x) with ∝.

Example 15:
Find;

a) lim (3 x 2
+ 1) =
x →∞

b) lim(2 x 5 + x 4 − 1000) =
x→∞

f ( x) → numerator
iii) Limit at infinity for rational function: h( x) =
g ( x) → deno min ator
Steps to obtain limit at infinity for rational function;
i. Exclude all terms except the one with the greatest power for
numerator and denominator.
ii. Simplify the remaining terms
iii. Substitutes x with ∞ or -∝
iv. Find the limit for the function.

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Example 16:

2x4 + x2 − 3
a) lim 3 =
x→∞ x + x + 2

2 x3 + x 2 − 3
b) lim 3 =
x→∞ x + x + 2

x +1
c) lim =
x→∞ 2 x 2 + 5x

Chapter 6: Limits 163