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2. Study and measure voltages of SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)
The SMPS converts mains AC electricity to the DC voltages required by chips, motors and circuits in the PC.
SMPS contain potentially lethal mains voltages.
Unless specially trained, you must not dismantle a SMPS while it is powered.
In addition, with power removed some internal components store enough electrical charge to give a very painful shock.
1. Understand the importance of earthing. Measure the voltages of single phase 3 pin socket between the
points: Phase - Neutral, Neutral Earth and Phase-Earth. (Have guest lectures about method and type of
earthing).

The earth is an important concept with electrical wiring because the earth does not carry a current. As such, any
electricity will flow to the earth if it escapes from an electric flex or cable. This phenomenon occurs because the
neutral wire is purposely connected to the earth in order to help prevent someone from getting shocked by the
electricity.



3 pin socket
AC voltage in 3 pin socket is measuring by using Digital / Analog
Multimeter.While measuring the voltage first need to set the AC
voltage in multimeter as 750 V and then check the voltage by using
probe connectors, one as common(Black) and another one(Red) for
voltage check. Then the fallowing results will appear as per
condition.

Condition 1: When perfect Earthing

Voltage between
Phase-Earth = 230 V for all phase
Phase-Neutral = 225V to 230V it depends up on the phase balance
conditions
Neutral-Earth = 5V to 0V

*In balanced condition the voltage between neutral and earth
is zero, if perfectly earthed.

Condition 2: When wrong Earthing

Voltage between
Phase-Earth = 230 V for all phase
Phase-Neutral = Less than 225V
Neutral-Earth = Greater than 5V

*Here Earth is also called Ground

Note:-Every electrical installations has
earthings if it has single earthing without
joints

Neutral-earth-0 volts

With joints
Neutral-Earth= + or - 5volts
Between Phase-neutral
Phase-Earth=230volts



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The switch-mode SMPS used in PCs work by switching larger voltages on and off rapidly to give a lower average
voltage. These circuits rely upon feedback loops and are therefore difficult to fault-find without expert knowledge.
Voltages
There are five main DC voltages produced by SMPSs: +3.3V, +5V, 5V, +12V and 12V. The SMPS also provide the main
system ground those current returns along. 3.3V is used by the processor, 5V by system board ICs, expansion cards and
disk drives. The 12V levels typically power expansion cards and disk drive motors.
Some SMPSs allow mains power to be passed through to the display screen.
AT
The older supply used by AT systems has two 6-pin connectors (labeled P8 & P9) that connect to the system board. It is
possible to connect P8 & P9 round the wrong way if this happens then the system board will fry!

ATX
ATX style SMPSs use a single 20-pin adaptor, but may also sport auxiliary connectors for system boards requiring higher
currents.


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Some companies like Dell use their own custom designs for SMPS connection.
Voltages
The main connector carries 12V, 5V and 3.3V supplies.

The first auxiliary connector looks like the old P8/P9 ones.

The second is a four-pin adaptor that supplies additional 12V lines.


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Soft power
The main difference between AT and ATX systems is that ATX is designed to be switched on and off by software control.
To enable this, some parts of the system board are powered continuously, so that components can sense a wake-up
signal (such as the power button at the front of the case).
Therefore, switch mains power off before removing expansion cards.





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3.
Drawing the motherboard layout (any latest processor) and studying the chipset through data books or Internet

Mother Board Layout 1
A computer motherboard diagram is very useful for when you need toreplace motherboard, do motherboard
upgrades, troubleshoot motherboard, or build your own computer.
A. PCI Slot - This board has 2 PCI slots. These can be used for components such as Ethernet cards, sound cards,
and modems.
B. PCI-E 16x Slot - There are 2 of them on this motherboard diagram, both are blue. These are used for
your graphics card. With two of them onboard, you can run 2 graphics cards in SLI. You would only need this
if you are a gamer, or working with high end video / graphics editing. These are the 16x speed versions,
which are currently the fastest.
C. PCI-E 1x Slot - Single slot - In the PCIe 1.x generation, each lane (1x) carries 250 MB/s compared to 133
MB/s for the PCI slots. These can be used for expansion cards such as Sound Cards, or Ethernet Cards.
D. Northbridge - This is the Northbridge for this motherboard. This allows communication between the CPU
and the system memory and PCI-E slots.
E. ATX 12V 2X and 4 Pin Power Connection Power Connection - This is one of two power connections that
supply power to the motherboard. This connection will come from your Power Supply.
F. CPU-Fan Connection - This is where your CPU fan will connect. Using this connection over one from your
power supply will allow the motherboard to control the speed of your fan, based on the CPU temperature.
G. Socket - This is where your CPU will plug in. The orange bracket that is surrounding it is used for high end
heat sinks. It helps to support the weight of the heat sink.
H. Memory Slots - These are the slots for your RAM. Most boards will have 4 slots, but some will only have 2.
The color coding you see on the motherboard diagram is used to match up RAM for Dual-Channel. Using
them this way will give your memory a speed boost.
I. ATX Power Connector - This is the second of two power connections. This is the main power connection for
the motherboard, and comes from the Power Supply.
J. IDE Connection - The IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) is the connection for your hard drive or CD / DVD
drive. Most drives today come with SATA connections, so you may not use this.
K. Southbridge - This is the controller for components such as the PCI slots, onboard audio, and USB
connections.
L. SATA Connections - These are 4 of the 6 SATA connections on the motherboard. These will be used for hard
drives, and CD / DVD drives.
M. Front Panel Connections - this is where you will hook in the connections from your case. These are mostly
the different lights on your case, such as power on, hard drive activity etc.
N. FDD Connection - The FDD is the Floppy Disk controller. If you have a floppy disk drive in your computer,
this is where you will hook it up.
O. External USB Connections - This is where you will plug in external USB connections for your case or USB
bracket.
P. CMOS battery - This is the motherboard's battery. This is used to allow the CMOS to keep its settings.



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Mother Board Layout 2








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Mother Board Layout 3


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Processor Socket /Supporter:-this is the where processor chip (CPU) will plug in.
Motherboard power supply connector: - This is the main power connection for the motherboard, and
comes from the Power Supply (SMPS).
Chipset 1 and 2:- Chipset 1 is for Northbridge communication and chipset 2 for Southbridge
communication.
Processor power supply connector: - This is one of two power connections that supply power to
the motherboard and for CPU fan. This connection will come from your Power Supply.
Ram Connector /Slot: - Slots to use to plug Ram memories.
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) Slot: - Use to plug Graphics card, you would only need this if you are
a gamer, or working with high end video / graphics editing.
BIOS (Basic Input Output System) :- The bios (firmware program) used to be stored on an EPROM with
the settings stored in a low power memory (CMOS) which was kept alive by a little watch battery on
the motherboard - which also powered the clock when the computer was turned off.
CMOS battery: - This is the motherboard's battery. This is used to allow the CMOS to keep its settings.
PCI (Peripheral Component Interface) slots: - be used for plug external / extra components such as
Ethernet cards, sound cards, and modems.
Jumpers: - Basically they are a manual switches, that can be closed by shorting them with a jumper
cap. Some examples are jumpers that set the CPU speed, or reset the BIOS memory.
Disk drive and floppy drive connectors: - used to connect IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics)hard disk
drive and floppy disk drive.
Audio chip: - It contains compatible program of audio.
I/O Connector:-Used to connect I/O devices such as keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer and etc.
Case fan power supply connector:-Used to plug case fan connector.


Chipset
Chipset
A chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors, because it controls
communications between the processor and external devices. It is a number of integrated circuits designed to
perform one or more related functions. For example, one chipset may provide the basic functions of a modem
while another provides the CPU functions for a computer. On most motherboards the "chipset" consists of
two chips, the Northbridge and the Southbridge.


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4. CMOS setup of any latest PC

In order for the BIOS to control PC hardware it needs information about settings for attached devices, e.g.
which hard disk to boot from, whether on-board sound is enabled, or whether to reserve specific IRQs for
particular devices.
These settings are stored in non-volatile BIOS memory. This memory chip was traditionally battery powered
(to keep it from forgetting settings when the main power is switched off) and thus used CMOS
(Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) static RAM circuit designs, known for their low power
requirements and ability to run on a range of voltages.
CMOS Settings
Gaining access to the BIOS Setup / CMOS Settings program is not as easy as it appears. Many BIOS writers
require you to press a particular key within the first few seconds after power-on:
Del Most common: American Megatrends (AMI); Award
F2 Second most common: Advanced Logic (ALR)
Ctrl+Alt+S
Ctrl+Alt+Esc
Ctrl+Alt+Ins
Some Award / Phoenix
F1 Some IBM & Hewlett Packard
North & South Bridge
The PCI bus (see next section) requires a pairs of chips to
manage communication between parts of a PC. These
chips are known as the North Bridge (or memory controller)
and South Bridge (or I/O controller).
The bridges are collectively known as the
motherboard chipset (a term that sometimes includes the
CPU) and this chipset forms the heart of a modern
motherboard. Some chipsets include extra facilities, such
as onboard graphics or wireless networking (e.g.
Intel's Centrino chipset).
Older desktop Pentium designs feature a three-chip
chipset: the third IC interfaces the ISA bus to the PCI bus.



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Esc Toshiba
F10 Compaq
Some very old equipment (e.g. IBM PS/2) needed a special setup program from disk.
The increasing use of custom boot displays may require you to press Tab or Esc before pressing the
appropriate setup key.
Main settings
The main settings typically allow you to alter system date and time and disk drives.

There is usually a 'default' option that restores all CMOS settings back to their factory state.
Hard drives
The BIOS needs to know the hard drive size and drive settings (including number of sectors, cylinders and
heads) to be able to boot correctly. This information is usually auto-detected; the setup screen will display the
drive name and capacity. On older systems this auto-detection may need to be manually triggered.
IDE hard drives have the ability to lie about the number of sectors, cylinders and heads. This started when the
number of cylinders and sectors grew too big for normal BIOS parameters. LBA (logical block addressing)
and CHS / Large mode are two common translation methods.
Boot sequence
Usually you can specify a specific order but some BIOSes restrict you to only a few options.
Floppy drive
Hard drive(s) IDE or SCSI (note that SATA drives are often classed as SCSI by the
BIOS)
CD or DVD drive(s)
Network used by thin clients
USB


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The BIOS also offers boot-block virus protection, stopping any program from attempting to write to a disk's
MBR. This is usually left disabled because it interferes with installing operating systems and bootloaders such
as BootMagic.
Advanced settings
Motherboard FSB speed
CPU speed and core voltage often auto-detected
Dynamic RAM speed, timing and voltage
PCI PnP (plug'n'play) settings
Peripherals
Parallel port (IRQ & I/O address; enable, SPP / ECP / EPP)
Serial ports (IRQ & I/O address; enable)
USB, FireWire and IrDA (enable)
On-board devices, e.g. audio, video, network card (enable)
Security
You can specify two levels of BIOS password: a user password that is required at power-on, and
a supervisor password that is required to access CMOS settings.
Clearing a BIOS password can usually be achieved by shorting the "clear CMOS" jumpers on the
motherboard. However, this is not always practical or possible. Technicians often have special boot floppies
(or bootable CDs) containing a CMOS clearing utility such as KillCMOS. Removing the battery for a period may
clear older CMOS memories but modern motherboards use EEPROM or Flash ROM instead.
Some manufacturers use a backdoor password that will always gain access. To find these, search on the
World Wide Web for "BIOS backdoor passwords".
In extreme cases you may need to identify the RTC / CMOS chip and locate the manufacturer's data
sheet. This will tell you how to clear the settings by connecting a specific pin to 0V. In high-security systems
the chip may need to be physically replaced to clear the password.
Power management & hardware monitor
As part of the Advanced Power Management (APM) power management settings, the BIOS setup also allows
you to specify which devices are allowed to "wake up" an ATX / WTX system.
The hardware monitor shows system voltages, temperatures and fan speeds. These are particularly useful
when troubleshooting.





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5. Learn parallel port, serial port and USB port testing and Installation of Scanner, Printers and ADSL/DSL
Modems.
Parallel port
Standard Parallel Port (SPP) printer cables feature a male 25-pin D connector (DB25M) at the PC end and a
male 36-pin IEE488 commonly called a Centronics connector at the printer end. To confuse matters, the
DB25 connector is sometimes misnamed a Centronics connector.
SPP can output 150 KBps but its input capabilities are limited. Therefore, better bi-directional designs became
popular, like Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP) and Enhanced Capabilities Port (ECP). These use the same DB25
connectors as SPP but must use bidirectional (i.e. not traditional SPP) cables. EPP & ECP standards are
governed by the IEEE-1284 committee.
Historically PC line printer ports are given the device names LPT1, LPT2, etc.


Testing of Parallel Port ( Printer )

* For testing of parallel port, first need to connect the port on both end ( PC and Printer ).
* If it is shows new device found in PC window then port is working,
* After installing port if it not shows device founded message then reconnect or change the parallel port.
* Inspect the port for bent pins. Certain pins must be absolutely straight in order for the device to work
properly.

Serial Port

Serial communications, which are conducted through serial ports, involve sending bits in a serial fashion, one
bit a time. Most serial devices are external devices that plug into the PC via a serial port. Serial ports are also
called COM ports, or RS-232 ports. The external connector for a serial port can be either 9 pins or 25 pins.








Testing Of Serial Port

Inspect the port for bent pins. Certain pins must be absolutely straight in order for the
device to work properly.
Ensure that the cable is the appropriate cable for the device. Some serial devices can't
use a straight-through or null modem cable.
Check the Windows Device Manager for system resource conflicts. An IRQ conflict is the
most common error in this area. Remember, only one customer to an IRQ at a time.
Be sure that the serial cable is not more than 50 feet long. Beyond this distance, you lose
data integrity, which shows up any number of ways, none of which are good.



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USB Port

Universal Serial Bus has become the predominant connection system for PCs, laptops, many peripherals and a
range of home entertainment systems. The heart of the USB bus is the host controller (root hub) inside the
PC. It connects to peripherals directly, or via hubs or by daisy-chaining. Up to 127 peripheral devices
(including hubs) can be connected to a single host; modern PCs usually contain several host controllers

Types of USB:
USB A (left) this is the type that most users will be familiar with. It is at the end
of the lead that connects to a PC
USB B (right) this type is used at the peripheral end, allowing the cable to be
disconnected.



Installation of Local Printer (TVS MSP 345)

1. Manually Connect the parallel port (Printer port) to both (PC and printer) ends.
2. Click Start, click Control Panel, and then click Printers and Faxes.
3. Click Add Printer to start the Add Printer Wizard, and then click next.
4. Click Local printer, clear the automatically detect and install my Plug and Play printer option needs to be
selected when you dont have any information about your printer model and drivers. Click on Next.
5. Select Printer Port from drop-down menu (As LPT1)
6. Now from the left list select manufacturer of your printer (As Epson) and next click in right list on Printer
model (As Compatible 24 pin) which you want to install.
7. If unable to found driver in list then click on Have Disc button and then insert the compatible driver CD,
then click next
8. Select yes if you want to use the printer as the default printer. Click Next to continue
9. Click next; you will be prompted to print a test page. Select Yes, and then click next
10. Click on the Finish button to complete the Add Printer Wizard.


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Installation of Scanner

1. Manually Connect the USB port to both (PC and scanner) ends.
2. Insert the compatible related scanner driver CD to CD drive.
3. Click on Setup.exe file, accept the license agreement, and then click next and the select the appropriate
option and click next.
4. Click next until finish button appears. Then click finish to install scanner.


Installation of ADSL/DSL modem
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)



Installation steps of ADSL/DSL Modem

Instructions to Connecting a DSL Modem in Windows XP
1) Ensure that you have all necessary equipment to connect the broadband modem. This includes the
broadband modem, CD ROM with manual, Ethernet cable, telephone cord (in case of an ADSL modem)
and power adapter. Contact the retailer or manufacturer of the broadband modem if any of the above
equipment is missing.

2) If you have an ADSL connection, connect the telephone cord to the ADSL line port of the broadband
modem. For all other broadband connections, your Internet service provider (ISP) will install a CAT5 or
CAT6 cable that should be connected to the internet port of the broadband modem.
3)
Connect the Ethernet cable from any of the Ethernet ports on the broadband modem to the
LAN/Ethernet port of your computer.

4) Attach the power adapter to the modem, plug it in and switch it on. Verify the connectivity of all the
devices before you begin the set up process.

is a type of digital subscriber line technology, a data
communications technology that enables faster data transmission
over copper telephone lines than a conventional voice band
modem can provide. DSL filter, allows a single telephone
connection to be used for both ADSL service and voice calls at the
same time. The installation process of a DSL modem is divided into
two steps: connecting the DSL modem and setting up the DSL
connection.




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Setting up the DSL Modem
Choose your internet connection type. There are four types of broadband Internet connections-Dynamic IP
Address, Static IP Address, PPPoE/PPPoA and Bridge mode. Call your ISP to inquire which setting is most
compatible with their broadband service.
Click on the Start Menu button and select Control Panel
In the Control Panel, select Network and Internet Connections
From the Internet Connections screen, choose Network Connections
Choose Create a New Connection'
Follow the New Connection Wizard: Click Next
Select connect to the internet in network connection type, click next.
Select setup connection manually in getting ready wizard, click next.
Select connection using broadband that requires username and password, click next.
In connection name wizard - In the ISP Name field, type a name to identify your connection. Ex BSNL.
In internet account information Give username and password which is given by ISP provider. Click
next.
Check mark on add a shortcut option and click finish to complete installation.


6. Study of Diagnostic Software. (MS Office)

Installing of MS-Office

1. Insert the MS-Office CD in to the CD drive and double click on setup.exe file to run installation
2. On the initial screen, input the name of the Organization and copy and paste the product key which is
available in CD click on next to continue.
3. On the End-User License Agreement screen, place a check mark in the I accept the terms in the License
Agreement box, and then click on the install button.
4. Choose installation type (Complete), and location to where the install will reside, Click on the Next button to
continue.
5. On the Begin Installation screen, review the options that will be installed. Click install button to continue
6. Lastly get the The Microsoft Office XP Resource Kit has completed successfully, then click OK to finish.

Diagnostic of MS office

Step 1:- Open the MS-Office related program (For example MS-Word) click on help menu, and then select and
click on Detect and Repair option and then automatically its repair and also if ask for MS-office Cd then insert
the MS-Office CD.

Step 2:- Insert the MS-Office CD in to the CD drive and click on setup.exe file, if it is already MS-Office was
installed then one new installation window is appearing and then select repair radio button. Then click next to
repair it.

Step 3:- Click Start, Select setting or control panel, and then click add or remove program. Select the MS-Office
program which is showing in program list, then click remove button to uninstall the software completely. After
completion of removing the software, then do the fresh installation of MS-Office software.


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8. Disassembly and Assembling of PC and Installation of Operating System a) Windows OS b) Linux
8.1 Assembling of PC
1. Tools and equipment
Basic tools
Before you begin building or refitting a computer, you should have some basic tools:
1. #2 Phillips-head (cross-shaped) screwdriver
2. Needle-nose pliers
3. Anti-static Wrist Strap
4. A large level working space
2. The Components

1. Case and power supply
2. Video card
3. CPU
4. Motherboard
5. Memory
6. Fan and heat sink
7. Hard drive
3. Installing the Motherboard
Check the backplane template. It's the plate through which the connectors for the keyboard, mouse, etc show
through.
Lay the case on its side. Place the motherboard in the case. Make sure that all connectors on the backplane
are properly exposed through the backplane template. Fasten with 6 screws.
4. Install the CPU
Make sure that you are grounded.
Open (lift) the CPU socket lever.
Look carefully at the pin arrangement on the CPU and the CPU socket. And insert CPU to the socket lever and
press in and under to latch it. Attach the heat sink and fan.




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5. Attach the power Supply and other connectors

The power supply has a single, large, rectangular connector. Insert this in the power connector on the
motherboard.
Match the wires from the case to the connectors on the motherboard and connect.
6. Install Hard Disk and CD ROM and other devices
Place the hard disk drive in the case and fasten with 4 screw and Set the jumper on the drive (next to the
connector) to select "Master.
Connect the hard disk to the motherboard to IDE slot 1.
Connect one of the power supply cables to the CD-ROM drive and connect IDE cable from motherboard to
CD ROM.
Identify the AGP (Video card) connector slot in the motherboard. Refer to the diagram in the motherboard
manual.
Remove the backplane connector cover for the AGP slot.
Press the video card into the AGP slot. Secure it to the back plane with a screw.
7. Try It Out

Close the case.
Check to determine that the power selector on the case is set correctly. In the India, at least, it should be at
230V.
Attach connectors to the backplane for your mouse, keyboard, monitor, and power.
Power it up.
Press the Delete key to enter the BIOS setup. Review the BIOS settings. Here are a few that you may want to
pay attention to:
Time and date.
Boot devices.
8.2 Disassembling of PC
1. Unplug every cable that's plugged in to your compute.
2. After unplugging the all cable, unscrew the four screws on the back of the computer. Once the screws are
removed, you can remove the side panels.
3. The front panel clips on to the metal frame with four tabs, so you must push them in and slide the whole
panel forward.
4. Now that the case is off, so remove the system fan, which is located at the back side and then unplug the
cable of system fan and then remove the CPU heat sink fan
5. Now unplug the all cable of SMPS and unscrew the 4 screw holding the power supply and then remove


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the SMPS.
6. 6.Unplug the ribbon the back of the CD Drive and card drive Hard disk drive, Once that is completed, pull
on the tab securing the drive in place, then push it out from the inside.
7. Remove the expansion card like Ethernet, Wireless card, TV(Remove the screws on the occupied card
slots. Once the screws are removed, you should be able to remove the cards by pulling them carefully
upward)
8. Remove the RAM from ram slot by push down on both tabs holding the RAM in place
9. Remove the power button; power LED and hard drive LED are all within plastic Chassis.
10. Lastly remove motherboard m which has seven screws holding it to the frame, which are indicated by
large white circles around them. Remove those seven, and then lift the motherboard out of the frame.

8.3 Installation of Operating System

Windows XP

The minimum hardware requirements for Windows XP Professional include:
Pentium 233-megahertz (MHz) processor or faster (300 MHz is recommended)
At least 64 megabytes (MB) of RAM (128 MB is recommended)
At least 1.5 gigabytes (GB) of available space on the hard disk
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive
Keyboard and Mouse or some other compatible pointing device
Video adapter and monitor with Super VGA (800 x 600) or higher resolution
Sound card
Speakers or headphones
Installation steps for Windows XP
First make 1
st
bootable device as CD ROM in BIOS
Step 1 - Start your PC and place your Windows XP CD in your CD/DVD-ROM drive. Your PC should automatically
detect the CD and you will get a message saying "Press any key to boot from CD". Soon as computer starts booting
from the CD your will get the following screen:




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Step 2 - At this stage it will ask you to press F6 if you want to install a third party Raid or SCSI driver. If you are
using a an IDE Hard Drive then you do not need to press F6. If you are using a SCSI or SATA Hard drive then you
must press F6 otherwise Windows will not detect your Hard Drive during the installation. Please make sure you
have the Raid drivers on a floppy disk. Normally the drivers are supplied on a CD which you can copy to a floppy
disk ready to be installed. If you are not sure how to do this then please read your motherboard manuals for more
information.



Step 3 - Press S to Specify that you want to install additional device.


Step 4 - You will be asked to insert the floppy disk with the Raid or SCSI drivers. Press enter after you have
inserted the disk.



Step 5 - You will see a list of Raid drivers for your HDD. Select the correct driver for your device and press enter.



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Step 6 - You will then get a Windows XP Professional Setup screen. You have the option to do a new Windows
install, Repair previous install or quit. Since we are doing a new install we just press Enter to continue.



Step 7 - You will be presented with the End User Licensing Agreement. Press F8 to accept and continue


Step 8 - This step is very important. Here we will create the partition where Windows will be installed. If you have a
brand new unformatted drive you will get a screen similar to below. In our case the drive size is 8190MB. We can
choose to install Windows in this drive without creating a partition, hence use the entire size of the drive. If you
wish to do this you can just press enter and Windows will automatically partition and format the drive as one large
drive.
However for this demonstration I will create two partition. The first partition will be 6000MB (C: drive) and second
partition would be 2180MB (E: drive). By creating two partition we can have one which stores Windows and
Applications and the other which stores our data. So in the future if anything goes wrong with our Windows install


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such as virus or spyware we can re-install Windows on C: drive and our data on E: drive will not be touched. Please
note you can choose whatever size partition your like. For example if you have 500GB hard drive you can have two
partition of 250GB each.
Press C to create a partition.



Step 8 - Windows will show the total size of the hard drive and ask you how much you want to allocate for the
partition you are about to create. I will choose 6000MB. You will then get the screen below. Notice it shows C:
Partition 1 followed by the size 6000 MB. This indicates the partition has been created. We still have an
unpartitioned space of 2189MB. Next highlight the unpartitioned space by pressing down the arrow key. Then
press C to create another partition. You will see the total space available for the new partition. Just choose all the
space left over, in our case 2180MB.


Step 9 - Now you will see both partition listed. Partition 1 (C: Drive) 6000MB and Partition 2 (E: Drive) 2180MB. You
will also have 8MB of unpartitioned space. Don't worry about that. Just leave it how its is. Windows normally has
some unpartitioned space. You might wonder what happened to D: drive. Windows has automatically allocated D:
drive to CD/DVD-ROM.
Select Partition 1 (C: Drive) and press Enter.




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Step 10 - Choose format the partition using NTFS file system.This is the recommended file system. If the hard
drive has been formatted before then you can choose quick NTFS format. We chose NTFS because it offers many
security features, supports larger drive size, and bigger size files.



Windows will now start formatting drive C: and start copying setup files as shown on the two images below :



After the setup has completed copying the files the computer will restart. Leave the XP CD in the drive but this
time DO NOT press any key when the message "Press any key to boot from CD" is displayed. In few seconds setup
will continue. Windows XP Setup wizard will guide you through the setup process of gathering information about
your computer.



Step 12 - Choose your region and language.



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Step 13 - Type in your name and organization.


Step 14. Enter your product key.


Step 15 - Name the computer, and enter an Administrator password. Don't forget to write down your
Administrator password.



Step 16 - Enter the correct date, time and choose your time zone.



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Step 17 - For the network setting choose typical and press next.



Step 18 - Choose workgroup or domain name. If you are not a member of a domain then leave the default settings
and press next. Windows will restart again and adjust the display.


Step 19 - Finally Windows will start and present you with a Welcome screen. Click next to continue.



Step 20 - Choose 'help protect my PC by turning on automatic updates now' and press next.



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Step 21 - Will this computer connect to the internet directly, or through a network? If you are connected to a router
or LAN then choose: 'Yes, this computer will connect through a local area network or home network' . If you have
dial up modem choose: 'No, this computer will connect directly to the internet'. Then click Next.



Step 22 - Ready to activate Windows? Choose yes if you wish to active Windows over the internet now. Choose no if
you want to activate Windows at a later stage.



Step 23 - Add users that will sign on to this computer and click next.



Step 24 - You will get a Thank you screen to confirm setup is complete. Click finish.



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Step 25. Log in, to your PC for the first time.


WINDOWS 7


The minimum hardware requirements for Windows 7 include:

Processor Pentium 3.665 MHz
Ram- 512MB
Graphics Card Onboard graphics card, 8mb of memory
Hard Drive IDE or SATA, 16GB (32 bit) or 20 (64 bit) free spaces
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive
Keyboard and Mouse or some other compatible pointing device

Type of Installation
Basically, there are 2 approaches to installing Windows 7:
1. Upgrade (In-place upgrade) - This option replaces your current version of Windows with Windows 7, and keeps
your files, settings, and programs in place on your computer.
2. Custom ("fresh" installation) - This option replaces your current version of Windows with Windows 7, but
doesn't preserve your files, settings, and programs. It's sometimes referred to as a clean installation for that
reason.
Beginning the Installation Process
When installing on a physical computer insert your Windows 7 DVD media into your DVD drive and reboot your
computer. If you're asked to press a key to boot from DVD or CD, press any key. A black window will appear
momentarily while the DVD content is read.


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Note: These screenshots are taken from a Windows 7 Ultimate installation performed on a virtual machine running on
VMware Workstation. I will be using an .ISO file mounted on the VMs CD/DVD drive.
Next, a Starting Windows screen will appear.

Note: If the Windows installation page doesn't appear and you're not asked to press a key to start from DVD or CD,
you might have to specify that your computer uses its DVD or CD drive as the startup device.




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Select Language , Time Currency and Keyboard as US English

Click on the "Install now" button.
Note: If you're using the installation media to repair an existing installation of Windows 7 you should also read my
latest article on the Windows Recovery Environment.
Next, accept the license terms and click on "Next".

Next, unless you're upgrading an existing Windows installation, press the Custom (Advanced) installation type button.
Note that in this case, the Upgrade button is disabled because this specific installation if performed on a new
computer without any previous operating system on it.


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Which type of installation do you want?


We will opt for the second option here, the Custom install.

Where do you want to install Windows?

Clicking on the 'Custom' button brings the install location selection screen. In the test machine we have an
un-partitioned empty disk. But in the case of a normal installation all your hard drive partitions (e.g. C:\ ,
D:\ etc.) will be listed here. Choose the drive as you like (a 15 GB size is recommended). Make sure the
drive doesnt have any important data or the Windows 7 installation will wipe-out the contents of that
partition. You can back up the data to another partition (e.g. for installing in D:\ drive move important
files from there to say E:\ drive or to an external usb drive) for safe keeping.

Partitioning /Creating or Modifying Partitions


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Click the Drive options (advanced) for advanced partition management options like 'Delete', 'Format',
'New' and 'Extend'. To create a new partition clicks the New button. But if you have list of partitions in the
previous screen, choose the one where you are planning to install windows 7 and click Format. Then click
'Next' to proceed.


The 'New' option provides a text box to enter the size of the partition you wish to create in MBs. A 15 GB
(15*1024 = 15360 MB) is recommended. In this case I opted for the full size of my virtual drive, i.e. 9216
MB. Click the Apply button to continue. You may be greeted with a message To ensure that all
Windows features work correctly, windows might create additional partitions for system files. .
This is a new feature in Windows 7 to have a small boot partition for system files. Click Okto continue.

The setup process will now begin to copy files from the installation DVD media to the hard disk.


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Process could take a while depending on the type of hardware your computer uses. In my VM test sample I've used
for this demo, the entire process finished before I could finish writing the previous 3 paragraphs, so it could be pretty
quick.
The computer will reboot, and the next thing you'll see is the prompt to set the user's and computer's name. By
default, the computer's name will be username-PC, where username is the username you've entered.
Note: The user you're creating will be the only user currently available on the system. Like Vista, the built-in
Administrator's account is disabled. Read my article on how to enable the Windows 7 Administrator's account article
for more information.
Click on "Next".

Enter the user's password. Remember this password, as it will be the ONLY user on the system, and unless you create
an additional user or enable the built-in administrator account, if you forget this password you'll need to crack it to


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gain access to the system. The best option would be to choose a complex password made of at least 7 characters or
more (something like Pssw0rd or MYpa$$w0rd). You must also enter a password hint.
Click on "Next".


Choose what sort of protection your computer gets. The recommended settings are best for someone that doesn't
plan to hide their computer behind a corporate firewall (and even then, in some cases, this would be the best option).
If you plan to install a 3rd-party firewall later you can opt to be prompted later. Note that this setting will also have
effect on how the computer uses the Microsoft Windows Update (Automatic Updates) features.

Choose your time zone and location and click on "Next".


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Select your network location type. This setting can be changed later, but do note that choosing a profile will have
effect on the Windows Firewall and sharing settings. Click on "Next".

Windows will finalize the settings and your desktop will appear.


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This concludes the Windows 7 installation. Next, you would probably want to update your computer with the latest
hotfixes and/or patches from Microsoft.

Installation of Linux (Red hat Enterprise Linux 5)
Red Hat Enterprise Linux Operating System and Hardware Requirements
Criteria Requirements
Operating
System
Red Hat Enterprise Linux 4 or 5 with the latest patches and upgrades
CPU Type Pentium 4 or higher; 2 GHz or higher
Memory/RAM 1 GB minimum, up to the system limit
Hard Disk 4 GB minimum
Other To run the Directory Server using port numbers less than 1024, such as the default port 389,
you must setup and start the Directory Server as root, but it is not necessary to run the
Directory Server as root.



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Press Enter to fresh installation.

Press OK for media(CD/DVD) test or skip if media is good


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Click next to begin the installation

Select English language for installation process


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x

Click on skip button if dont know installation number


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Click Yes to erase to format the disk


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Select region as Asia/Calcutta


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9. a) Crimping of RJ45: Straight and Cross.
b) Punching Cat 6 cable to I/O Box. Use punching tool. Check connectivity using LAN tester.

What we need to crimp a crossover or straight through cable:
CAT 5 /CAT 6 Cable - bulk Category 5, 5e or 6 cable
RJ45 Ends
Crimper for RJ45
Wire Cutters - to cut and strip the cable if necessary
Recommend:
Wire Stripper
Cable Tester
Ethernet Cable Pinouts:

There are basically two crimping types.
1. A straight through cable, which is used to connect different devices. Example, a hub and switch, Router
and computer, hub and computer.
2. A cross over cable, which is used to operate in a peer-to-peer fashion without a hub/switch. Some
interfaces can cross and un-cross a cable automatically as needed.
Ethernet Cable Pinouts:

There are basically two crimping types.
1. A straight through cable, which is used to connect different devices. Example, a hub and switch, Router
and computer, hub and computer.
2. A cross over cable, which is used to operate in a peer-to-peer fashion without a hub/switch. Some
interfaces can cross and un-cross a cable automatically as needed.


Straight-Through Crimping Color Codes (Both Ends are Same)

1. White/Green
2. Green
3. White/Orange
4. Blue
5. White/Blue
6. Orange
7. White/Brown
8. Brown
Above is the Straight-Through Cable Pinout for T568A









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Crossover Cable Crimping Color Codes (Both Ends are Opposite)

First End Color Code:
1. White/Green
2. Green
3. White/Orange
4. Blue
5. White/Blue
6. Orange
7. White/Brown
8. Brown

Second End Color Codes

1. White/Orange
2. Orange
3. White/Green
4. Blue
5. White/Blue
6. Green
7. White/Brown
8. Brown


Note: The cross over cable layout is suitable for 100Base-T operation, all 4 pairs are crossed.

How to wire Ethernet Cables:
1. Strip off about 2 inches of the cable sheath.
2. Untwist the pairs - don't untwist them beyond what you have exposed, the more untwisted cable you
have the worse the problems you can run into.
3. Align the colored wires according to the diagrams above.
4. Trim all the wires to the same length, about 1/2" to 3/4" left exposed from the sheath.
5. Insert the wires into the RJ45 end - make sure each wire is fully inserted to the front of the RJ45 end
and in the correct order. The sheath of the cable should extend into the RJ45 end by about 1/2" and will be
held in place by the crimp.
6. Crimp the RJ45 end with the crimper tool Verify the wires ended up the right order and that the wires
extend to the front of the RJ45 end and make good contact with the metal contacts in the RJ45 end.
7. Cut the cable to length - make sure it is more than long enough for your needs. Remember, an end to
end connection should not extend more than 100m (~328ft). Try to keep cables short, the longer the cable
becomes the more it may affect performance, usually noticeable as a gradual decrease in speed and increase
in latency.
8. Repeat the above steps for the second RJ45 end.
9. If a cable tester is available, use it to verify the proper connectivity of the cable.
That it! If your cable not worked, look closely at each end and see if you can find the problem. Usually a wire
ended up in the wrong place or more commonly, one of the wires didn't extend to the front of the RJ45
connector and is making no, or poor contact. If you see a mistake or problem, cut the end off and start again.


If a cable has 568A color wiring on both ends then it's a straight through cable.
If a cable has 568B color wiring on both ends then it's also a straight through
cable.
If a cable has 568A color wiring on one end and 568B color coded wiring on the
other end, then it's a crossover cable.



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Note:- 10GBase-T should work on Cat6, but to get the full 100m range, Cat 6a is required.


10. Install NIC (both RJ45 and Wireless), Switch and Wireless router









Wireless NIC Card
Steps of NIC Card (RJ45 & Wireless) Installation

Unplug the PC from its electrical source, and remove all cords.

Open the case of the CPU with a screwdriver. Be careful of sharp metal edges. If the case
doesn't open easily, check your operator's manual. There may be a release button that will open the
case after the screws are undone.

Lay the CPU on its side. Locate the NIC slot. Align the NIC with the RJ45 jack facing the outside
of the case. Firmly seat the card into the slot. You may have to rock it gently to get it to fit. The gold
contacts should not be visible, and the NIC card should be level.

Secure the mounting bracket with screws. They should come with the NIC card.

Replace the cover. Securely reattach all cords.

Requirements

Computer
NIC Card
Screw Drive



NIC Card


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Connect the RJ45 connection to the Internet modem using the ethernet wire. Not all NIC cards
come with an ethernet wire. Sometimes you will need to purchase the ethernet wire separately.

Reboot the computer, and install the software that comes with the NIC card. This will install the
necessary drivers. There will be prompts as the hardware installs. Simply follow the directions.


Steps to install Switch (Dlink)


Power up the D-Link switch. Plug one end of the AC power adapter into the DC power jack on the right-
hand side of the back of the switch. Plug the other end of the adapter into an electrical wall outlet. This
powers up the switch.
Confirm that the D-Link switch is receiving power. The power indicator LED on the front of the switch
lights up when the device is powered.
Connect a computer to the switch. Plug one end of an ethernet cable into the ethernet adapter on the
computer and the other end into any unused, numbered ethernet port on the back of the D-Link
switch. When the switch recognizes the computer, the correspondingly numbered LED on the front of
the switch will light up.
Continue adding computers to the D-Link switch. Follow the same procedure as for the first computer.
The switch can connect up to five computers.
Communicate between computers. Use the networking support built in to your particular operating
system. For example, in the Windows XP operating system, you would use the File and Printer sharing
feature.
Configure a DLink Switch for a Static IP Address
Open your Web browser and enter the IP address for your D-Link switch in the navigation text box. The
default IP address for D-Link switches and routers is 192.168.0.1.
Click the "Home" tab at the top of the configuration console. This displays the current IP settings for
the device.


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Select "Enabled" in the section labeled "Static IP Address." Enter a name for the device in the text box
labeled "Name."
Enter a static IP address in the second text box. Click "Apply" to save your console settings. The switch
now has a static IP address.
Steps to install Router (The D-Link WBR2300 Router)

Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Physical Setup
1. Find a convenient location for the router. This should be somewhere close to your modem or other
source of internet.
2. Plug router into power outlet with provided power cord.
3. Take one of the Ethernet cords and run that from your cable modem or source of internet to the WAN
port on the back of the router.
4. Take the other Ethernet cord and run that from your computer to one of the LAN ports on the back of
the router. These ports are shown in the next figure
Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Software Setup
5. Open up a web browser on the computer
6. Type the routers IP address into address bar. The IP address can be found with the routers
documentation and usually starts with 192.168
7. Type in the username and password when prompted. This again can be found in the documentation.


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Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Router Settings
8. Click the checkbox Enable Wireless
9. Choose a name for your network. Type this in the Wireless Network Name check box
10. Click the checkbox Enable Auto Channel Scan. This will allow the router to switch its signal if is
detects interference.
Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Security Setup
11. Select Enable WEP Wireless Security from the Security Mode menu. This protects your network by
only allowing those with a password to access it.
12. In the WEP Key textbox, type a 10 digit hexadecimal password. Hexadecimal contains digits from 0 to
9 and A to F.
13. At the top of the screen, click save settings.
Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Getting on to the Internet
14. Disconnect the Ethernet cord from your computer.
15. At the top right of the computer screen, select the AirPort Icon, click Turn AirPort On and then click on
your network, as shown in the next figure.
Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Selecting the wireless network


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Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Getting on to the Internet
16. In the window that appears, select WEP Password from the security menu.
17. Type in your hexadecimal password in the password textbox.
Setting up a D-Link WBR2310 Router - Finishing up




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11. Study different IP class (A, B, C) addressing. (Manual & Dynamic).

IP addresses
The IP address is a 32-bit binary number, split into four bytes (or octets, which is the preferred term in
networking). The address is written or displayed in dotted decimal: that is, each octet's value is given in
decimal, separated by dots. For example: IP address 11000000 10101000 00000000 00000100 =
192.168.0.4

Classes of address

Classes A, B & C
Class A addresses (1.x.x.x 126.x.x.x) are used for large networks owned by Governments, major ISPs or
multinational companies. Although they are capable of containing over 16 million individual hosts, they
are usually broken into smaller subnets.

Class B addresses are in the range 128.0.x.x 191.255.x.x, each covering up to 65,534hosts. These are
typically allocated to ISPs and large organisations.

Class C addresses range from 192.0.0.x 223.255.255.x and they allow for up to 254 hosts. These are
allocated to small organisations.

Classes D & E
Class D addresses start with the binary bits 1110 (224.0.0.1 239.255.255.254) and are used for
multicasting (where many machines read data sent to a common IP address)

Class E addresses start with bits 1111 (240.0.0.1 255.255.255.254) and are used for experimental
purposes only.

Special addresses
0.0.0.0 is the default network, i.e. the current network's address.
127.0.0.1 is the local host, i.e. the current host. It is used for loopback NIC tests.
255.255.255.255 is a broadcast address for all hosts. For obvious reasons, this is disallowed by most
Internet routing equipment.
Private (internal) addresses
Certain ranges are set aside for private use (i.e. internal within an organization). These are: 10.x.x.x,
172.x.x.x, and 192.168.x.x.



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Subnet masks

Sometimes it is necessary to break a network down into smaller sub-networks (subnets). To identify which
subnet a host belongs to, we need a subnet ID. This is achieved by setting aside some bits of the IP
address for the subnet ID. In this example, the address 191.168.97.17 is on a network broken down into
subnets, each on having a unique 5-bit subnet ID.

Class B network address Subnet ID Host ID
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
192 . 168 . 97 . 17
When sending messages, the host needs to know how many bits of the IP address are used to identify a
subnet, so we use a subnet mask to do this. network address Host ID
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
255 . 255 . 248 . 0
Therefore the host's full address is:
IP address: 191.168.97.17
Subnet mask: 255.255.248.0
This may also be written as 191.168.97.17 / 21, where the 21 indicates that 21 bits of the subnet mask are
set to 1. This new notation is becoming increasingly popular.

Advantages of sub netting a network include the following:
Reducing network collision by limiting the range of broadcasts using routers
Enabling different networking architectures to be joined

Class A: 10.0.0.010.255.255.255 (1 Class A network)
Class B: 172.16.0.0172.31.255.255 (16 Class B networks)
Class C: 192.168.0.0192.168.255.255 (256 Class C networks)
Static /Dynamic

Each device in an IP network is either assigned a permanent address (static) by the network administrator or is
assigned a temporary address (dynamic) via DHCP software

DHCP
DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol. This protocol assigns network IP addresses to clients on
the network at startup. With DHCP, each client workstation does not need to be set up with a static IP
address. DHCP is recommended on large networks. It would be very time consuming to manually assign a
static IP address to every workstation on your network.

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12. Connect Windows OS to Windows domain and share any two devices (HDD,DVD,Printer).Client
connectivity media.

For network connection

1) Check the network cable connected properly or not
2) Turn off the firewall (Start->settings->Control Panel->windows firewall->turnoff)
3) Right click on network connection and right click on Local area network and select internet protocol
and select properties and assign the Class C IP address to 3 computers with same network IP address
only need to change host address and also same workgroup name (For group name Right click on My
Computer ->Select Properties-> Click on Computer name tab and the check the workgroup name if
change click on change button to change the workgroup name). Ex:-192.168.1.1, 192.168.1.2,
192.168.1.3.
4)Go to Run ->type cmd and Ping from the current system IP address and other system IP address
Ex:-C:\>ping 192.168.1.1
C:\>ping 192.168.1.3 if it gives TTL respond then its confirm that system is in network or if it gives
Request time out, Then required a restart in the system.










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Sharing Devices in Windows XP
Go to "My Computer."
Locate the drive you wish to share. Choose between C or D drives.
Right-click on the hard drive icon and click "Sharing" from the shortcut menu.
Select the "Share This Folder" on the "Network" option. Enter a name by which you wish to
share this folder.
Select the "Allow Network Users to Change My Files" option. Click "OK." Close the dialog box.
It is same for HDD and DVD
Sharing printer in Windows XP
Go to Start->Settings->Select Printer and Faxes
Open Printers and Faxes. Click Start, click Control Panel, click Printers and Other Hardware, and then
click Printers and Faxes.
Right-click the printer you want to share, and then click Sharing.
On the Sharing tab, click Share this printer and then type a share name for the shared printer.


To connect to a printer on a network to the other system
1. Open Printers and Faxes. Click Start, click Control Panel, click Printers and Other Hardware, and then
click Printers and Faxes.
2. Under Printer Tasks, click Add a printer to open the Add Printer Wizard, and then click Next.
3. Click A network printer, or a printer attached to another computer, and then click Next.


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Three Ways to Connect to a Printer on a Network
To search for a printer in Active Directory
1. Click Find a printer in the directory, and then click Next.

2. Click the Browse button to the right of Location, click the printer location, and then click OK.

3. Click Find Now.


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4. Click the printer you want to connect to, and then click OK.
To locate a printer by typing the printer name or browsing for it
1. Click Connect to this printer.

2. Do one of the following:
Type the printer name using the following format:
\\printserver_name\share_name
Browse for it on the network. Click Next, click the printer in Shared printers.




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14. Create users on Linux and specify permissions.

In Graphically
Always login from root to add user and for specifying the permission
Creation of User and groups.
Click the Start Here icon on the desktop. In the new window that opens, click the System Settings icon,
and then click the Users & Groups icon. You can also select Main Menu => System Settings => Users &
Groups from the panel. (Or System->Administrator->Users)

Click Add User to add new user.

Give username and password which is shown in above image and then click ok to complete the task.


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Add 4 or more user as shown in above image.
Click on Add Group to add groups.

Now two groups are creates 1)Technical 2)NonTechnical. Add users to the specified group, by right clik on the
group and select properties and select check mark for selecting user for specified group.



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Above image example shows the Technical is the group - CS and Civil are the users and also NonTechnical is
the groupp Arts & Commerce are the users.
Specifying the permission
Always login from root while giving permission to the folder.

Computer->Filesystem->Create new folder as Test->Right click on test folder and select properties to give
permission.
Below image shows the Owner is the root. And group is the Technical(Users CS and Civil) given full access
to the Technical group users to access Test file and for others is None (I.e no groups example Nontechnical
group users (Arts and Commerce) unable to access Test file.).Apply the permission button to complete the
task. You can give your own choice of permission to the single user or groups.


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After giving permission to the specify folder, then logout from the root user and login to CS user.

Now try to access Test folder from the computer in CS user, Its possible to access and also you can add
any contents inside the folder or delete the folder, Because CS user belongs to Technical group and full
permission given to Technical group to control the Test folder.
After that logout from the CS user and login to NonTecnhical group user Arts.


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Try to access Test folder in Arts user, its unable to access because no control permission given to
Nontechnical group.






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In Command line
useradd - Adding a new user
Options:
-d home directory
-s starting program (shell)
-p password
-g (primary group assigned to the users)
-G (Other groups the user belongs to)
-m (Create the user's home directory
Example: To add a new user with
a primary group of users
a second group mgmt
starting shell /bin/bash
password of xxxx
home directory of roger
create home directory
a login name of roger
useradd -gusers -Gmgmt -s/bin/shell -pxxxx -d/home/roger -m roger
usermod - Modifying existing user
Options:
-d home directory
-s starting program (shell)
-p password
-g (primary group assigned to the users)
-G (Other groups the user belongs to)
Example: To add the group 'others' to the user roger
usermod -Gothers roger
userdel - Deleting a user
Options:
-r (remove home directory)
Example: To remove the user 'roger' and his home directory
userdel -r roger


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passwd - User's Password
Options:
user's name (Only required if you are root and want to change another user's password)
Example: To change the password for the account you are currently logged in as...
passwd
Enter existing password
Enter new password
Enter new password again (to validate)
Example: To change the password for the user 'roger' (only you are logged in as root)...
passwd roger
Enter existing password (can be either roger's password or root's password)
Enter new password
Enter new password again (to validate)
su - Switch User
To switch to another user, use the su command. This is most commonly used to switch to the root account.
Example: To switch to root account...
su
Enter root's passwd
Example: To switch to the user 'roger'...
su roger
Enter roger's or root's passwd
To return to original user, enter exit
groupadd - Create a new group
groupadd [-g gid [-o]] [-r] [-f] group
The groupadd command creates a new group account using the values specified on the command line
and the default values from the system. The new group will be entered into the system files as needed.
The options which apply to the groupadd
Ex:- # groupadd developers
Adding user to the group


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# useradd -G developers vivek
Every directory or file in the Linux file system contains settings for who can read, write or execute the file.
These settings are called permissions. Each file or directory is assigned to a specific user and group.
Permissions
Each file or directory has 3 security groups...
Owner (Each file or directory has a specific owner or creator)
Group Access (Each file or directory is assigned to a specific group)
All Others (If a user is not the owner or is not assigned to the group, they are considered in the other
category)
Each security group has 3 flags that control the access status
Flag 1 = read
Flag 2 = write
Flag 3 = execute (pertains to shell scripts or execute programs only)
They are listed as 'rwx' or a "-" if the access is turned off.
To view the permissions, you use the ls -l command. For each file or directory listed, you will see the
permissions, owner and group name, and file or directory name.
Examples What it means
-rwxrwxrwx read, write and executable for owner, group and all others
-rwxrwx--- read, write and executable for owner, group only
-rwx------ read, write and executable for owner only
-rw-rw-rw read and write for owner, group and all others
-rwxr-xr-x read, write and executable by owner, only read and executable by
group and others
-rw-r--r- read and write by owner, read only for group and all others

chmod - Changing Permissions
To change the permissions, the command chmod is used.
Options What it does
u, g, o or all Whose permission you are changing: user, group, other
or all
+ or>- Type of change: add permission or subtract permission
combination of r , w or x which permission you are changing: read, write or
execute


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file or directory name of file or directory to change
Examples What it does
chmod go-w thisfile remove write access for group and others for the file
'thisfile'
chmod go+rw file1 file2 add read and write access for group and others for files
'file1' and 'file2'
chmod ugo+rwx file1 add read, write and execute for everyone for 'file1'.

chown - Changing Owner
To change the owner of a file or directory, the command chown is used.
Command: chown username <file or directory>
Example: To change the owner of 'file1' and 'file2' to the user 'roger'
chown roger file1 file2

chgrp - Changing Group
To change the group of a file or directory, the command 'chgrp' is used.
Command: chgrp
Example: To change the group of 'file1' and 'file2' to the group 'mgmt'
chgrp mgmt file1 file2
Way of permission using Octal Permissions
The octal notion is helpful for setting permissions for files. These three digit numbers are capable of describing
the following:
0 --- indicates no permissions
1 --x indicates execute permissions
2 -w- indicates write permissions
3 -wx indicates write and execute permissions
4 r-- indicates read permissions
5 r-x indicates read and execute permissions
6 rw- indicates read and write permissions
7 rwx indicates read, write, and execute permissions
Each digit is independent of the other two. Therefore, 777, creates read, write, and execute privileges for all
users. 744, which is a typical default permission, allows read, write, and execute permissions for the owner,
and read permissions for the group and world users. To chmod the roster.py file so that the owner can read,
write, and execute the file, the group can read and execute the file, and the world can execute the file, issue
the following command:
Ex :- chmod 751 roster.py




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15. Install internet connection (Minimum ADSL or Wireless Broad Brand) and share on clients


Click on the Start Menu button and select Control Panel
In the Control Panel, select Network and Internet Connections
From the Internet Connections screen, choose Network Connections
Choose Create a New Connection'
Follow the New Connection Wizard: Click Next
Select connect to the internet in network connection type, click next.
Select setup connection manually in getting ready wizard, click next.
Select connection using broadband that requires username and password, click next.
In connection name wizard - In the ISP Name field, type a name to identify your connection. Ex BSNL.
In internet account information Give username and password which is given by ISP provider. Click
next.
Check mark on add a shortcut option and click finish to complete installation.
Use the Internet Connection Sharing to share internet to client
From the "Start" menu, choose "Control Panel." Choose "Network and Internet Connections," then
choose "Network Connections." Right click the interface that connects to the Internet and choose
"Properties". Make certain that the check boxes for "Client for Microsoft Networks" and "File and Print
Sharing for Microsoft Networks" are both unchecked.

Enable ICS. Click the "Advanced" tab of the interface dialog and check the box labeled "Allow other
users to connect through this computer's Internet connection" Uncheck the box labeled "Allow other
users to control or disable the shared Internet connection."

Configure the other client computers to obtain an IP address automatically.