201

13
Open Channel
Flowmeters
Introduction
The majority of industrial liquid flows are carried in closed conduits that are oper-
ated full of fluid. This is not always the case, however, for high volume flows of
water in irrigation systems, water works, or in sanitation and storm drain systems.
The flows in these processes are typically classified as open channel flows and are
characterized by low system heads and high volumetric flow rates.
Open channel flow rates are commonly inferred from established flow charac-
teristics of carefully constructed restrictions to the flow. The geometry of such a
restriction establishes a fixed relationship between flow and the liquid level near
or within the element. The two most common restrictions used are the weir and
the flume.
Weirs
Principle of Operation
A weir is a restriction in an open channel in which a crested dam or plate is placed
across the flowing stream. The weir is designed so that the liquid springs clear of
the sharp-edged crest of the dam, resulting in a sheet of fluid. This sheet is
referred to as the nappe and should be freely ventilated underneath so as not to
affect the flow over the weir. The depth of the liquid above the crest of the weir is
used to infer the flow. The profile of a weir and various weir geometries are illus-
trated in Figure 13-1.
The rectangular and Cipolletti weirs have approximately a 3/2 power relation-
ship between level and flow, while the V-notch weir has an approximate 5/2
power relationship. The V-notch weir has no crest but the measured differential is
referenced to the bottom of the V.
202 Industrial Flow Measurement
Construction
A weir may consist of a dam of metal (thin plate) or concrete (broad crested) with
specified openings. A level-sensing device upstream of the weir is used to sense
the liquid head. A variety of materials may be used depending on the nature of the
flowing fluid. Typically, fiberglass construction with metal crest, concrete with
metal crest, or all metal construction are available.
Figure 13-1. Weirs. (Courtesy ABB)
Chapter 13 Open Channel Flowmeters 203
Operating Constraints
Weirs, aside from being operated within their flow limits, must also be operated
within the available system head. Typically, most applications are gravity fed and
the amount of permanent head loss (that is, the difference in level before and after
the flowmeter) may be limited by physical requirements on the elevation of the
inlet and outlet.
Operation of the weir is sensitive to the approach velocity of the liquid, often
necessitating a stilling basin or pond upstream of the weir. Such a basin reduces
the fluid velocity and provides a place for debris to settle out. Accumulation of
foreign material and debris adjacent to the flowmeter will affect the operation of
the flowmeter. Self-cleaning bar screens well upstream of the flowmeter may be
considered if debris is a continual problem.
Performance
Weirs can achieve accuracies of 2 to 5 percent of rate and turn- downs of as high
as 25:1. However, the reduced accuracy of the level transmitter may become sig-
nificant in the lower portion of the flow range. The V-notch weir has a very good
turndown and its coefficient does not vary excessively over a wide range of flow.
Applications
Weirs are typically applied to liquid flow measurements in which relatively large
head is available to establish the free-flow conditions over the weir. V-notch weirs
may be applied in low flow situations or in applications that require large turn-
down.
Sizing
Weir size may be estimated by using the graphs of the relationship between flow
and the liquid head upstream of the flowmeter as shown in Figure 13-2.
EXAMPLE 13-1
Problem: Size a weir for the measurement of 0 to 5000 gallons per minute of
water that is flowing in an open channel, assuming that the difference in
upstream and downstream elevations is adequate.
Solution: Reading directly from Figure 13-2, a 90 V -notch weir could be
used; however, this would entail a liquid head measurement of approximately
22 inches, which would exceed the available head. Rectangular and Cipolletti
weirs in sizes ranging from 4 to 10 feet develop heads of approximately 6 to
13 inches, depending on size.
204 Industrial Flow Measurement
Installation
Installation of the weir and the level transmitter should be in accordance with
manufacturer recommendations. A stilling pond or basin may be required to
Figure 13-2. Relationship of flow and liquid head (weirs). (Courtesy ABB)
Chapter 13 Open Channel Flowmeters 205
reduce velocity and the effects of flow turbulence of the liquid upstream of the
flowmeter. Careful leveling of the crest is also required.
Level transmitters are typically 2-wire devices, although 3-wire and 4-wire
devices are also available. Level transmitters must be calibrated to compensate for
any hydrostatic heads resulting from the elevation of the level transmitter relative
to the crest or the bottom of the weir notch. Non-contact measurements must also
be made to account for the elevation of the transducer above the crest level.
Maintenance
Weir flowmeters require routine maintenance in addition to periodic calibration
checks of the level transmitter.
Accumulation of Debris
The operation of the weir is sensitive to any foreign material or debris that may be
present upstream of the flowmeter. Therefore, any such debris should be removed,
which usually necessitates periodic cleaning of the area upstream of the flow-
meter to maintain accuracy.
Electronic Failures
Electronic failures are usually handled by board replacement in the level transmit-
ter.
Spare Parts
Spare parts are typically limited to the electronic circuit boards and sensors of the
level transmitter.
Calibration
Adjustment of zero and the span of the level transmitter should be performed per
the manufacturer's instructions, which will vary significantly with manufacturer,
as well as with the technology that is employed to measure level. It should be
noted that the level sensed by the level transmitter should be compensated to
account for differences in sensor elevation relative to the bottom of the notch or
the weir crest.
Parshall Flumes
Principle of Operation
Parshall flumes operate on the principle that a converging section of channel
restricts the flow from the sides and causes a change in the depth of the liquid as
flow varies. The diverging section assures that the downstream level is less than
50 to 80 percent of the level in the converging section, depending on size. The
206 Industrial Flow Measurement
shape of a Parshall flume and a profile of the flow through the flume are shown in
Figure 13-3.
Parshall flumes have an approximate 3/2 power relationship between level
and flow.
Construction
A Parshall flume consists of a fabricated section of open channel that consists of a
converging section, a throat, and a diverging section designed to increase velocity
at the throat of the flume. This results in a corresponding change in level of the
fluid as the flow changes. In typical applications, a level measurement device
(which comprises the flow transmitter) is required only upstream of the flowme-
ter. Some applications, however, require level transmitters both upstream and
downstream of the flume. Materials of construction must be compatible with the
flowing fluid and typically include carbon steel, fiberglass reinforced plastic
(FRP), and concrete.
Figure 13-3. Parshall flume. (Courtesy ABB)
Chapter 13 Open Channel Flowmeters 207
Operating Constraints
Flumes, aside from being operated within their flow limits, must also be operated
within the level restrictions of the flowmeter. Parshall flumes are usually operated
under free-flow conditions in which the discharge liquid level is low enough that
it exerts no backpressure on the high velocity jet that is present at the throat of the
flume. The Parshall flume will also operate under submerged flow conditions;
however, two level measurements (at points H
a
and H
b
) are required (see Figure
13-4).
The permanent head loss of a Parshall flume (that is, the difference in level
between the level before and after the flowmeter) is relatively small; therefore,
flumes may be applied where the elevation gradient of the channel is small.
Operation of the weir is sensitive to any waves or jets that may be present
upstream of the flowmeter, which can necessitate a section of straight channel
upstream of the flume.
Performance
Flumes can achieve accuracies of 3 to 10 percent of rate and turndowns of as high
as 40:1; however, the reduced accuracy of the level transmitter may become sig-
nificant in the lower portion of the flow range.
Applications
Flumes are applied to open channel liquid flow measurements in which relatively
small permanent head loss can be tolerated, such as for irrigation systems.
Because of their streamline design, they are also applied to liquids containing
debris and foreign matter as these materials tend to be swept through the flowme-
ter. This minimizes the need for cleaning.
Sizing
Flume sizing can be estimated by using the graphs in Figure 13-5, which show the
relationship between flow and the liquid head that is generated upstream of the
flowmeter for different size flumes.
Figure 13-4. Limits of free flow.
208 Industrial Flow Measurement
Installation
Installation of the flume and the level transmitter should be in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations. A straight section of channel may be required
upstream of the flume to reduce any waves or jetting of the liquid upstream of the
flowmeter.
Level transmitters are typically 2-wire devices, but 3-wire and 4-wire devices
are also available. Level transmitters must be calibrated to compensate for the ele-
vation of the level transmitter relative to the zero flow or reference elevation.
Maintenance
Flumes typically require no particular maintenance other than periodic calibration
checks of the level transmitter.
Accumulation of Debris
Due to the acceleration of the liquid and the nature of the operation of the flume,
virtually any foreign material or debris that may be present upstream of the flow-
meter is washed downstream. This is advantageous if the stream has high sand or
silt content.
Electronic Failures
Electronic failures can occur and are usually remedied by board replacement.
Spare Parts
Spare parts are typically limited to the electronic circuit boards and sensors of the
level transmitter.
Calibration
Adjustment of zero and span of the level transmitter should be performed per
manufacturer's instructions, which will vary significantly with manufacturer as
well as with the technology that is employed to measure level. It should be noted
EXAMPLE 13-2
Problem: Size a flume for the measurement of 0 to 5000 gallons per minute
of water that is flowing in an open channel where the generated head is
limited to 10 inches.
Solution: Reading directly from Figure 13-5, a 4-, 6-, or 8-foot flume could be
used. Barring other constraints, the 4-foot flume should be applied to the flow,
as it would be more economical than either the 6- or 8-foot flume. Maximum
flow through the 4-foot flume would generate a liquid head of approximately
9.5 inches.
Chapter 13 Open Channel Flowmeters 209
that the level sensed by the level transmitter should be zeroed relative to the zero
flow condition.
Figure 13-5. Relationship of flow and liquid head (Parshall flumes). (Courtesy
ABB)
210 Industrial Flow Measurement
EXERCISES
13.1 Size a weir for the measurement of 0 to 500 gallons per minute of water
that is flowing in an open channel, assuming that the difference in
upstream and downstream elevations is sufficient to operate the
flowmeter.
13.2 Size a weir for the measurement of 0 to 500 gallons per minute of water
that is flowing in an open channel where the generated head is limited to
10 inches.