Advanced Electronic

Packaging
Second Edition
Edited by
Richard K. Ulrich
William D. Brown
IEEE Press Series on Microelectronic Systems
STUART K. TEWKSBURY, Series Editor
WILEY-INTERSCIENCE
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition
Contributors xvii
Acronyms xix
1. Introduction and Overview of
Microelectronic Packaging
W. D. Brown
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Introduction 1
Functions of an Electronic
Package 2
Packaging Hierarchy 3
1.3.1 DieAttach 5
1.3.2 First-Level Interconnection
1.3.3 Package Lid and Pin Sealing
1.3.4 Second-Level Interconnection
Brief History of Microelectronic
Packaging Technology 8
Driving Forces on Packaging
Technology 19
2.2 Some Important Packaging Material
Properties 29
2.2.1 Mechanical Properties 30
2.2.2 Moisture Penetration 30
2.2.3 Interfacial Adhesion 31
2.2.4 Electrical Properties 31
2.2.5 Thermal Properties 33
2.2.6 Chemical Properties 34
2.2.7 System Reliability 34
2.3 Ceramics in Packaging
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.5.4
1.5.5
1.5.6
1.5.7
1.5.8
1.5.9
1.5.10
1.5.11
Manufacturing Costs 2
Manufacturability Costs
Size and Weight 20
Electrical Design 21
Thermal Design 21
Mechanical Design 21
Manufacturability 22
Testability 22
Reliability 23
Serviceability 23
Material Selection 23
Summary 24
References 25
20
20
Exercises 26
2. Materials for Microelectronic
Packaging 29
W. D. Brown and Richard Ulrich
2.1 Introduction 29
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
35
37 Alumina (AI2O3)
Beryllia (BeO) 39
Aluminum Nitride (A1N)
Silicon Carbide (SiC)
40
41
Boron Nitride (BN)
Glass-Ceramics
41
42
43
43
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.4.6
2.4 Polymers in Packaging
2.4.1 Fundamentals of Polymers
2.4.2 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting
Polymers 45
Effects of Water and Solvents on
Polymers 46
Some Polymer Properties of
Interest 47
Primary Classes of Polymers Used
in Microelectronics 50
First-Level Packaging Applications
of Polymers 55
2.5 Metals in Packaging 57
2.5.1 Die Bonding 57
2.5.2 Chip to Package or Substrate
2.5.3 Package Construction 64
2.6 Materials Used in High-density
Interconnect Substrates 66
2.6.1 Laminate Substrates 67
2.6.2 Ceramic Substrates 70
2.6.3 Deposited Thin-Film Substrates
71
2.7 Summary 73
References 73
Exercises 75
58
v
vi Contents
3. Processing Technologies 77
H. A. Naseem and Susan Burkett
3.1 Introduction 77
3.2 Thin-Film Deposition 77
3.2.1 Vacuum Facts 78
3.2.2 Vacuum Pumps 79
3.2.3 Evaporation 81
3.2.4 Sputtering 84
3.2.5 Chemical Vapor Deposition 88
3.2.6 Plating 89
3.3 Patterning 93
3.3.1 Photolithography 93
3.3.2 Etching 96
3.4 Metal-to-Metal Joining 98
3.4.1 Solid-State Bonding 98
3.4.2 Soldering and Brazing 101
3.5 Summary 102
References 102
Exercises 103
4. Organic Printed Circuit Board
Materials and Processes 105
Richard C. Snogren
4.1 Introduction 105
4.2 Common Issues for All PCB Layer
Constructions 106
4.2.1 Data Formats and Specifications
106
4.2.2 Computer-Aided Manufacturing
and Tooling 107
4.2.3 Panelization 108
4.2.4 Laminate Materials 109
4.2.5 Manufacturing Tolerance
Overview 111
4.3 PCB Process Flow 112
4.3.1 Manufacture of Inner Layers
112
4.3.2 Manufacture of MLB Structure and
Outer Layers 118
4.3.3 Electrical Test 124
4.3.4 Visual and Dimensional Inspection
124
4.3.5 Contract Review 125
4.3.6 Microsection Analysis 125
4.4 Dielectric Materials 127
4.4.1 Dielectric Material Drivers 127
4.4.2 Dielectric Material Constructions
and Process Considerations 128
4.5 Surface Finishes 133
4.6 Advanced PCB Structures 134
4.6.1 High-density Interconnection
(HDI) or Microvia 134
4.7 Specifications and Standards 141
4.7.1 The IPC, a Brief History 141
4.7.2 Relevant Standards to Organic
Printed Circuit Boards 141
4.8 Key Terms 142
References 145
Exercises 145
5. Ceramic Substrates 149
Aicha A. R. Elshabini and Fred D. Barlow III
5.1 Ceramics in Electronic Packaging
149
5.1.1 Introduction and Background
149
5.1.2 Functions of Ceramic Substrates
149
5.1.3 Ceramic Advantages 150
5.1.4 Ceramic Compositions 150
5.1.5 Ceramic Substrate Manufacturing
151
5.2 Electrical Properties of Ceramic
Substrates 152
5.3 Mechanical Properties of Ceramic
Substrates 153
5.4 Physical Properties of Ceramic
Substrates 154
5.5 Design Rules 154
5.6 Thin Film on Ceramics 155
5.6.1 Introduction and Background
155
5.6.2 Deposition Techniques 155
5.6.3 Thin-Film Substrate Properties
156
5.7 Thick Films on Ceramics 156
5.7.1 Introduction and Background
156
5.7.2 Screen Preparation and Inspection
157
5.7.3 Screen-Printing Process 158
5.7.4 Substrate Cleaning and Process
Environment 159
5.7.5 Thick-Film Formulations 159
5.7.6 Heat Treatment Processes for
Pastes 160
5.7.7 Thick-Film Metallizations 161
5.7.8 Thick-Film Dielectrics 162
5.7.9 Thick-Film Resistors 162
Contents V
5.8 Low-Temperature Cofired Ceramics
(LTCC) 163
5.8.1 LTCC Technology 163
5.8.2 Tape Handling and Cleanroom
Environment 166
5.8.3 Via Formation 167
5.8.4 ViaFill 169
5.8.5 Screen-Printing Considerations for
Tape Materials 171
5.8.6 Inspection 172
5.8.7 Tape Layer Collation 172
5.8.8 Lamination 173
5.8.9 Firing 175
5.8.10 Postprocessing 177
5.8.11 Design Considerations 178
5.8.12 Shrinkage Prediction and Control
179
5.9 HTCC Fabrication Process 180
5.9.1 HTCC Process 180
5.9.2 Multilayer ALN 180
5.10 High-Current Substrates 180
5.10.1 Direct Bonded Copper Process
181
5.10.2 Active Metal Brazing (AMB)
182
5.11 Summary 182
References 183
Exercises 184
6. Electrical Considerations, Modeling,
and Simulation 187
S. S. Ang and L. W. Schaper
6.1 Introduction 187
6.1.1 When Is a Wire Not a Wire?
187
6.1.2 Packaging Electrical Functions
187
6.2 Fundamental Considerations 188
6.2.1 Resistance 189
6.2.2 Seif and Mutual Inductance
194
6.2.3 Capacitance 200
6.2.4 Parameter Extraction Programs
202
6.3 Signal Integrity and Modeling 202
6.3.1 Digital Signal Representation and
Spectrum 203
6.3.2 Driver and Receiver Models
205
6.3.3 RC Delay 207
6.4 Transmission Lines 212
6.4.1 Microstrip Transmission Lines
215
6.4.2 Termination Reflections 217
6.4.3 Signal Line Losses and Skin Effect
223
6.4.4 Net Topology 224
6.5 Coupled Noise or Crosstalk 226
6.6 Power and Ground 230
6.6.1 Dynamic Power Distribution
231
6.6.2 Power System Impedance 231
6.6.3 Resonance of Decoupling
Capacitance 232
6.6.4 Power Distribution Modeling
232
6.6.5 Switching Noise 233
6.7 Overall Packaged IC Models and
Simulation 236
6.7.1 Simulation 237
6.8 Time-Domain Reflectometry 238
6.9 Summary 242
References 242
Exercises 243
7. Thermal Considerations 247
Rick J. Couvillion
7.1 Introduction 247
7.1.1 HeatSources 247
7.1.2 Approaches to Heat Removal
249
7.1.3 FailureModes 250
7.2 Heat Transfer Fundamentals 251
7.2.1 Heat Transfer Rate Equations
251
7.2.2 Transient Thermal Response of
Components 255
7.2.3 Conduction in Various Shapes
257
7.2.4 Overall Resistance 264
7.2.5 Forced Convection Heat Transfer
268
7.2.6 Natural or Free Convection Heat
Transfer 276
7.3 Air Cooling 282
7.4 Liquid Cooling 282
7.4.1 Single-Phase Liquid Cooling
282
7.4.2 Two-Phase Liquid Cooling
282
viii Contents
7.5 Advanced Cooling Methods 286
7.5.1 HeatPipes 286
7.5.2 Thermoelectric Cooling 287
7.5.3 Microchannel Cooling 288
7.6 Computer-Aided Modeling 289
7.6.1 Solids Modeling 289
7.6.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics
290
7.6.3 Levels of Decoupling 290
7.6.4 Typical Results 290
7.7 Summary 290
References 292
Appendix: Thermophysical Properties
for Heat Transfer Calculations 292
Exercises 297
8. Mechanical Design Considerations 299
William F. Schmidt
8.1 Introduction 299
8.2 Deformation and Strain 299
8.3 Stress 303
8.4 Constitutive Relations 307
8.4.1 Elastic Material 307
8.4.2 Plastic Material 309
8.4.3 Creep 310
8.5 Simplified Forms 311
8.5.1 Plane Stress and Plane Strain
311
8.5.2 Beams 312
8.6 Failure Theories 317
8.6.1 Static Failure 318
8.6.2 Fracture Mechanics 320
8.6.3 Fatigue 321
8.7 Analytical Determination of Stress
323
8.7.1 Bi-Material Assembly-Axial
Effects 323
8.7.2 Bi-Material Assembly-Bending
Effects 328
8.7.3 Peeling Stress 329
8.7.4 Tri-Material Assembly 331
8.8 Numerical Formulations 335
8.8.1 Finite-Element Method 335
8.8.2 Commercial Codes 338
8.8.3 Limitations and Hazards 340
8.9 Summary 341
References 341
Bibliography 341
Exercises 342
9. Discrete and Embedded Passive
Devices 349
Richard Ulrich
9.1 Introduction 349
9.2 Passives in Modern Electronic Systems
350
9.3 Definitions and Configurations of
Passives 354
9.4 Film-Based Passives 356
9.5 Resistors 358
9.5.1 Design Equations 358
9.5.2 Sizing Embedded Resistors
360
9.5.3 Materials for Resistors 361
9.6 Capacitors 363
9.6.1 Paraelectrics and Ferroelectrics
365
9.6.2 Sizing Dielectric Areas 367
9.6.3 Dielectric Materials Used in
Capacitors 369
9.7 Inductors 371
9.8 Electncal Charactenstics of Passives
372
9.8.1 Modeling Ideal Passives 373
9.8.2 Modeling Real Capacitors 374
9.8.3 Differences in Parasitics Between
Discrete and Embedded Capacitors
375
9.8.4 Modeling Real Inductors 377
9.8.5 Modeling Real Resistors 379
9.9 Issues in Embedding Passives 379
9.9.1 Reasons for Embedding Passives
379
9.9.2 Problems with Embedding Passive
Devices 380
9.10 Decoupling Capacitors 381
9.10.1 Decoupling Issues 381
9.10.2 Decoupling with Discrete
Capacitors 382
9.10.3 Decoupling with Embedded
Capacitors 383
9.11 Future of Passives 384
References 385
Exercises 386
10. Electronic Package Assembly 389
Tarak A. Railkar and Robert W. Warren
10.1 Introduction 389
Contents ix
10.2 Facilities 389
10.2.1 Cleanroom Requirements
389
10.2.2 Electrostatic Discharge
Requirements 391
10.2.3 Moisture Sensitivity Level
(MSL) Requirements 392
10.2.4 Reflow Temperatures 393
10.3 Component Handling 393
10.3.1 Shipping 393
10.3.2 Storage 393
10.3.3 Handling/Processing 394
10.4 Surface-Mount Technology (SMT)
Assembly 395
10.4.1 Solder Printing and Related
Defects 395
10.4.2 Component Placement
397
10.4.3 Solder Reflow 398
10.4.4 Cleaning 399
10.5 Wafer Preparation 399
10.5.1 Wafer Probing 399
10.5.2 Wafer Mounting 401
10.5.3 Wafer Backgrinding/Thinning
401
10.5.4 Wafer Sawing 402
10.5.5 Wafer Scribing 403
10.5.6 Equipment 404
10.6 Die Attachment 405
10.6.1 Epoxy 405
10.6.2 Thermoplastics and
Thermosets 406
10.6.3 Solder 407
10.6.4 Rework 407
10.6.5 Die-Attach Equipment
408
10.7 Wirebonding 409
10.7.1 Thermocompression
Wirebonding 409
10.7.2 Ultrasonic Wirebonding
409
10.7.3 Thermosonic Wirebonding
410
10.7.4 Ribbon Bonding 410
10.7.5 Ball Bonding 410
10.7.6 Wedge Bonding 411
10.7.7 Wirebond Testing 411
10.7.8 Tape-Automated Bonding
414
10.7.9 Plasma Surface Treatment
415
10.8 Flip-Chip 417
10.8.1 Wafer Bumping 419
10.8.2 Fluxing 422
10.9 Package Sealing/Encapsulation/
Coating 425
10.9.1 Hermetic Package Sealing
426
10.9.2 Hermetic Package Testing
426
10.9.3 Nonhermetic Encapsulation
427
10.10 Package-Level Processes 429
10.10.1 Lead Trim, Form, and
Singulation 430
10.10.2 Solder Ball Attach and
Singulation 430
10.10.3 Marking 430
10.11 State-of-the-Art Technologies 430
10.11.1 3D and Stacked Die 430
10.11.2 Radio Frequency (RF)
Modules 431
10.11.3 Microelectromechanical
Systems (MEMS) and
Microoptoelectromechanical
Systems (MOEMS) 432
10.11.4 Nanotechnology 434
10.12 Summary 435
References 435
Exercises 436
11. Design Considerations 437
J. P. Parkerson and L. W. Schaper
11.1 Introduction 437
11.2 Packaging and the Electronic System
437
11.2.1 Packaging Functions 437
11.2.2 System and Packaging Metrics
438
11.2.3 System Constraints and
Trade-Offs 440
11.2.4 System Partitioning 442
11.3 Trade-Offs Among Packaging
Functions 445
11.3.1 Signal Wiring 445
11.3.2 Power Distribution 452
11.3.3 Thermal Management 455
11.3.4 Interconnect Testing 456
11.4 Trade-Off Design Example 458
11.5 Product Development Cycle 460
11.5.1 Traditional and Modified
Product Cycles 461
x Contents
11.5.2 Market Analysis and Product
Specification 463
11.5.3 Block Diagram and
Partitioning 464
11.5.4 Technology Selection 464
11.5.5 AS1C/PCB/MCM Design
465
11.5.6 Thermal/Mechanical Design
466
11.5.7 Test Program Development
466
11.5.8 Manufacturing Tooling
467
11.5.9 Fabrication/Assembly 467
11.5.10 Characterization 467
11.5.11 Qualification 467
11.5.12 Product Introduction 468
11.6 Design Concepts 468
11.6.1 Component Overview 469
11.6.2 Schematic Overview 471
11.6.3 Design Viewpoint 474
11.6.4 Back Annotation 475
11.6.5 Simulation and Evaluation
476
11.7 PCB/MCM Board Design Process
477
11.7.1 PCB Design Flow 477
11.7.2 Librarian 477
11.7.3 Package 479
11.7.4 Layout 479
11.7.5 Fablink 481
11.7.6 Summary of Design Concepts
484
11.8 Summary 484
References 484
Bibliography 485
Exercises 485
12. Radio Frequency and Microwave
Packaging 487
Fred Barlow and Aicha Eishabini
12.1 Introduction and Background
487
12.1.1 Nature of High-Frequency
Circuits 487
12.1.2 Applications of
High-Frequency Circuits
488
12.1.3 Basic Concepts 490
12.2 Transmission Lines 494
12.2.1 Transmission Line Modes
495
12.2.2 System-Level Transmission
Lines 496
12.2.3 Planar Transmission Lines
499
12.2.4 Discontinuities 505
12.3 High-Frequency Circuit
Implementation 510
12.3.1 Material Considerations
510
12.3.2 Microwave Monolithic
Integrated Circuits 513
12.3.3 MIC Technologies 513
12.4 Lumped-Element Components
515
12.4.1 Capacitors 515
12.4.2 Inductors 516
12.4.3 Resistors and Terminations
518
12.5 Distributed Components 518
12.5.1 Impedance-Matching Devices
518
12.5.2 Filters 519
12.5.3 Power Dividers 520
12.5.4 Couplers 522
12.6 Simulation and Circuit Layout
523
12.7 Measurement and Testing 525
12.8 Frequency-Domain Measurements
525
12.8.1 Measurement Systems
525
12.8.2 Probing Hardware and
Connectors 526
12.9 Time-Domain Measurements
527
12.10 Design Example 528
12.11 Summary 531
References 531
Exercises 535
13. Power Electronics Packaging 537
Alexander B. Lostetter and Kraig Olejniczak
13.1 Introduction 537
13.2 Semiconductor Power Device
Technology 537
13.2.1 Ideal and Nonideal Power
Switching 538
13.2.2 Power Diodes 540
Contents xi
13.2.3 Thyristors 541
13.2.4 Power Bipolar Junction
Transistors 542
13.2.5 Power MOSFETs 542
13.2.6 Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistors 542
13.2.7 Static Induction Transistors
(SITs) 543
13.2.8 Silicon Carbide Semiconductor
Devices 543
13.3 Commercially Available Power
Packages 547
13.3.1 Discrete Power Device
Packages 547
13.3.2 Multichip Power Modules
(MCPMs) and Completely
Integrated Solutions 548
13.3.3 Thermal Performance of
Commercial Packages [53-58]
552
13.4 Power Packaging Design
Methodology 561
13.4.1 Overall System Design
Philosophies 561
13.4.2 Substrate Selection 563
13.4.3 Baseplate and Heat Spreader
Selection 565
13.4.4 Die-Attach Methods [62-64]
565
13.4.5 Wirebonding [65] 570
13.4.6 Thermal Design 573
13.4.7 Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) and Electromagnetic
Compliance (EMC) 576
13.4.8 High-Temperature Power
Electronics 576
13.5 Summary 577
References 577
Exercises 579
14. Multichip and Three- Dimensional
Packaging 583
James Lyke
14.1 Introduction 583
14.1.1 Brief History of Multichip
Packaging 583
14.1.2 Motivations for Multichip
Packaging 585
14.2 Packaging Hierarchy and Taxonomy
588
14.2.1 Hierarchy 588
14.2.2 Anatomy of an MCM 588
14.2.3 Planar MCM Approaches
591
14.3 Three-Dimensional Systems 599
14.3.1 Defining Characteristics of 3D
Systems 599
14.3.2 Die and Package Stacks 602
14.3.3 MCM Stacks 605
14.3.4 Folding Approaches 607
14.4 Options in Multichip Packaging
608
14.4.1 Yield/Known Good Die
608
14.4.2 Process Compatibility 609
14.4.3 Density Metrics in 2D and 3D
Packaging 609
14.4.4 Wiring Density 609
14.4.5 Input/Output 610
14.4.6 Electrical Performance and
Substrate Selection 613
14.4.7 Thermal Management 613
14.4.8 Testability 615
14.4.9 System in a Package Versus
System on a Chip 615
14.5 Emerging Trends in Density Scaling
615
14.5.1 Method 1: For Regulr and/or
Low-Pincount Assemblies
617
14.5.2 Method 2: For Moderately
Complex Pincount Assemblies
618
14.5.3 Method 3: For Moderately
Complex Pincount Assemblies
619
14.5.4 Issues in Ultradense Packaging
619
14.6 Summary 621
References 622
Exercises 623
15. Packaging of MEMS and MOEMS:
Challenges and a Case Study 625
Ajay P. Malshe, Volkan Ozguz and John
Patrick O' Connor
15.1 Introduction 625
15.2 Background 625
15.2.1 Mixed Signals, Mixed
Domains, and Mixed Scales
Packaging: Toward the
Next-Generation
xii Contents
Application-Specific
Integrated Systems 626
15.2.2 Microelectromechanical
Systems 626
15.3 Challenges in Mems Integration
628
15.3.1 Release and Stiction 630
15.3.2 Dicing 631
15.3.3 DieHandling 631
15.3.4 Wafer-Level Encapsulation
631
15.3.5 Stress 632
15.3.6 Outgassing 632
15.3.7 Testing 633
15.3.8 State-of-the-Art in MEMS
Packaging 633
15.3.9 Future Directions 635
15.4 Packaging Considerations and
Guidelines Related to the Digital
Micromirror Device 636
15.4.1 Introduction and Background
to MOEMS and Particularly
DMD Devices 636
15.4.2 Parameters Influencing DMD
Packaging 637
15.4.3 DMD Package Design 640
15.4.4 DMD Hermetic Package
Assembly 646
15.5 Future Packaging Challenges
647
References 648
Exercises 650
16. Reliability Considerations 651
Richard Ulrich
16.1 Introduction 651
16.1.1 Definitions 651
16.1.2 Pattems of Failure
653
16.1.3 Coverage in This Chapter
654
16.2 Failure Mechanisms 655
16.2.1 Corrosion 656
16.2.2 Mechanical Stress 659
16.2.3 Electrical Stress 660
16.2.4 Techniques for Failure
Analysis 660
16.3 Accelerated Testing 661
16.3.1 Accelerated Environmental
Testing 663
16.3.2 Electrostatic Discharge
Accelerated Testing 666
16.3.3 Other Accelerated Tests
666
16.3.4 Test Structures 667
16.4 Reliability Metrology 668
16.4.1 Failure Rate, MTBF, and FITs
668
16.4.2 Reliability Functions 668
16.4.3 Weibull Distribution 674
16.4.4 Normal Distribution 677
16.4.5 Failure Distributions and the
Bathtub Curve 680
16.5 Failure Statistics for Microelectronic
Systems 681
16.5.1 Predicting Failure in
Components That Have
Multiple Failure Modes
683
16.6 Industrial Practice of Reliability
Science for Microelectronics
684
Bibliography 684
Exercises 684
17. Cost Evaluation and Analysis 691
Terry R. Collins, Scott J. Mason, and Heather
Nachtmann
17.1 Introduction 691
17.2 ProductCost 691
17.2.1 DirectCosts 692
17.2.2 Indirect Costs 692
17.2.3 Traditional Volume-Based
Costing 692
17.2.4 Activity-Based Costing
694
17.3 Break-even Analysis 696
17.3.1 Linear Break-even Analysis
696
17.3.2 Piecewise Linear Break-even
Analysis 698
17.4 Learning Curve Relationships
698
17.4.1 Determining Exponent
Values for Improvement Rates
700
17.4.2 Learning Curve Examples
702
17.5 Forecasting Models 703
Contents xi
17.5.1
17.5.2
17.5.3
17.5.4
17.5.5
17.5.6
17.5.7
17.5.8
Mean-Squared Error (MSE)
704
Mean Absolute Deviation
(MAD) 704
Mean Percentage Error (MPE)
704
Mean Absolute Percentage
Error (MAPE) 705
Moving Average 705
Forecasting Sales Based on
Historical Data 706
Exponential Smoothing
707
Least-Squares Regression
712
17.6 Comparative Analysis 714
17.6.1 Capital Project Selection and
Evaluation 715
17.6.2 Replacement Analysis 716
17.7 Sensitivity Analysis 717
17.7.1 Single-Parameter Sensitivity
Analysis 718
17.7.2 Optimistic-Pessimistic
Sensitivity Analysis 719
17.8 Summary 720
References 721
Exercises 721
18. Analytical Techniques for Materials
Characterization 725
Emily A. Clark, Ingrid Fritsch, Seifollah
Nasrazadani, and Charles S. Henry
18.1 Overview 725
18.2 X-Ray Diffraction 725
18.2.1 Summary 728
18.2.2 Basic Principles 728
18.2.3 Instrumentation 729
18.2.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 731
18.3 Raman Spectroscopy 734
18.3.1 Summary 734
18.3.2 Basic Principles 735
18.3.3 Instrumentation 735
18.3.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 736
18.4 Scanning Probe Microscopy 740
18.4.1 Summary 740
18.4.2 STM Principles and
Instrumentation 740
18.4.3 SFM Principles and
Instrumentation 741
18.4.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 742
18.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy and
Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy 744
18.5.1 Summary 744
18.5.2 Basic Principles 745
18.5.3 Instrumentation 746
18.5.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 748
18.6 Confocal Microscopy 750
18.6.1 Summary 750
18.6.2 Basic Principles 750
18.6.3 Instrumentation 750
18.6.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 751
18.7 Auger Electron Spectroscopy
752
18.7.1 Summary 752
18.7.2 Basic Principles 753
18.7.3 Instrumentation 757
18.7.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 759
18.8 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
766
18.8.1 Summary 766
18.8.2 Basic Principles 766
18.8.3 Instrumentation 769
18.8.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 770
18.9 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
775
18.9.1 Summary 775
18.9.2 Basic Principles 776
18.9.3 Instrumentation 778
18.9.4 Practical Considerations and
Applications 782
References 786
Exercises 790
Index 793