Fundamentals of Digital

Communications and Data Transmission

29
th
October 2008
Abdullah Al-Meshal
Overview
Introduction
Communication systems
Digital communication system
Importance of Digital transmission Importance of Digital transmission
Basic Concepts in Signals
Sampling
Quantization
Coding
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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What is Communication?
Communication is transferring data reliably
fromone point to another
Data could be: voice, video, codes etc
It is important to receive the same It is important to receive the same
information that was sent from the
transmitter.
Communication system
A system that allows transfer of information
realiably
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Communication Systems
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Communication
System
Transmitter
Source
Sending Point
Receiver
Sink
Receiving Point
Information
Source
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver Information
Sink
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Source Sink
Block Diagram of a typical communication system
Information Source
The source of data
Data could be: human voice, data storage device CD,
video etc..
Data types:
Discrete: Finite set of outcomes Digital
Continuous : Infinite set of outcomes Analog
Transmitter
Converts the source data into a suitable form for
transmission through signal processing
Data form depends on the channel
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Channel:
The physical medium used to send the signal
The medium where the signal propagates till
arriving to the receiver
Physical Mediums (Channels):
Wired : twisted pairs, coaxial cable, fiber optics Wired : twisted pairs, coaxial cable, fiber optics
Wireless: Air, vacuum and water
Each physical channel has a certain limited range
of frequencies ,( f
min
f
max
), that is called the
channel bandwidth
Physical channels have another important
limitation which is the NOISE
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Channel:
Noise is undesired randomsignal that corrupts the original
signal and degrades it
Noise sources:
Electronic equipments in the communication system
Thermal noise
Atmospheric electromagnetic noise (Interference with
another signals that are being transmitted at the same
channel)
another signals that are being transmitted at the same
channel)
Another Limitation of noise is the attenuation
Weakens the signal strength as it travels over the
transmission medium
Attenuation increases as frequency increases
One Last important limitation is the delay distortion
Mainly in the wired transmission
Delays the transmitted signals Violates the reliability of
the communication system
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Receiver
Extracting the message/code in the received signal
Example
Speech signal at transmitter is converted into electromagnetic
waves to travel over the channel
Once the electromagnetic waves are received properly, the Once the electromagnetic waves are received properly, the
receiver converts it back to a speech form
Information Sink
The final stage
The user
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Effect of Noise On a transmitted signal
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Digital Communication System
Data of a digital format i.e binary numbers
Information A / D
Source
Channel
Modulator
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Information
Source
A / D
Converter
Source
Encoder
Channel
Encoder
Modulator
Information
Sink
D / A
Converter
Source
Decoder
Channel
Decoder
Demodulator
Channel
Information source
Analog Data: Microphone, speech signal, image,
video etc
Discrete (Digital) Data: keyboard, binary numbers,
hex numbers, etc
Analog to Digital Converter (A/D) Analog to Digital Converter (A/D)
Sampling:
Converting continuous time signal to a digital signal
Quantization:
Converting the amplitude of the analog signal to a
digital value
Coding:
Assigning a binary code to each finite amplitude in the
analog signal
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Source encoder
Represent the transmitted data more efficiently
and remove redundant information
How? write Vs. rite
Speech signals frequency and human ear 20 kHz
Two types of encoding:
Lossless data compression (encoding)
Data can be recovered without any missing information
Lossy data compression (encoding)
Smaller size of data
Data removed in encoding can not be recovered again
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Channel encoder:
To control the noise and to detect and correct the
errors that can occur in the transmitted data due
the noise.
Modulator: Modulator:
Represent the data in a form to make it
compatible with the channel
Carrier signal high frequency signal
Demodulator:
Removes the carrier signal and reverse the
process of the Modulator
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Channel decoder:
Detects and corrects the errors in the signal
gained fromthe channel
Source decoder:
Decompresses the data into its original format. Decompresses the data into its original format.
Digital to Analog Converter:
Reverses the operation of the A/D
Needs techniques and knowledge about sampling,
quantization, and coding methods.
Information Sink
The User
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Why should we use digital communication?
Ease of regeneration
Pulses 0 , 1
Easy to use repeaters
Noise immunity
Better noise handling when using repeaters that repeats
the original signal
Better noise handling when using repeaters that repeats
the original signal
Easy to differentiate between the values either 0 or 1
Ease of Transmission
Less errors
Faster !
Better productivity
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Why should we use digital communication?
Ease of multiplexing
Transmitting several signals simultaneously
Use of modern technology
Less cost ! Less cost !
Ease of encryption
Security and privacy guarantee
Handles most of the encryption techniques
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Disadvantage !
The major disadvantage of digital transmission
is that it requires a greater transmission
bandwidth or channel bandwidth to
communicate the same information in digital communicate the same information in digital
format as compared to analog format.
Another disadvantage of digital transmission is
that digital detection requires system
synchronization, whereas analog signals
generally have no such requirement.
Digital Communication Abdullah Al-
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Chapter 2: Analog to Digital
Conversion (A/D) Conversion (A/D)
Abdullah Al-Meshal
Digital Communication System
Information
Source
A / D
Converter
Source
Encoder
Channel
Encoder
Modulator
Information
Sink
D / A
Converter
Source
Decoder
Channel
Decoder
Demodulator
Channel
2.1 Basic Concepts in Signals
A/D is the process of converting an analog
signal to digital signal, in order to transmit it
through a digital communication system.
Electric Signals can be represented either in Electric Signals can be represented either in
Time domain or frequency domain.
Time domain i.e
We can get the value of that signal at any time (t)
by substituting in the v(t) equation.
v(t) = 2sin(21000t + 45)
Time domain Vs. Frequency domain
Time Time
Fourier/Laplace
Transform
Fourier/Laplace
Transform
Frequency Frequency Time
Domain
Time
Domain
Frequency
Domain
Frequency
Domain
Inverse Fourier /
Inverse Laplace
Transform
Inverse Fourier /
Inverse Laplace
Transform
Time domain Vs. Frequency domain
Consider taking two types of images of a person:
Passport image
X-Ray image
Two different domains, spatial domain passport image
and X-Ray domain. and X-Ray domain.
Doctors are taking the image in the X-Ray domain to
extract more information about the patient.
Different domains helps fetching and gaining knowledge
about an object.
An Object : Electric signal, human body, etc
Time domain Vs Frequency domain
We deal with communication system in the
time domain.
Lack of information about the signal
Complex analysis Complex analysis
Frequency domain gives us the ability to
extract more information about the signal
while simplifying the mathematical analysis.
Frequency Domain
To study the signal in the frequency domain,
we need to transfer the original signal from
the time domain into the frequency domain.
Using Fourier Transform Using Fourier Transform
X( f ) = x(t)e
j 2ft
dt

x(t) = X( f )e
j 2ft
df

Fourier Transform
Time domain Frequency Domain
Inverse Fourier Transform
Frequency domain Time Domain
Spectrum
The spectrum of a signal is a plot which shows
how the signal amplitude or power is
distributed as a function of frequency.
X( f ) = x(t)e
j 2ft
dt = e
j 2ft
dt =
1
j2f
e
j 0.5ft
e
j 0.5ft
[ ]
0.5
0.5

=
sin(f )
f
Time Domain Frequency Domain
Amp. Amp.
Time(s) Frequency (Hz)
Band limited signals
A band limited signal is a signal who has a finite
spectrum.
Most of signal energy in the spectrum is contained in a
finite range of frequencies. finite range of frequencies.
After that range, the signal power is almost zero or
negligible value.
X(f)
+ f
H
- f
H
Freq.
Symmetrical Signal
Positive = Negative
Converting an Analog Signal to a Discrete
Signal (A/D)
Can be done through three basic steps:
1- Sampling 1- Sampling
2- Quantization
3- Coding
Sampling
Process of converting the continuous time
signal to a discrete time signal.
Sampling is done by taking Samples at
specific times spaced regularly. specific times spaced regularly.
V(t) is an analog signal
V(nT
s
) is the sampled signal
T
s
= positive real number that represent the spacing of
the sampling time
n = sample number integer
Sampling
Original Analog Signal
Before Sampling
Sampled Analog Signal
After Sampling
Sampling
The closer the Ts value, the closer the sampled
signal resemble the original signal.
Note that we have lost some values of the
original signal, the parts between each original signal, the parts between each
successive samples.
Can we recover these values? And How?
Can we go back from the discrete signal to
the original continuous signal?
Sampling Theorem
A bandlimited signal having no spectral components
above f
max
(Hz), can be determined uniquely by values
sampled at uniformintervals of Ts seconds, where
An analog signal can be reconstructed from a sampled An analog signal can be reconstructed from a sampled
signal without any loss of information if and only if it is:
Band limited signal
The sampling frequency is at least twice the signal
bandwidth
Ts
1
2 f
max
Quantization
Quantization is a process of approximating a
continuous range of values, very large set of
possible discrete values, by a relatively small
range of values, small set of discrete values. range of values, small set of discrete values.
Continuous range infinte set of values
Discrete range finite set of values
Quantization
Dynamic range of a signal
The difference between the highest to lowest
value the signal can takes.
Quantization
In the Quantization process, the dynamic range of a
signal is divided into L amplitude levels denoted by m
k,
where k = 1, 2, 3, .. L
L is an integer power of 2
L = 2
k
L = 2
K is the number of bits needed to represent the amplitude
level.
For example:
If we divide the dynamic range into 8 levels,
L = 8 = 2
3
We need 3 bits to represent each level.
Quantization
Example:
Suppose we have an analog signal with the values
between [0, 10]. If we divide the signal into four
levels. We have
m1 [ 0, 2.5 ]
m2 [ 2.5, 5 ]
m3 [ 5 , 7.5]
m4 [ 7.5, 10]
Quantization
For every level, we assign a value for the signal
if it falls within the same level.
M1 = 1.25 if the signal in m1
M2 = 3.75 if the signal in m2
Q [ v(t) ] =
M3 = 6.25 if the signal in m3
M4 = 8.75 if the signal in m4
Quantization
Original Analog Signal
Before Quantization
Quantized Analog Signal
After Quantization
Quantization
Original Discrete Signal
Before Quantization
Quantized Discrete Signal
After Quantization
Quantization
The more quantization levels we take the
smaller the error between the original and
quantized signal.
Quantization step Quantization step
The smaller the the smaller the error.
=
Dynamic Range
No. of Quantization levels
=
S
max
S
min
L
Coding
Assigning a binary code to each quantization
level.
For example, if we have quantized a signal into
16 levels, the coding process is done as the 16 levels, the coding process is done as the
following:
Step Code Step Code Step Code Step Code
0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 12 1100
1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 13 1101
2 0010 6 0110 10 1010 14 1110
3 0011 7 0111 11 1011 15 1111
Coding
The binary codes are represented as pulses
Pulse means 1
No pulse means 0 No pulse means 0
After coding process, the signal is ready to be
transmitted through the channel. And
Therefore, completing the A/D conversion of
an analog signal.
Chapter 3: Source Coding
12
th
November 2008
Abdullah Al-Meshal
3.1 Measure of Information
What is the definition of Information ?
News, text data, images, videos, sound etc..
In Information Theory
Information is linked with the element of surprise or
uncertainty uncertainty
In terms of probability
Information
The more probable some event to occur the less information
related to its occurrence.
The less probable some event to occur the more information
we get when it occurs.
Example1:
The rush hour in Kuwait is between 7.00 am
8.00 am
A person leaving his home to work at 7.30 will
NOT be surprised about the traffic jam almost
no information is gained here no information is gained here
A person leaving his home to work at 7.30 will BE
surprised if THERE IS NO traffic jam:
He will start asking people / family / friends
Unusual experience
Gaining more information
Example 2
The weather temperature in Kuwait at summer
season is usually above 30
o
It is known that from the historical data of the
weather, the chance that it rains in summer is weather, the chance that it rains in summer is
very rare chance.
A person who lives in Kuwait will not be surprised by
this fact about the weather
A person who lived in Kuwait will BE SURPRISED if it
rains during summer, therefore asking about the
phenomena. Therefore gaining more knowledge
information
How can we measure information?
Measure of Information
Given a digital source with N possible outcomes
messages, the information sent from the digital
source when the j
th
message is transmitted is source when the j message is transmitted is
given by the following equation:
[ Bits ]
I
j
= log
2
(
1
p
j
)
Example 1
Find the information content of a message
that takes on one of four possible outcomes
equally likely
Solution Solution
The probability of each outcome = P =
Therefore,
1
0.25
I = log
2
(
1
0.25
) =
log(
1
0.25
)
log(2)
= 2 bits
Example 2
Suppose we have a digital source that
generates binary bits. The probability that it
generates 0 is 0.25, while the probability generates 0 is 0.25, while the probability
that it generates 1 is 0.75. Calculate the
amount of information conveyed by every bit.
Example 2 (Solution)
For the binary 0 :
For the binary 1:
I = log
2
(
1
0.25
) = 2 bits
bits I 42 . 0 )
1
( log = =
For the binary 1:
Information conveyed by the 0 is more than the
information conveyed by the 1
bits I 42 . 0 )
75 . 0
1
( log
2
= =
Example 3:
A discrete source generates a sequence of ( n )
bits. How many possible messages can we
receive fromthis source?
Assuming all the messages are equally likely to Assuming all the messages are equally likely to
occur, how much information is conveyed by
each message?
Example 3 (solution):
The source generates a sequence of n bits,
each bit takes one of two possible values
a discrete source generates either 0 or 1
Therefore: Therefore:
We have 2
N
possible outcomes
The Information Conveyed by each outcome
I = log
2
(
1
2
n
) =
log(2
n
)
log(2)
=
nlog(2)
log(2)
= n bits
3.3 Entropy
The entropy of a discrete source S is the
average amount of information ( or
uncertainty ) associated with that source.
m= number of possible outcomes
Pj = probability of the j
th
message
H(s) = p
j
log
2
(
1
p
j
) [bits]
j=1
m

Importance of Entropy
Entropy is considered one of the most
important quantities in information theory.
There are two types of source coding: There are two types of source coding:
Lossless coding lossless data compression
Lossy coding lossy data compression
Entropy is the threshold quantity that
separates lossy from lossless data
compression.
Example 4
Consider an experiment of selecting a card at
random from a cards deck of 52 cards. Suppose
were interested in the following events:
Getting a picture, with probability of :
Getting a number less than 3, with probability of:
Getting a number between 3 and 10, with a probability of:
Calculate the Entropy of this randomexperiment.
52
12
8
52
32
52
Example 4 (solution) :
The entropy is given by :
Therefore,
H(s) = p
j
log
2
(
1
p
j
) [bits]
j=1
3

H(s) =
12
52
log
2
(
52
12
) +
8
52
log
2
(
52
8
) +
32
52
log
2
(
52
32
) =1.335 bits
Source Coding Theorem
First discovered by Claude Shannon.
Source coding theorem
A discrete source with entropy rate H can be
encoded with arbitrarily small error probability at
any rate L bits per source output as long as L > H
encoded with arbitrarily small error probability at
any rate L bits per source output as long as L > H
Where
H = Entropy rate
L = codeword length
If we encode the source with L > H Trivial Amount of errors
If we encode the source with L < H were certain that an error will
occur
3.4 Lossless data compression
Data compression
Encoding information in a relatively smaller size than their original size
Like ZIP files (WinZIP), RAR files (WinRAR),TAR files etc..
Data compression:
Lossless: the compressed data are an exact copy of the original data
Lossy: the compressed data may be different than the original data
Loseless data compression techniques:
Huffman coding algorithm
Lempel-Ziv Source coding algorithm
3.4.1 Huffman Coding Algorithm
A digital source generates five symbols with the
following probabilities:
S , P(s)=0.27
T, P(t)=0.25
U, P(t)=0.22
V,P(t)=0.17
W,P(t)=0.09
Use Huffman Coding algorithm to compress this
source
Step1: Arrange the symbols in a
descending order according to their
probabilities
S
0.27
S
0.27
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
Step 2: take the symbols with the
lowest probabilities and form a leaf
LIST
V
0.17
V
0.17
U
0.22
U
0.22
T
0.25
T
0.25
S
0.27
S
0.27
W
0.09
W
0.09
V,W(x1)
0.26
V,W(x1)
0.26
Step 3: Insert the parent node to
the list
LIST
V
0.17
V
0.17
U
0.22
U
0.22
T
0.25
T
0.25
S
0.27
S
0.27
W
0.09
W
0.09
V,W(x1)
0.26
V,W(x1)
0.26
Step 3: Insert the parent node to
the list
LIST
S
0.27
S
0.27
V
0.17
V
0.17
U
0.22
U
0.22
T
0.25
T
0.25
0.27 0.27
W
0.09
W
0.09
V,W(x1)
0.26
V,W(x1)
0.26
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
Step 4: Repeat the same procedure
on the updated list till we have only
one node
LIST
S
0.27
S
0.27
U
0.22
U
0.22
T
0.25
T
0.25
0.27 0.27
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
V,W(x1)
0.26
V,W(x1)
0.26
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
X2
0.47
X2
0.47
LIST
S
0.27
S
0.27 0.27 0.27
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
X2
0.47
X2
0.47
X2
0.47
S
0.27
S
0.27
X3
0.53
X3
0.53
LIST
X3
0.53
X3
0.53
X2 X2
X3 X3
X4
1
X4
1
0.53 0.53
X2
0.47
X2
0.47
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
0.47 0.47
S
0.27
S
0.27
X3
0.53
X3
0.53
X2 X2
X3 X3
X4
1
X4
1
Step 5: Label each branch of the tree with 0 and
1
0 1
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
0.47 0.47
S
0.27
S
0.27
X3
0.53
X3
0.53
Huffman Code Tree
0
0
0
1
1
1
X2 X2
X3 X3
X4
1
X4
1
Codeword of w = 010
0 1
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
0.47 0.47
S
0.27
S
0.27
X3
0.53
X3
0.53
Huffman Code Tree
0
0
0
1
1
1
X2 X2
X3 X3
X4
1
X4
1
Codeword of u=10
0 1
V
0.17
V
0.17
W
0.09
W
0.09
X1
0.26
X1
0.26
T
0.25
T
0.25
U
0.22
U
0.22
0.47 0.47
S
0.27
S
0.27
X3
0.53
X3
0.53
Huffman Code Tree
0
0
0
1
1
1
As a result:
Symbol Probability Codeword
S 0.27 00
T 0.25 11
U 0.22 10
V 0.17 011
W 0.09 010
Symbols with higher probability of occurrence have a shorter
codeword length, while symbols with lower probability of
occurrence have longer codeword length.
Average codeword length
The Average codeword length can be
calculated by:
L = P l
m

For the previous example we have the average

codeword length as follows:
L = P
j
l
j
j=1

L = (0.27 2) + (0.25 2) + (0.22 2) + (0.17 3) + (0.09 3)

L = 2.26 bits
The Importance of Huffman Coding
Algorithm
As seen by the previous example, the average codeword length
calculated was 2.26 bits
Five different symbols S,T,U,V,W
Without coding, we need three bits to represent all of the symbols
By using Huffman coding, weve reduced the amount of bits to 2.26 By using Huffman coding, weve reduced the amount of bits to 2.26
bits
Imagine transmitting 1000 symbols
Without coding, we need 3000 bits to represent them
With coding, we need only 2260
That is almost 25% reduction 25% compression
Chapter 4: Channel Encoding
Abdullah Al-Meshal
Overview
Channel encoding definition and importance
Error Handling techniques
Error Detection techniques
Error Correction techniques
Channel Encoding - Definition
In digital communication systems an optimum
system might be dened as one that
minimizes the probability of bit error.
Error occurs in the transmitted signal due to
the transmission in a non-ideal channel
Noise exists in channels
Noise signals corrupt the transmitted data
Channel Encoding - Imporatance
Channel encoding
Techniques used to protect the transmitted signal
from the noise effect from the noise effect
Two basic approaches of channel encoding
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
Forward Error Correction (FEC)
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
Whenever the receiver detects an error in the
transmitted block of data, it requests the
transmitter to send the block again to
overcome the error.
The request continue repeats until the block
is received correctly
ARQ is used in two-way communication
systems
Transmitter Receiver
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
Advantages:
Error detection is simple and requires much
simpler decoding equipments than the other
techniques techniques
Disadvantages:
If we have a channel with high error rate, the
information must be sent too frequently.
This results in sending less information thus
producing a less efficient system
Forward Error Correction (FEC)
The transmitted data are encoded so that the
receiver can detect AND correct any errors.
Commonly known as Channel Encoding
Can be Used in both two-way or one-way Can be Used in both two-way or one-way
transmission.
FEC is the most common technique used in
the digital communication because of its
improved performance in correcting the
errors.
Forward Error Correction (FEC)
Improved performance because:
It introduces redundancy in the transmitted data It introduces redundancy in the transmitted data
in a controlled way
Noise averaging : the receiver can average out the
noise over long time of periods.
Error Control Coding
There are two basic categories for error
control coding
Block codes
Tree Codes Tree Codes
Block Codes:
A block of k bits is mapped into a block of n bits
Block of K bits Block of n bits
Error Control Coding
tree codes are also known as codes with
memory, in this type of codes the encoder
operates on the incoming message sequence
continuously in a serial manner. continuously in a serial manner.
Protecting data from noise can be done
through:
Error Detection
Error Correction
Error Control Coding
Error Detection
We basically check if we have an error in the
received data or not. received data or not.
There are many techniques for the detection
stage
Parity Check
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Error Control Coding
Error Correction
If we have detected an error or more in the
received data and we can correct them, then we
proceed in the correction phase proceed in the correction phase
There are many techniques for error
correction as well:
Repetition Code
Hamming Code
Error Detection Techniques
Parity Check
Very simple technique used to detect errors
In Parity check, a parity bit is added to the
data block data block
Assume a data block of size k bits
Adding a parity bit will result in a block of size k+1
bits
The value of the parity bit depends on the
number of 1s in the k bits data block
Parity Check
Suppose we want to make the number of 1s in the
transmitted data block odd, in this case the value of the parity
bit depends on the number of 1s in the original data
if we a message = 1010111
k = 7 bits k = 7 bits
Adding a parity check so that the number of 1s is even
The message would be : 10101111
k+1 = 8 bits
At the reciever ,if one bit changes its values, then an error can
be detected
Example - 1
At the transmitter, we need to send the
message M= 1011100.
We need to make the number of ones odd
Transmitter: Transmitter:
k=7 bits , M =1011100
k+1=8 bits , M=10111001
Receiver:
If we receive M = 10111001 no error is
detected
If we receive M= 10111000 an Error is
detected
Parity Check
If an odd number of errors occurred, then the
error still can be detected assuming a parity
bit that makes an odd number of 1s
Disadvantage:
If an even number of errors occurred, the the
error can NOT be detected assuming a parity bit
that makes an odd number of 1s
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
A more powerful technique used for error
detection.
Can detect the errors with very high
probability. probability.
Procedure:
M = original data message ( mbits)
P = Predefined pattern
MX
n
= Mconcatenated with n zeros
R = remainder of dividing ( MX
n
/ P )
Sender Operation
Sender
The transmitter performs the division M / P
The transmitter then computes the remainder R
It then concatenates the remainder with the message
M:R
Then it sends the encoded message over the channel
M:R.
The channel transforms the message M:R into M:R
Receiver Operation
Receiver:
The receiver receives the message M:R
It then performs the division of the message by
the predetermined pattern P, M:R / P the predetermined pattern P, M:R / P
If the remainder is zero, then it assumes the message is
not corrupted Does not have any error. Although it
may have some.
If the remainder is NON-zero, then for sure the
message is corrupted and contain error/s.
Division process
The division used in the CRC is a modulo-2
arithmetic division.
Exactly like ordinary long division, only
simpler, because at each stage we just need to simpler, because at each stage we just need to
check whether the leading bit of the current
three bits is 0 or 1.
If it's 0, we place a 0 in the quotient and
exclusively OR the current bits with zeros.
If it's 1, we place a 1 in the quotient and
exclusively OR the current bits with the divisor.
Example - 2
Using CRC for error detection and given a
message M = 10110 with P = 110, compute
the following
Frame check Sum(FCS) Frame check Sum(FCS)
Transmitted frame
Received frame and check if there is any error in
the data
M = 10110
P = 110 n+1 = 3 bits n= 2 bits
Hence, Frame check sum has a length = 2 bits.
M 2
n
= M 2
2
= 1011000
At the Transmitter
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 0 remainder R
Now,
We concatenate M with R
M = 10110
R = 10
M:R = 1011010
M:R is the transmitted message
At the Receiver
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0 remainder R
Since there is no remainder at the receiver,
the we can say that the message is not
corrupted i.e. does not contain any errors corrupted i.e. does not contain any errors
If the remainder is not zero, then we are sure
that the message is corrupted.
Example - 3
Let M = 111001 and P = 11001
Compute the following:
Frame check Sum(FCS)
Transmitted frame Transmitted frame
Received frame and check if there is any error in
the data
M = 111001
P = 11001 n+1 = 5 bits n= 4 bits
Hence, Frame check sum has a length = 4 bits.
M 2
n
= M 2
4
= 1110010000
At the Transmitter
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 Remainder
Now,
We concatenate M with R
M = 111001
R = 0101
M:R = 111001101
M:R is the transmitted message
At the Receiver
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 Remainder
Chapter 5:
Modulation Techniques Modulation Techniques
Abdullah Al-Meshal
Introduction
After encoding the binary data, the data is
now ready to be transmitted through the
physical channel
In order to transmit the data in the physical In order to transmit the data in the physical
channel we must convert the data back to an
electrical signal
Convert it back to an analog form
This process is called modulation
Modulation - Definition
Modulation is the process of changing a
parameter of a signal using another signal.
The most commonly used signal type is the
sinusoidal signal that has the formof : sinusoidal signal that has the formof :
V(t) = A sin ( wt + )
A : amplitude of the signla
w : radian frequency
: Phase shift
Modulation
In modulation process, we need to use two
types of signals:
Information, message or transmitted signal
Carrier signal Carrier signal
Lets assume the carrier signal is of a
sinusoidal type of the form x(t) = A sin (wt +
)
Modulation is letting the message signal to
change one of the carrier signal parameters
Modulation
If we let the carrier signal amplitude changes
in accordance with the message signal then
we call the process amplitude modulation we call the process amplitude modulation
If we let the carrier signal frequency changes
in accordance with the message signal then
we call this process frequency modulation
Digital Data Transmission
There are two types of Digital Data
Transmission:
1) Base-Band data transmission 1) Base-Band data transmission
Uses low frequency carrier signal to transmit the data
2) Band-Pass data transmission
Uses high frequency carrier signal to transmit the data
Base-Band Data Transmission
Base-Band data transmission = Line coding
The binary data is converted into an electrical
signal in order to transmit themin the channel
Binary data are represented using amplitudes Binary data are represented using amplitudes
for the 1s and 0s
We will presenting some of the common base-
band signaling techniques used to transmit
the information
Line Coding Techniques
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
Unipolar Return to Zero (Unipolar-RZ)
Bi-Polar Return to Zero (Bi-polar RZ)
Return to Zero Alternate Mark Inversion (RZ-AMI)
Non-Return to Zero Mark (NRZ-Mark)
Manchester coding (Biphase)
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
The 1 is represented by some level
The 0 is represented by the opposite
The term non-return to zero means the signal
switched from one level to another without switched from one level to another without
taking the zero value at any time during
transmission.
NRZ - Example
We want to transmit m=1011010
Unipolar Return to Zero (Unipolar RZ)
Binary 1 is represented by some level that is
half the width of the signal
Binary 0 is represented by the absence of
the pulse
Unipolar RZ - Example
We want to transmit m=1011010
Bipolar Return to Zero (Bipolar RZ)
Binary 1 is represented by some level that is
half the width of the signal
Binary 0 is represented a pulse that is half
width the signal but with the opposite sign
Bipolar RZ - Example
We want to transmit m=1011010
Return to Zero Alternate Mark
Inversion (RZ-AMI)
Binary 1 is represented by a pulse
alternating in sign
Binary 0 is represented with the absence of
the pulse
RZ-AMI - Example
We want to transmit m=1011010
Non-Return to Zero Mark (NRZ-Mark)
Also known as differential encoding
Binary 1 represented in the change of the
level level
High to low
Low to high
Binary 0 represents no change in the level
NRZ-Mark - Example
We want to transmit m=1011010
Manchester coding (Biphase)
Binary 1 is represented by a positive pulse
half width the signal followed by a negative
pulse pulse
Binary 0 is represented by a negative pulse
half width the signal followed by a positive
pulse
Manchester coding - Example
We want to transmit m=1011010
Scrambling Techniques
The idea of data scrambling is to replace a sequence of
bits with another sequence to achieve certain goals.
For example, a long sequence of zeros or long
sequence of ones.
This long sequence of zeros or ones can cause some
synchronization problemat the receiver.
To solve this problem, we replace these sequences by
special codes which provides sucient transmissions for
the receivers clock to maintain synchronization.
Scrambling techniques
We present two techniques used to replace a
long sequence of zeros by some special type
of sequences of sequences
Bipolar 8 Zero substitution (B8ZS)
High Density bipolar 3 Zeros (HDB3)
Used in North America to replace sequences
with 8 zeros with a special sequence according
to the following rules:
If an octet (8) of all zeros occurs and the last voltage If an octet (8) of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was positive, then 000+-0-+
If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse
preceding this octet was negative, then
000-+0+-
B8ZS - Example
Suppose that we want to encode the message
m=1100000000110000010
B8ZS Example (Continue)
Used in Europe and Japan to replace a
sequence of 4 zeros according to the following
rules:
Sign of Number of ones (pulses) since the last substitution Sign of
preceding pulse
Number of ones (pulses) since the last substitution
Odd Even
Negative 0 0 0 - + 0 0 +
Positive 0 0 0 + - 0 0 -
Transmission
Transmission bandwidth: the transmission
bandwidth of a communication system is the
band of frequencies allowed for signal band of frequencies allowed for signal
transmission, in another word it is the band of
frequencies at which we are allowed to use to
transmit the data.
Bit Rate
Bit Rate : is the number of bits transferred
between devices per second
If each bit is represented by a pulse of width
Tb, then the bit rate
R
b
=
1
T
b
bits/sec
Example Bit rate calculation
Suppose that we have a binary data source
that generates bits. Each bit is represented by
a pulse of width Tb = 0.1 mSec
Calculate the bit rate for the source Calculate the bit rate for the source
Solution
R
b
=
1
T
b
=
1
0.110
3
=10000 bits/sec
Example Bit rate calculation
Suppose we have an image frame of size
200x200 pixels. Each pixel is represented by
three primary colors red, green and blue
(RGB). Each one of these colors is represented (RGB). Each one of these colors is represented
by 8 bits, if we transmit 1000 frames in 5
seconds what is the bit rate for this image?
Example Bit rate calculation
We have a total size of 200x200 = 40000 pixels
Each pixel has three colors, RGB that each of them has 8
bits.
3 x 8 = 24 bits ( for each pixel with RGB)
Therefore, for the whole image we have a total size of 24
x 40000 = 960000 bits
Since we have 1000 frames in 5 seconds, then the total
number of bits transmitted will be 1000 x 960000 =
960000000 bits in 5 seconds
Bit rate = 96000000/5 = 192000000 bits/second
Baud rate (Symbol rate)
The number of symbols transmitted per second
through the communication channel.
The symbol rate is related to the bit rate by the
following equation:
Rb = bit rate
Rs = symbol rate
N = Number of bits per symbol
R
s
=
R
b
N
Baud rate (Symbol rate)
We usually use symbols to transmit data when the
transmission bandwidth is limited
For example, we need to transmit a data at high rate and the
bit duration Tb is very small; to overcome this problem we
take a group of more than one bit, say 2, therefore : take a group of more than one bit, say 2, therefore :
Tb f
o
=
1
Tb
2Tb f =
1
2Tb
=
1
2
f
o
4Tb f =
1
4Tb
=
1
4
f
o
Baud rate (Symbol rate)
We notice that by transmitting symbols rather
than bits we can reduce the spectrum of the
transmitted signal.
Hence, we can use symbol transmission rather Hence, we can use symbol transmission rather
than bit transmission when the transmission
bandwidth is limited
Example
A binary data source transmits binary data,
the bit duration is 1sec, Suppose we want to
transmit symbols rather than bits, if each
symbol is represented by four bits. what is the symbol is represented by four bits. what is the
symbol rate?
Each bit is represented by a pulse of duration
1 second, hence the bit rate
R
b
=
1
110
6
=1000000 bits/sec
Example (Continue)
Therefore, the symbol rate will be
R
s
=
R
b
N
=
1000000
4
= 250000 symbols/sec R
s
=
N
=
4
= 250000 symbols/sec
Chapter 5:
Modulation Techniques (Part II) Modulation Techniques (Part II)
Abdullah Al-Meshal
Introduction
Bandpass data transmission
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Multilevel Signaling (M
ary
Modulation)
Bandpass Data Transmission
In communication, we use modulation for several
reasons in particular:
To transmit the message signal through the
communication channel efficiently.
To transmit several signals at the same time over a To transmit several signals at the same time over a
communication link through the process of
multiplexing or multiple access.
To simplify the design of the electronic systems used
to transmit the message.
by using modulation we can easily transmit data with
low loss
Bandpass Digital Transmission
Digital modulation is the process by which
digital symbols are transformed into wave-
forms that are compatible with the
characteristics of the channel.
The following are the general steps used by
the modulator to transmit data
1. Accept incoming digital data
2. Group the data into symbols
3. Use these symbols to set or change the phase, frequency or
amplitude of the reference carrier signal appropriately.
Bandpass Modulation Techniques
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Multilevel Signaling (M Modulation) Multilevel Signaling (M
ary
Modulation)
M
ary
Amplitude Modulation
M
ary
Phase Shift Keying (M
ary
PSK)
M
ary
Frequency Shift Keying (M
ary
FSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
In ASK the binary data modulates the
amplitude of the carrier signal
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
In PSK the binary data modulates the phase of
the carrier signal
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
In FSK the binary data modulates the
frequency of the carrier signal
Multilevel Signaling
(M
ary
Modulation)
With multilevel signaling, digital inputs with
more than two modulation levels are allowed
on the transmitter input. on the transmitter input.
The data is transmitted in the form of
symbols, each symbol is represented by k bits
We will have M=2
K
different symbol
There are many different M
ary
modulation techniques,
some of these techniques modulate one parameter like
the amplitude, or phase, or frequency
M
ary
Modulation
Multilevel Signaling (M
ary
Modulation)
M
ary
Amplitude Modulation
Changing the Amplitude using different levels
M
ary
Phase Shift Keying (M
ary
PSK) M
ary
Phase Shift Keying (M
ary
PSK)
Changing the phase using different levels
M
ary
Frequency Shift Keying (M
ary
FSK)
Changing the frequency using different levels
In multi level amplitude modulation the
amplitude of the transmitted (carrier) signal
takes on Mdifferent levels.
For a group of k bits we need M= 2
k
different For a group of k bits we need M= 2
k
different
amplitude levels
Used in both baseband and bandpass
transmission
Baseband M
ary
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
Bandpass M
ary
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
M
ary
Amplitude Modulation
Suppose the maximum allowed value for the
voltage is A, then all M possible values at
baseband are in the range[-A,A] and they are
given by: given by:
And the difference between one symbol and
another is given by
v
i
=
2A
M 1
i A ;where i = 0,1,..M 1
=
2A
M 1
Example
Show how to transmit the message
m=100110001101010111
Using 8
ary
Pulse Amplitude Modulation. Find
the corresponding amplitudes of the
transmitted signal and calculate the difference
between the symbols. Given that the
maximumamplitude is 4 Volts
Example - Solution
Since we will be using 8
ary
modulation then
the signal must be divided into symbols each
of 3 bits
Because 2
3
= 8 Because 2 = 8
Therefore
m = 100 110 001 101 010 111
S
4
S
6
S
1
S
5
S
2
S
7
Example Solution (Cont.)
Amplitude calculations
v =
2A
i A v
i
=
2A
M 1
i A
v
4
=
2(4)
8 1
(4) 4 = 0.5714 volts
v
6
=
2(4)
8 1
(6) 4 = 2.8571 volts
v
1
=
2(4)
8 1
(1) 4 = 2.8571 volts
Example Solution (Cont.)
v
5
=
2(4)
8 1
(5) 4 =1.7142 volts
8 1
v
2
=
2(4)
8 1
(2) 4 = 1.7142 volts
v
7
=
2(4)
8 1
(7) 4 = 4 volts
Example Solution (Cont.)
4 Volts
100 110 001 101 010 111
2.85 v
1.71 v
4 v
-4 Volts
0.57 v
- 2.85 v
-1.71 v
Example Solution (Cont.)
Difference between each symbol and another
can be calculated as follows:
=
2A
M 1
=
2(4)
8 1
=1.1428 volts