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Circular 1
Copyright Basics

What Is Copyright?

Copyright is a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States

(title 17, U. S. Code) to the authors of “original works of authorship,” including
literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works. This
protection is available to both published and unpublished works. Section 106
of the 1976 Copyright Act generally gives the owner of copyright the exclusive
right to do and to authorize others to do the following:
• To reproduce the work in copies or phonorecords;
• To prepare derivative works based upon the work;
• To distribute copies or phonorecords of the work to the public by sale or
other transfer of ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending;
• To perform the work publicly, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and
choreographic works, pantomimes, and motion pictures and other audio­
visual works;
• To display the work publicly, in the case of literary, musical, dramatic, and
choreographic works, pantomimes, and pictorial, graphic, or sculptural
works, including the individual images of a motion picture or other audio­
visual work; and
• In the case of sound recordings,* to perform the work publicly by means of
a digital audio transmission.
In addition, certain authors of works of visual art have the rights of attribu­
tion and integrity as described in section 106A of the 1976 Copyright Act. For
further information, see Circular 40, Copyright Registration for Works of the
Visual Arts.
It is illegal for anyone to violate any of the rights provided by the copyright
law to the owner of copyright. These rights, however, are not unlimited in
scope. Sections 107 through 121 of the 1976 Copyright Act establish limitations
on these rights. In some cases, these limitations are specified exemptions from
copyright liability. One major limitation is the doctrine of “fair use,” which
is given a statutory basis in section 107 of the 1976 Copyright Act. In other
instances, the limitation takes the form of a “compulsory license” under which
certain limited uses of copyrighted works are permitted upon payment of
specified royalties and compliance with statutory conditions. For further infor­
mation about the limitations of any of these rights, consult the copyright law or
write to the Copyright Office.
*note: Sound recordings are defined in the law as “works that result from the
fixation of a series of musical, spoken, or other sounds, but not including the
sounds accompanying a motion picture or other audiovisual work.” Common
examples include recordings of music, drama, or lectures. A sound recording is

2  1.0708
 Copyright Basics  ·  

not the same as a phonorecord. A phonorecord is the physical Copyright and National Origin of the Work
object in which works of authorship are embodied. The word
“phonorecord” includes cassette tapes, CDs, and vinyl disks as Copyright protection is available for all unpublished works,
well as other formats. regardless of the nationality or domicile of the author.
Published works are eligible for copyright protection in the
United States if any one of the following conditions is met:
Who Can Claim Copyright?
• On the date of first publication, one or more of the
authors is a national or domiciliary of the United States,
Copyright protection subsists from the time the work is cre­
or is a national, domiciliary, or sovereign authority of a
ated in fixed form. The copyright in the work of authorship
treaty party,* or is a stateless person wherever that person
immediately becomes the property of the author who cre­
may be domiciled; or
ated the work. Only the author or those deriving their rights
through the author can rightfully claim copyright. • The work is first published in the United States or in a
In the case of works made for hire, the employer and not foreign nation that, on the date of first publication, is a
the employee is considered to be the author. Section 101 of treaty party. For purposes of this condition, a work that
the copyright law defines a “work made for hire” as: is published in the United States or a treaty party within
30 days after publication in a foreign nation that is not a
1 a work prepared by an employee within the scope of his or
treaty party shall be considered to be first published in the
her employment; or
United States or such treaty party, as the case may be; or
2 a work specially ordered or commissioned for use as:
• The work is a sound recording that was first fixed in a
• a contribution to a collective work
treaty party; or
• a part of a motion picture or other audiovisual work
• a translation • The work is a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work that
is incorporated in a building or other structure, or an
• a supplementary work
architectural work that is embodied in a building and the
• a compilation
building or structure is located in the United States or a
• an instructional text
treaty party; or
• a test
• The work is first published by the United Nations or
• answer material for a test
any of its specialized agencies, or by the Organization of
• an atlas
American States; or
if the parties expressly agree in a written instrument
• The work is a foreign work that was in the public domain
signed by them that the work shall be considered a work
in the United States prior to 1996 and its copyright was
made for hire.
restored under the Uruguay Round Agreements Act
The authors of a joint work are co-owners of the copyright (URAA). See Circular 38b, Highlights of Copyright
in the work, unless there is an agreement to the contrary. Amendments Contained in the Uruguay Round Agree­
Copyright in each separate contribution to a periodical ments Act (URAA-GATT), for further information.
or other collective work is distinct from copyright in the col­
• The work comes within the scope of a Presidential
lective work as a whole and vests initially with the author of
proclamation.
the contribution.
*A treaty party is a country or intergovernmental organization
Two General Principles
other than the United States that is a party to an interna-
• Mere ownership of a book, manuscript, painting, or any tional agreement.
other copy or phonorecord does not give the possessor
the copyright. The law provides that transfer of ownership
of any material object that embodies a protected work What Works Are Protected?
does not of itself convey any rights in the copyright.
• Minors may claim copyright, but state laws may regulate Copyright protects “original works of authorship” that are
the business dealings involving copyrights owned by fixed in a tangible form of expression. The fixation need not
minors. For information on relevant state laws, consult an be directly perceptible so long as it may be communicated
attorney.
 Copyright Basics  ·  

with the aid of a machine or device. Copyrightable works Copyright is secured automatically when the work is cre­
include the following categories: ated, and a work is “created” when it is fixed in a copy or
1 literary works phonorecord for the first time. “Copies” are material objects
2 musical works, including any accompanying words from which a work can be read or visually perceived either
3 dramatic works, including any accompanying music directly or with the aid of a machine or device, such as books,
4 pantomimes and choreographic works manuscripts, sheet music, film, videotape, or microfilm.
“Phonorecords” are material objects embodying fixations of
5 pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works
sounds (excluding, by statutory definition, motion picture
6 motion pictures and other audiovisual works
soundtracks), such as cassette tapes, CDs, or vinyl disks.
7 sound recordings
Thus, for example, a song (the “work”) can be fixed in sheet
8 architectural works music (“copies”) or in phonograph disks (“phonorecords”),
These categories should be viewed broadly. For example, or both. If a work is prepared over a period of time, the part
computer programs and most “compilations” may be regis­ of the work that is fixed on a particular date constitutes the
tered as “literary works”; maps and architectural plans may created work as of that date.
be registered as “pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works.”

Publication
What Is Not Protected by Copyright?
Publication is no longer the key to obtaining federal copy­
Several categories of material are generally not eligible for right as it was under the Copyright Act of 1909. However,
federal copyright protection. These include among others: publication remains important to copyright owners.
• Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of The 1976 Copyright Act defines publication as follows:
expression (for example, choreographic works that have “Publication” is the distribution of copies or phonorecords
not been notated or recorded, or improvisational speeches of a work to the public by sale or other transfer of owner-
or performances that have not been written or recorded) ship, or by rental, lease, or lending. The offering to distribute
• Titles, names, short phrases, and slogans; familiar sym­ copies or phonorecords to a group of persons for purposes of
bols or designs; mere variations of typographic ornamen­ further distribution, public performance, or public display
tation, lettering, or coloring; mere listings of ingredients constitutes publication. A public performance or display of  
or contents a work does not of itself constitute publication.
• Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes, concepts,
note: Before 1978, federal copyright was generally secured
principles, discoveries, or devices, as distinguished from a
by the act of publication with notice of copyright, assuming
description, explanation, or illustration
compliance with all other relevant statutory conditions. U. S.
• Works consisting entirely of information that is common works in the public domain on January 1, 1978, (for example,
property and containing no original authorship (for works published without satisfying all conditions for securing
example: standard calendars, height and weight charts, federal copyright under the Copyright Act of 1909) remain in
tape measures and rulers, and lists or tables taken from the public domain under the 1976 Copyright Act.
public documents or other common sources) Certain foreign works originally published without notice
had their copyrights restored under the Uruguay Round
Agreements Act (URAA). See Circular 38b and see the “Notice of
How to Secure a Copyright Copyright” section on page 4 for further information.
Federal copyright could also be secured before 1978 by the
Copyright Secured Automatically upon Creation act of registration in the case of certain unpublished works
The way in which copyright protection is secured is frequently and works eligible for ad interim copyright. The 1976 Copy-
misunderstood. No publication or registration or other action right Act automatically extends to full term (section 304 sets
in the Copyright Office is required to secure copyright. (See the term) copyright for all works, including those subject to ad
following note.) There are, however, certain definite advan­ interim copyright if ad interim registration has been made on
tages to registration. See “Copyright Registration” on page 7. or before June 30, 1978.
 Copyright Basics  · 

A further discussion of the definition of “publication” can Notice was required under the 1976 Copyright Act. This
be found in the legislative history of the 1976 Copyright requirement was eliminated when the United States adhered
Act. The legislative reports define “to the public” as distri­ to the Berne Convention, effective March 1, 1989. Although
bution to persons under no explicit or implicit restrictions works published without notice before that date could have
with respect to disclosure of the contents. The reports state entered the public domain in the United States, the Uruguay
that the definition makes it clear that the sale of phonore­ Round Agreements Act (URAA) restores copyright in certain
cords constitutes publication of the underlying work, for foreign works originally published without notice. For fur­
example, the musical, dramatic, or literary work embodied ther information about copyright amendments in the URAA,
in a phonorecord. The reports also state that it is clear that see Circular 38b.
any form of dissemination in which the material object does The Copyright Office does not take a position on whether
not change hands, for example, performances or displays on copies of works first published with notice before March 1,
television, is not a publication no matter how many people 1989, which are distributed on or after March 1, 1989, must
are exposed to the work. However, when copies or phono- bear the copyright notice.
records are offered for sale or lease to a group of wholesalers, Use of the notice may be important because it informs
broadcasters, or motion picture theaters, publication does the public that the work is protected by copyright, identifies
take place if the purpose is further distribution, public per­ the copyright owner, and shows the year of first publication.
formance, or public display. Furthermore, in the event that a work is infringed, if a proper
Publication is an important concept in the copyright law notice of copyright appears on the published copy or copies to
for several reasons: which a defendant in a copyright infringement suit had access,
• Works that are published in the United States are subject then no weight shall be given to such a defendant’s interposi­
to mandatory deposit with the Library of Congress. See tion of a defense based on innocent infringement in mitigation
discussion on “Mandatory Deposit for Works Published of actual or statutory damages, except as provided in section
in the United States” on page 11. 504(c)(2) of the copyright law. Innocent infringement occurs
when the infringer did not realize that the work was protected.
• Publication of a work can affect the limitations on the
The use of the copyright notice is the responsibility of the
exclusive rights of the copyright owner that are set forth
copyright owner and does not require advance permission
in sections 107 through 121 of the law.
from, or registration with, the Copyright Office.
• The year of publication may determine the duration of
copyright protection for anonymous and pseudonymous Form of Notice for Visually Perceptible Copies
works (when the author’s identity is not revealed in the rec­ The notice for visually perceptible copies should contain all
ords of the Copyright Office) and for works made for hire. the following three elements:
• Deposit requirements for registration of published works 1 The symbol © (the letter C in a circle), or the word
differ from those for registration of unpublished works. “Copyright,” or the abbreviation “Copr.”; and
See discussion on “Registration Procedures” on page 7.
2 The year of first publication of the work. In the case of
• When a work is published, it may bear a notice of copy­ compilations or derivative works incorporating previously
right to identify the year of publication and the name of published material, the year date of first publication of
the copyright owner and to inform the public that the the compilation or derivative work is sufficient. The year
work is protected by copyright. Copies of works published date may be omitted where a pictorial, graphic, or sculp­
before March 1, 1989, must bear the notice or risk loss of tural work, with accompanying textual matter, if any, is
copyright protection. See discussion on “Notice of Copy­ reproduced in or on greeting cards, postcards, stationery,
right” below. jewelry, dolls, toys, or any useful article; and
3 The name of the owner of copyright in the work, or an
abbreviation by which the name can be recognized, or a
Notice of Copyright
generally known alternative designation of the owner.
The use of a copyright notice is no longer required under Example:  © 2008 John Doe
U. S. law, although it is often beneficial. Because prior law did
The “C in a circle” notice is used only on “visually percep­
contain such a requirement, however, the use of notice is still
tible copies.” Certain kinds of works—for example, musical,
relevant to the copyright status of older works.
dramatic, and literary works—may be fixed not in “copies”
 Copyright Basics  ·  

but by means of sound in an audio recording. Since audio Copies of works published before March 1, 1989, that con­
recordings such as audio tapes and phonograph disks are sist primarily of one or more works of the U. S. government
“phonorecords” and not “copies,” the “C in a circle” notice is should have a notice and the identifying statement.
not used to indicate protection of the underlying musical,
dramatic, or literary work that is recorded. Unpublished Works
The author or copyright owner may wish to place a copy­
Form of Notice for Phonorecords of Sound Recordings right notice on any unpublished copies or phonorecords that
The notice for phonorecords embodying a sound recording leave his or her control.
should contain all the following three elements:
Example: Unpublished work  © 2008 Jane Doe
1 The symbol π (the letter P in a circle); and
2 The year of first publication of the sound recording; and Omission of Notice and Errors in Notice

3 The name of the owner of copyright in the sound The 1976 Copyright Act attempted to ameliorate the strict
recording, or an abbreviation by which the name can be consequences of failure to include notice under prior law. It
recognized, or a generally known alternative designation contained provisions that set out specific corrective steps
of the owner. If the producer of the sound recording is to cure omissions or certain errors in notice. Under these
named on the phonorecord label or container and if no provisions, an applicant had five years after publication to
other name appears in conjunction with the notice, the cure omission of notice or certain errors. Although these
producer’s name shall be considered a part of the notice. provisions are technically still in the law, their impact has
been limited by the amendment making notice optional for
Example:  π 2008 A.B.C. Records Inc. all works published on and after March 1, 1989. For further
note: Since questions may arise from the use of variant information, see Circular 3.
forms of the notice, you may wish to seek legal advice before
using any form of the notice other than those given here.
How Long Copyright Protection Endures
Position of Notice
Works Originally Created on or after January 1, 1978
The copyright notice should be affixed to copies or phono­
records in such a way as to “give reasonable notice of the A work that was created (fixed in tangible form for the first
claim of copyright.” The three elements of the notice should time) on or after January 1, 1978, is automatically protected
ordinarily appear together on the copies or phonorecords or from the moment of its creation and is ordinarily given a
on the phonorecord label or container. The Copyright Office term enduring for the author’s life plus an additional 70
has issued regulations concerning the form and position of years after the author’s death. In the case of “a joint work
the copyright notice in the Code of Federal Regulations (37 prepared by two or more authors who did not work for hire,”
CFR 201.20). For more information, see Circular 3, Copyright the term lasts for 70 years after the last surviving author’s
Notice. death. For works made for hire, and for anonymous and
pseudonymous works (unless the author’s identity is revealed
Publications Incorporating U. S. Government Works in Copyright Office records), the duration of copyright will
Works by the U. S. government are not eligible for U. S. copy­ be 95 years from publication or 120 years from creation,
right protection. For works published on and after March whichever is shorter.
1, 1989, the previous notice requirement for works consist­
Works Originally Created Before January 1, 1978,
ing primarily of one or more U. S. government works has
But Not Published or Registered by That Date
been eliminated. However, use of a notice on such a work
will defeat a claim of innocent infringement as previously These works have been automatically brought under the
described provided the notice also includes a statement that stat­ute and are now given federal copyright protection. The
identifies either those portions of the work in which copy­ duration of copyright in these works is generally computed
right is claimed or those portions that constitute U. S. gov­ in the same way as for works created on or after January 1,
ernment material. 1978: the life-plus-70 or 95/120-year terms apply to them
as well. The law provides that in no case would the term of
Example: © 2008 Jane Brown  copy­right for works in this category expire before December
Copyright claimed in chapters 7–10,  31, 2002, and for works published on or before December 31,
exclusive of U. S. government maps
 Copyright Basics  · 

2002, the term of copyright will not expire before December Copyright is a personal property right, and it is subject to
31, 2047. the various state laws and regulations that govern the owner­
ship, inheritance, or transfer of personal property as well as
Works Originally Created and Published or Registered terms of contracts or conduct of business. For information
before January 1, 1978 about relevant state laws, consult an attorney.
Under the law in effect before 1978, copyright was secured Transfers of copyright are normally made by contract. The
either on the date a work was published with a copyright Copyright Office does not have any forms for such transfers.
notice or on the date of registration if the work was reg­ The law does provide for the recordation in the Copyright
istered in unpublished form. In either case, the copyright Office of transfers of copyright ownership. Although recor­
endured for a first term of 28 years from the date it was dation is not required to make a valid transfer between the
secured. During the last (28th) year of the first term, the parties, it does provide certain legal advantages and may be
copyright was eligible for renewal. The Copyright Act of 1976 required to validate the transfer as against third parties. For
extended the renewal term from 28 to 47 years for copy­ information on recordation of transfers and other docu­
rights that were subsisting on January 1, 1978, or for pre-1978 ments related to copyright, see Circular 12, Recordation of
copyrights restored under the Uruguay Round Agreements Transfers and Other Documents.
Act (URAA), making these works eligible for a total term of
protection of 75 years. Public Law 105-298, enacted on Octo­ Termination of Transfers
ber 27, 1998, further extended the renewal term of copyrights Under the previous law, the copyright in a work reverted to
still subsisting on that date by an additional 20 years, provid­ the author, if living, or if the author was not living, to other
ing for a renewal term of 67 years and a total term of protec­ specified beneficiaries, provided a renewal claim was regis­
tion of 95 years. tered in the 28th year of the original term.* The present law
Public Law 102-307, enacted on June 26, 1992, amended drops the renewal feature except for works already in the first
the 1976 Copyright Act to provide for automatic renewal of term of statutory protection when the present law took effect.
the term of copyrights secured between January 1, 1964, and Instead, the present law permits termination of a grant of
December 31, 1977. Although the renewal term is automati­ rights after 35 years under certain conditions by serving writ­
cally provided, the Copyright Office does not issue a renewal ten notice on the transferee within specified time limits.
certificate for these works unless a renewal application and For works already under statutory copyright protection
fee are received and registered in the Copyright Office. before 1978, the present law provides a similar right of ter­
Public Law 102-307 makes renewal registration optional. mination covering the newly added years that extended the
Thus, filing for renewal registration is no longer required former maximum term of the copyright from 56 to 95 years.
to extend the original 28-year copyright term to the full 95 For further information, see circulars 15a and 15t.
years. However, some benefits accrue to renewal registrations
*note: The copyright in works eligible for renewal on or after
that were made during the 28th year.
June 26, 1992, will vest in the name of the renewal claimant
For more detailed information on renewal of copyright
on the effective date of any renewal registration made during
and the copyright term, see Circular 15, Renewal of Copyright;
the 28th year of the original term. Otherwise, the renewal
Circular 15a, Duration of Copyright; and Circular 15t, Exten-
copyright will vest in the party entitled to claim renewal as of
sion of Copyright Terms.
December 31st of the 28th year.

Transfer of Copyright
International Copyright Protection
Any or all of the copyright owner’s exclusive rights or any
There is no such thing as an “international copyright” that
subdivision of those rights may be transferred, but the trans­
will automatically protect an author’s writings throughout
fer of exclusive rights is not valid unless that transfer is in
the entire world. Protection against unauthorized use in a
writing and signed by the owner of the rights conveyed or
particular country depends, basically, on the national laws of
such owner’s duly authorized agent. Transfer of a right on a
that country. However, most countries do offer protection to
nonexclusive basis does not require a written agreement.
foreign works under certain conditions, and these conditions
A copyright may also be conveyed by operation of law and
have been greatly simplified by international copyright trea­
may be bequeathed by will or pass as personal property by
ties and conventions. For further information and a list of
the applicable laws of intestate succession.
 Copyright Basics  · 

countries that maintain copyright relations with the United fundable filing fee, and a nonreturnable deposit—that is, a
States, see Circular 38a, International Copyright Relations of copy or copies of the work being registered and “deposited”
the United States. with the Copyright Office.
A copyright registration is effective on the date the Copy­
right Office receives all required elements in acceptable form,
Copyright Registration regardless of how long it takes to process the application and
mail the certificate of registration. The time needed to pro­
In general, copyright registration is a legal formality intended cess applications varies depending on the amount of material
to make a public record of the basic facts of a particular copy­ the Office is receiving and the method of application (see
right. However, registration is not a condition of copyright below).
protection. Even though registration is not a requirement for Here are the options for registering your copyright, begin­
protection, the copyright law provides several inducements ning with the fastest and most cost-effective method.
or advantages to encourage copyright owners to make regis­
tration. Among these advantages are the following: Option 1: Online Registration
• Registration establishes a public record of the copyright Online registration through the electronic Copyright Office
claim. (eCO) is the preferred way to register basic claims for literary
works; visual arts works; performing arts works, including
• Before an infringement suit may be filed in court, regis­
motion pictures; sound recordings; and single serials. Advan­
tration is necessary for works of U. S. origin.
tages of online filing include
• If made before or within five years of publication, regis­
• a lower filing fee
tration will establish prima facie evidence in court of
the validity of the copyright and of the facts stated in • fastest processing time
the certificate. • online status tracking
• If registration is made within three months after publica­ • secure payment by credit or debit card, electronic check,
tion of the work or prior to an infringement of the work, or Copyright Office deposit account
statutory damages and attorney’s fees will be available to • the ability to upload certain categories of deposits directly
the copyright owner in court actions. Otherwise, only an into eCO as electronic files
award of actual damages and profits is available to the
copyright owner. note: You can still register using eCO and save money even if
• Registration allows the owner of the copyright to record you will submit a hard-copy deposit, which is required under
the registration with the U. S. Customs Service for pro­ the mandatory deposit requirements for published works.
tection against the importation of infringing copies. For The system will prompt you to specify whether you intend to
additional information, go to the U. S. Customs and submit an electronic or a hard-copy deposit, and it will pro-
Border Protection website at www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/import. vide instructions accordingly.
Click on “Intellectual Property Rights.” Basic claims include (1) a single work; (2) multiple unpub­
Registration may be made at any time within the life of lished works if they are all by the same author(s) and owned
the copyright. Unlike the law before 1978, when a work has by the same claimant; and (3) multiple published works if
been registered in unpublished form, it is not necessary to they are all first published together in the same publication
make another registration when the work becomes published, on the same date and owned by the same claimant.
although the copyright owner may register the published To access eCO, go to the Copyright Office website at www.
edition, if desired. copyright.gov and click on electronic Copyright Office.

Option 2: Registration with Fill-In Form CO

Registration Procedures The next best option for registering basic claims is the new
fill-in Form CO. Using 2-d barcode scanning technology, the
Filing an Original Claim to Copyright with the Office can process these forms much faster and more effi­
U.S. Copyright Office ciently than paper forms completed manually. Simply com­
An application for copyright registration contains three plete Form CO on your personal computer, print it out, and
essential elements: a completed application form, a nonre­ mail it along with a check or money order and your deposit.
 Copyright Basics  · 

To access Form CO, go the Copyright Office website and click Mailing Addresses for Applications Filed on Paper and for
on Forms. Do not save your filled-out Form CO and reuse Hard-Copy Deposits
it for another registration. The 2-d barcode it contains is Library of Congress 
unique for each work that you register. U.S. Copyright Office 
101 Independence Avenue SE 
Option 3: Registration with Paper Forms Washington, DC 20559-****
Paper versions of Form TX (literary works); Form VA (visual
arts works); Form PA (performing arts works, including To expedite the processing of your claim, use the address
motion pictures); Form SR (sound recordings); and Form SE above with the zip code extension for your type of work:
(single serials) are still available. They are not available on the 6222 for literary work 
Copyright Office website; however, staff will send them to 6211 for visual arts work 
you by postal mail upon request. Remember that online reg­ 6233 for performing arts work 
istration through eCO and fill-in Form CO (see above) can 6238 for motion picture or other audiovisual work 
be used for the categories of works applicable to Forms TX, 6237 for sound recording 
VA, PA, SR, and SE. 6226 for single serial issue

Types of Applications that Must Be Completed on Paper

Filing a Renewal Registration
Certain applications must be completed on paper and
mailed to the Copyright Office with the appropriate fee and To register a renewal, send:
deposit. Forms for these applications include 1 A properly completed application Form RE and, if neces­
• Form D-VH for registration of vessel hull designs sary, Form RE Addendum, and

• Form MW for registration of mask works 2 A nonrefundable filing fee* for each application and each
Addendum. Each Addendum form must be accompanied
• Form GATT for registration of works in which the U.S.
by a deposit representing the work being renewed. See
copyright was restored under the 1994 Uruguay Round
Circular 15, Renewal of Copyright.
Agreements Act
• Form RE for renewal of copyright claims, and *note: For current information on fees, please check the Copy-
right Office website at www.copyright.gov, write the Copy-
• Forms for group submissions, including Form GR/PPh/
right Office, or call (202) 707-3000.
CON (published photographs); Form GR/CP (contribu­
tions to periodicals); Form SE/Group (serials); and Form Deposit Requirements
G/DN (daily newspapers and newsletters)
If you file an application for copyright registration online
To access these forms, go to the Copyright Office website using eCO, you may in some cases attach an electronic copy
and click on Forms or call the Copyright Office. Informa­ of your deposit. If you do not have an electronic copy or
tional circulars about these types of applications and cur­ if you must send a hard copy or copies of your deposit to
rent registration fees are available on the Copyright Office comply with the “best edition” requirements for published
website or by phone. works, you must print out a shipping slip, attach it to your
deposit, and mail the deposit to the Copyright Office. If you
note: Complete the application form using black ink pen or
use Form CO, you must mail the form, fee, and deposit in
type. You may photocopy blank application forms. However,
the same package. Send the deposit, fee, and paper registra­
photocopied forms submitted to the Copyright Office must be
tion form packaged together to:
clear, legible, on a good grade of 8V * 11" white paper suitable
for automatic feeding through a photocopier. The forms should Library of Congress 
be printed, preferably in black ink, head-to-head so that when U.S. Copyright Office 
you turn the sheet over, the top of page 2 is directly behind 101 Independence Avenue SE 
the top of page 1. Forms not meeting these requirements may Washington, DC 20559-****
be returned resulting in delayed registration. You must have
To expedite the processing of your claim, use the address
Adobe Acrobat Reader® installed on your computer to view
above with the zip code extensions found above.
and print the forms accessed on the Internet. Adobe Acrobat
The hard-copy deposit of the work being registered will
Reader may be downloaded free from www.copyright.gov.
not be returned to you.
 Copyright Basics  · 

The deposit requirements vary in particular situations. CD-ROM, the operating software, and any manual(s)
The general requirements follow. Also note the information accompanying it. If registration is sought for the com­
under “Special Deposit Requirements” below. puter program on the CD-ROM, the deposit should
• If the work is unpublished, one complete copy or phono­ also include a printout of the first 25 and last 25 pages of
record. source code for the program.
• If the work was first published in the United States on or In the case of works reproduced in three-dimensional
after January 1, 1978, two complete copies or phonore­ copies, identifying material such as photographs or drawings
cords of the best edition. is ordinarily required. Other examples of special deposit
requirements (but by no means an exhaustive list) include
• If the work was first published in the United States before
many works of the visual arts such as greeting cards, toys,
January 1, 1978, two complete copies or phono-records of
fabrics, and oversized materials (see Circular 40a, Deposit
the work as first published.
Requirements for Registration of Claims to Copyright in Visual
• If the work was first published outside the United States, Arts Material); computer programs, video games, and other
one complete copy or phonorecord of the work as first machine-readable audiovisual works (see Circular 61); auto­
published. mated databases (see Circular 65, Copyright Registration for
When registering with eCO, you will receive via your Automated Databases); and contributions to collective works.
printer a shipping slip that you must include with your For information about deposit requirements for group regis­
deposit that you send to the Copyright Office. This shipping tration of serials, see Circular 62, Copyright Registration for
slip is unique to your claim to copyright and will link your Serials.
deposit to your application. Do not reuse the shipping slip. If you are unsure of the deposit requirement for your
work, write or call the Copyright Office and describe the
note: It is imperative when sending multiple works that you
work you wish to register.
place all applications, deposits, and fees in the same package. If
it is not possible to fit everything in one package, number each Unpublished Collections
package (e.g., 1 of 3; 2 of 4) to facilitate processing and, where
Under the following conditions, a work may be registered
possible, attach applications to the appropriate deposits.
in unpublished form as a “collection,” with one application
Special Deposit Requirements form and one fee:
Special deposit requirements exist for many types of works. • The elements of the collection are assembled in an
The following are prominent examples of exceptions to the orderly form;
general deposit requirements: • The combined elements bear a single title identifying the
• If the work is a motion picture, the deposit requirement collection as a whole;
is one complete copy of the unpublished or published • The copyright claimant in all the elements and in the col­
motion picture and a separate written description of its lection as a whole is the same; and
contents, such as a continuity, press book, or synopsis. • All the elements are by the same author, or, if they are by
• If the work is a literary, dramatic, or musical work pub­ different authors, at least one of the authors has contrib­
lished only in a phonorecord, the deposit requirement is uted copyrightable authorship to each element.
one complete phonorecord.
note: A Library of Congress Control Number is different from
• If the work is an unpublished or published computer pro­
a copyright registration number. The Cataloging in Publica-
gram, the deposit requirement is one visually perceptible
tion (CIP) Division of the Library of Congress is responsible for
copy in source code of the first 25 and last 25 pages of
assigning LC Control Numbers and is operationally separate
the program. For a program of fewer than 50 pages, the
from the Copyright Office. A book may be registered in or
deposit is a copy of the entire program. For more infor­
deposited with the Copyright Office but not necessarily cata-
mation on com­puter program registration, including
loged and added to the Library’s collections. For information
deposits for re­vised programs and provisions for trade
about obtaining an LC Control Number, see the following
secrets, see Circular 61, Copyright Registration for Com­
website: http://pcn.loc.gov/pcn. For information on Interna-
puter Programs.
tional Standard Book Numbering (ISBN), write to: ISBN, R.R.
• If the work is in a CD-ROM format, the deposit require­ Bowker, 630 Central Ave., New Providence, NJ 07974. Call
ment is one complete copy of the material, that is, the (877) 310-7333. For further information and to apply online,
 Copyright Basics  ·  10

see www.isbn.org. For information on International Stan- Corrections and Amplifications of

dard Serial Numbering (ISSN), write to: Library of Congress, Existing Registrations
National Serials Data Program, Serial Record Division,
Washington, DC 20540-4160. Call (202) 707-6452. Or obtain To correct an error in a copyright registration or to amplify
information from www.loc.gov/issn. the information given in a registration, file with the Copy­
right Office a supplementary registration Form CA together
An unpublished collection is not indexed under the individ­
with the filing. Form CA may be filed in the same manners as
ual titles of the contents but under the title of the collection.
described above under “Registration Procedures.” The infor­
Filing a Preregistration mation in a supplementary registration augments but does
not supersede that contained in the earlier registration. Note
Preregistration is a service intended for works that have had a
also that a supplementary registration is not a substitute for
history of prerelease infringement. To be eligible for preregis­
an original registration, for a renewal registration, or for record­
tration, a work must be unpublished and must be in the pro­
ing a transfer of ownership. For further information about
cess of being prepared for commercial distribution. It must
supplementary registration, see Circular 8, Supplementary
also fall within a class of works determined by the Register of
Copyright Registration.
Copyrights to have had a history of infringement prior to
authorized commercial distribution. Preregistration is not a
substitute for registration. The preregistration application
Mandatory Deposit for Works Published
Form PRE is only available online. For further information,
in the United States
go to the Copyright Office website at www.copyright.gov.

Although a copyright registration is not required, the Copy­

right Act establishes a mandatory deposit requirement for
Effective Date of Registration
works published in the United States. See the definition of
“publication” on page 3. In general, the owner of copyright or
A copyright registration is effective on the date the Copyright
the owner of the exclusive right of publication in the work
Office receives all the required elements in acceptable form.
has a legal obligation to deposit in the Copyright Office,
The time the Copyright Office requires to process an applica­
within three months of publication in the United States, two
tion varies, depending on the amount of material the Office
copies (or in the case of sound recordings, two phonore­
is receiving.
cords) for the use of the Library of Congress. Failure to make
If you apply online for copyright registration, you will
the deposit can result in fines and other penalties but does
receive an email saying that your application was received.
not affect copyright protection.
If you apply for copyright registration using a paper
If a registration for a claim to copyright in a published
application, you will not receive an acknowledgment that
work is filed online and the deposit is submitted online, the
your application has been received (the Office receives more
actual physical deposit must still be submitted to satisfy
than 600,000 applications annually). With either online or
mandatory deposit requirements.
paper applications, you can expect:
Certain categories of works are exempt entirely from
• A letter, telephone call or email from a Copyright Office the mandatory deposit requirements, and the obligation is
staff member if further information is needed or reduced for certain other categories. For further informa­
• A certificate of registration indicating that the work has tion about mandatory deposit, see Circular 7d, Mandatory
been registered, or if the application cannot be accepted, Deposit of Copies or Phonorecords for the Library of Congress.
a letter explaining why it has been rejected.
Requests to have certificates available for pickup in the
Public Information Office or to have certificates sent by Fed­ Use of Mandatory Deposit to Satisfy
eral Express or another mail service cannot be honored. Registration Requirements
If you apply using a paper application and you want to
know the date that the Copyright Office receives your mate­ For works published in the United States, the copyright law
rial, send it by registered or certified mail and request a contains a provision under which a single deposit can be
return receipt. made to satisfy both the deposit requirements for the Library
and the registration requirements. To have this dual effect,
 Copyright Basics  ·  11

the copies or phonorecords must be accompanied by the pre­ If a check received in payment of the filing fee is returned
scribed application form and filing fee. to the Copyright Office as uncollectible, the Copyright Office
will cancel the registration and will notify the remitter.
The filing fee for processing an original, supplementary,
Who May File an Application Form? or renewal claim is nonrefundable, whether or not copyright
registration is ultimately made. Do not send cash. The Copy­
The following persons are legally entitled to submit an appli­ right Office cannot assume any responsibility for the loss
cation form: of currency sent in payment of copyright fees. For further
• The author. This is either the person who actually created information, read Circular 4, Copyright Fees.
the work or, if the work was made for hire, the employer *note: Copyright Office fees are subject to change. For current
or other person for whom the work was prepared. fees, please check the Copyright Office website at www.copy-
• The copyright claimant. The copyright claimant is right.gov, write the Copyright Office, or call (202) 707-3000.
defined in Copyright Office regulations as either the
author of the work or a person or organization that has Certain Fees and Services May Be Charged to a Credit Card
obtained ownership of all the rights under the copyright If an application is submitted online, payment may be made
initially belonging to the author. This category includes a by credit card or Copyright Office deposit account. If an
person or organization who has obtained by contract the application is submitted on a paper application form, the fee
right to claim legal title to the copyright in an application may not be charged to a credit card.
for copyright registration. Some fees may be charged by telephone and in person in
• The owner of exclusive right(s). Under the law, any of the office. Others may only be charged in person in the office.
the exclusive rights that make up a copyright and any Fees related to items that are hand-carried into the Public
subdivision of them can be transferred and owned sepa­ Information Office may be charged to a credit card.
rately, even though the transfer may be limited in time or • Records Research and Certification Section: Fees for the
place of effect. The term “copyright owner” with respect following can be charged in person in the Office or by
to any one of the exclusive rights contained in a copyright phone: additional certificates; copies of documents and
refers to the owner of that particular right. Any owner of deposits; search and retrieval of deposits; certifications;
an exclusive right may apply for registration of a claim in and expedited processing. In addition, fees for estimates
the work. of the cost of searching Copyright Office records and for
• The duly authorized agent of such author, other copy­right searches of the copyright facts of registrations and recor­
claimant, or owner of exclusive right(s). Any person author­ dations on a regular or expedited basis may be charged to
ized to act on behalf of the author, other copyright claim­ a credit card by phone.
ant, or owner of exclusive rights may apply for registration. • Public Information Office: These fees may only be charged
There is no requirement that applications be prepared or in person in the office, not by phone: standard registra­
filed by an attorney. tion request forms; special handling requests for all stan­
dard registration requests; requests for services provided
by the Certifications and Documents Section when the
Fees* request is accompanied by a request for special han­
dling; search requests for which a fee estimate has been
All remittances that are not made online or by deposit provided; additional fee for each claim using the same
account should be in the form of drafts, that is, checks, deposit; full term retention fees; appeal fees; Secure Test
money orders, or bank drafts, payable to Register of Copy- processing fee; short fee payments when accompanied by
rights. Do not send cash. Drafts must be redeemable without a Remittance Due Notice; in-process retrieval fees; and
service or exchange fee through a U. S. institution, must be online service providers fees.
payable in U. S. dollars, and must be imprinted with Ameri­ • Public Records Reading Room: On-site use of Copyright
can Banking Association routing numbers. International Office computers, printers, or photocopiers can be
Money Orders and Postal Money Orders that are negotiable charged in person in the office.
only at a post office are not acceptable. • Accounts Section: Deposit Accounts maintained by the
Accounts Section may be replenished by credit card. See
12  ·  Copyright Basics

Circular 5, How to Open and Maintain a Deposit Account By Regular Mail

in the Copyright Office. Write to:
NIE recordations and claims filed on Form GATT may be Library of Congress 
paid by credit card if the card number is included in a sepa­ Copyright Office-COPUBS 
rate letter that accompanies the form. 101 Independence Avenue SE 
Washington, DC 20559-6304
For information on other copyright-related publications,
Search of Copyright Office Records
read Circular 2, Publications on Copyright.
The Copyright Public Information Office is open to the
The records of the Copyright Office are open for inspection
public 8:30 am to 5:00 pm Monday through Friday, eastern
and searching by the public. Upon request and payment of
time, except federal holidays. The office is located in the
a fee,* the Copyright Office will search its records for you.
Library of Congress, James Madison Memorial Building, 101
For information on searching the Office records concerning
Independence Avenue SE, Washington, DC, near the Capitol
the copyright status or ownership of a work, see Circular 22,
South Metro stop. Staff members are available to answer
How to Investigate the Copyright Status of a Work, and Circu­
questions, provide circulars, and accept applications for reg­
lar 23, The Copyright Card Catalog and the Online Files of the
istration. Access for disabled individuals is at the front door
Copyright Office.
on Independence Avenue SE.
Copyright Office records in machine-readable form cata­
The Copyright Office is not permitted to give legal advice.
loged from January 1, 1978, to the present, including registra­
If information or guidance is needed on matters such as
tion and renewal information and recorded documents, are
disputes over the ownership of a copyright, suits against pos­
available for searching on the Copyright Office website at
sible infringers, the procedure for getting a work published,
www.copyright.gov.
or the method of obtaining royalty payments, it may be nec­
essary to consult an attorney.

For Further Information note: The Copyright Office provides a free electronic mailing
list, NewsNet, that issues periodic email messages on the sub­
By Internet ject of copyright. The messages alert subscribers to hearings,

Circulars, announcements, regulations, certain applications dead­lines for comments, new and proposed regulations, new

forms, and other materials are available from the Copyright publications, and other copyright-related subjects of inter-

Office website at www.copyright.gov. est. NewsNet is not an interactive discussion group. Subscribe
to the Copyright Office free electronic mailing list via the
By Telephone Copyright Office website at www.copyright.gov. Click on

For general information about copyright, call the Copyright “Email updates.” You will receive a standard welcoming mes-

Public Information Office at (202) 707-3000. Staff members sage indicating that your subscription to NewsNet has been

are on duty from 8:30 am to 5:00 pm, eastern time, Monday accepted.

through Friday, except federal holidays. Recorded informa­

tion is available 24 hours a day. If you want to request paper
application forms or circulars, call the Forms and Publica­
tions Hotline at (202) 707-9100 and leave a recorded message.

U.S. Copyright Office · Library of Congress · 101 Independence Avenue SE · Washington, DC 20559-6000 · www.copyright.gov

circular 1  rev: 07 ⁄ 2008  print: 07 ⁄ 2008 – xx,xxx  Printed on recycled paper u.s. government printing office: 2008-320-958⁄ 60,119