EMT 2201:Planar Mechanisms I

Lecture Notes Compiled By:

Glthu Njiri
c May 2010
Students are reminded not to treat these lecture notes as a comprehensive and solely sucient
for their studies. These notes are aimed at providing a quick reference and a brief guidance
for the students NOT a substitute for attending regular classes and reading recommended
textbooks.
Expected Outcomes
At the end of this course, you should be able to;
carry out position analysis of points in a given planar mechanism.
solve problems concerning velocity analysis in simple and compound mechanisms.
carry out acceleration analysis in a given planar mechanism.
carry out computer simulation in mechanisms analysis.
Course Outline
Mechanism: Denition, terminology, degrees of freedom. Displacement analysis: Dis-
placement; position analysis of linkages, relative motion. Velocity analysis, instant cen-
tres, Kennedys Theorem, graphical methods of analysis. Mechanical advantage: Corre-
lation of mechanical advantage and transmission angle, optimal mechanical advantage.
Computer simulation. Acceleration analysis: Acceleration dierence, relative accelera-
tion, coriolis acceleration, graphical solutions and computer simulation.
Reference Textbooks
1. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C., Mechanics of Machines -Elementary Theory and
Examples, Arnold International Publishers.
2. Hannah, J. and Stephens, R.C, Mechanics of Machines -Advanced Theory and
Examples, Arnold International Publishers.
3. Ryder, G.H. and Bennett, M.D., Mechanics of Machines, McMillan Education Ltd
Publishers, 2nd Ed., 1990.
4. Hamilton, H.M and Charles F.R., Mechanics and Dynamics of Machinery,
5. Shigley J. and Uicker, Theory of Machines and Mechanisms,
6. Norton, R.L., Design of Machinery - An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis
of Mechanisms and Machines, McGraw-Hill Publishers, 3rd Ed., 2004.
7. Grosjean, J., Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanisms, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
(UK) Ltd, 1991.
8. Mabie, H. H., Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machines.
9. Prentice, J. M., Dynamics of Mechanical Systems.
i
Contents
Expected Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Reference Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
1 Fundamentals of Machines and Mechanisms 1
1.1 Introduction and Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Mechanism and machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Kinematics, dynamics and kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.4 Kinematic link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.5 Kinematic pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.6 Planar and Spatial mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.7 Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.8 Kinematic chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.9 Four bar chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Degrees of Freedom of a rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Mobility Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Position/Displacement Analysis 15
2.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Position analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.1 Graphical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Absolute cartesian method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
ii
2.2.3 Loop-closure equation method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 Velocity Analysis 25
3.1 Denition of velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 Graphical methods in velocity analysis of linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.1 Velocity diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.2 Use of Instant centers of velocity method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.3 Angular Velocity Ratio and Mechanical Advantage . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Analytical methods for velocity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Acceleration analysis 45
4.1 Denition of acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1.1 Relative acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Graphical acceleration analysis - Acceleration diagrams . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2.1 Acceleration of a block sliding on a rotating link: Coriolis compo-
nent of acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
iii
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Machines and
Mechanisms
1.1 Introduction and Terminologies
1.1.1 Rigid body
A rigid body consists of a set of particles that have a xed distance. The relationship
among these particles does not change with respect to time. A rigid body can also be
dened as one which does not change its physical form on application of forces. Although
a truly rigid body does not exist, many engineering components are assumed to be rigid
because their deformations and distortions are negligible in comparison with their relative
movements.
1.1.2 Mechanism and machine
Mechanism is a combination of several rigid bodies formed and connected so that they
produce a denite relative motions with respect to one another. For example the assem-
bly of piston, cylinder, connecting rod and crank forms a mechanism called slider-crank
mechanism, which converts reciprocating motion of piston into a rotary motion of crank
or vice-versa.
On the other hand, a machine is the combination of mechanisms which apart from
producing relative motion, also does useful work. Examples of machines include, engine,
lathe, drill, shaper among others. Hence, a machine is a combination of rigid bodies,
formed and connected so that they move with denite relative motions and transmit force
and couples from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. A machine has
two functions: producing denite relative motion and transmitting force. The dierence
between machine and mechanism is that machines transform energy to do work, while
mechanisms do not necessarily perform this function. The term machinery generally
means machines and mechanisms
1
1.1.3 Kinematics, dynamics and kinetics
Kinematics: Is concerned with motion of the part without considering the forces respon-
sible. Therefore, kinematics deals with the fundamental concepts of space and time and
the quantities velocity and acceleration derived there from.
Dynamics: Concerns the forces that acts on the parts (both balanced and unbalanced)
and takes into account the masses and acceleration of the parts of as well as the external
forces
Kinetics: Deals with action of forces on bodies. This is where the the eects of gravity
come into play.
1.1.4 Kinematic link
A link is dened as a rigid body having two or more pairing elements (nodes) which
connect it to other bodies for the purpose of transmitting force or motion. Therefore a
mechanism consists of links which are joined together by use of mechanical joints (pairs).
In mechanisms two types of links are most widely used, that is rigid and exible links .
A rigid link, depending upon its ends with which connection between the other links is
formed, can be classied into the following three categories,
(a) Binary link: A link which has two ends for connection (two nodes).
(b) Ternary link: A link which forms three connections (three nodes).
(c) Quaternary link: A link which has four ends for connection (four nodes).
1.1.5 Kinematic pairs
A pair is a joint between the surfaces of two rigid bodies that keeps them in contact and
relatively movable. A kinematic pair can be classied according to the following criteria:
(a) Nature of contact between the links: Under this classication, a kinematic pair is
either lower or higher pair.
(i) When two links have a surface or area contact between them while in motion,
such a pair is called a lower pair. The relative motion in a lower pair is either
purely turning or sliding. Examples include, revolute, prismatic, cylindrical
or spherical joints.
(ii) When two links have point or line contact between them while in motion, the
pair so formed is called a higher pair. The relative motion in a higher pair
is a combination of turning and sliding. Examples include contacts between ,
gears, cams and follower, ball/roller bearings.
(b) Nature of relative motion between the links: A kinematic pair is classied into the
following,
2
(i) Sliding pair: when two links are connected such that one is constrained to
have a sliding motion relative to the other. Example, prismatic joint.
(ii) Turning pair: when two links are connected in such a way that only a con-
strained motion of rotation is possible between them. Example, revolute
joints, which are further categorized into,
Rotational joints (R)- The rotation motion of one link is about an axis
perpendicular to the adjoining link.
Twisting joint (T)- The rotation motion takes place about an axis that
is parallel to both links.
Revolving joint (V)- The rotation motion takes place about an axis that
is parallel to one of the links. Usually the links are aligned perpendicular
to one another , and the rotation involves revolution of one link about
the other.
A twisting joint (T) is also a rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis that
is parallel to both adjoining links.
A revolving joint (V) is another rotational joint, where the rotation takes place about an axis
that is parallel to one of the adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned perpendicular to
one another at this kind of joint. The rotation involves revolution of one link about another.
The Joint Notation:
Types of Joints (a) linear joint, (b) rotational joint, (c) twisting joint, (d) revolving joint.
Figure 1.1: (a)Prismatic (b)Rotational (c)Twisting (d)Revolving joints
(iii) Rolling pair: when two links have a rolling motion relative to each other.
Example, contact between ball or roller bearing, or pulley in a belt drive.
(iv) Spherical pair: when one link is in the form of a sphere which turns inside
a xed link. Example, a ball and socket joint (spherical joint: in spatial
mechanisms).
(c) Screw pair: A pair of screw and threads which has both turning and sliding motion
between them. Also called helical pair.
1.1.6 Planar and Spatial mechanisms
Mechanisms can be divided into planar mechanisms and spatial mechanisms, according
to the relative motion of the rigid bodies.
In a planar mechanisms, all of the relative motions of the rigid bodies are in one plane
or in parallel planes. This implies that all the links of a planar mechanism are joined
using prismatic and/or revolute joints. In spatial mechanisms, there is a relative motion
that is not in the same plane or in parallel planes.
In other words, planar mechanisms are essentially two dimensional while spatial mecha-
nisms are three dimensional.
3
1.1.7 Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis
In kinematic analysis, a particular given mechanism is investigated based on the mecha-
nism geometry plus other known characteristics (such as input angular velocity, angular
acceleration, etc.).
Kinematic synthesis, on the other hand, is the process of designing a mechanism to
accomplish a desired task
1.1.8 Kinematic chain
A kinematic chain is an assemblage of links and joints, interconnected in a way to provide
a controlled output motion in response to a supplied input motion. Such a chain becomes
a mechanism when one of the links in the chain is xed. The xed link is called a frame
or, sometimes, a base link (which itself may be in motion).
Kinematic chains or mechanisms may be either open or closed. A closed mechanism
will have no open attachment points or nodes and may have one or more degrees of
freedom (DOF). An open mechanism of more than one link will always have more than
one degree of freedom, thus requiring as many actuators (motors) as it has DOF. A
common example of an open mechanism is an industrial robot.
1.1.9 Four bar chain
A four bar (link) chain consists of four kinematic links of dierent lengths which are
connected by turning type of lower pairs. The xed link is called the frame, and the link
which is not connected to frame is called coupler link. Among other two links hinged to
the frame, one which receives input is termed as the crank, and the output link is called
follower link
The four bar chain is the most common kinematic chain and has a wide engineering
applications. Its skeleton outline is represented as shown in gure 1.2,
2
4
1
3
Figure 1.2: A four-bar kinematic chain
A variety of useful mechanisms can be formed from a four-link mechanism through slight
variations, such as changing the character of the pairs, proportions of links, etc. The
majority of four-link mechanisms fall into one of the following two classes, the typical
four-bar linkage mechanism, the slider-crank mechanism.
4
Inversions of a typical four bar linkage
The process of choosing dierent links in the chain as frame is known as kinematic
inversion. Inversions of the four bar linkage are shown in gure 1.3.
2
4
1
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
4
4
4
1
1 1
Figure 1.3: Inversions of a four-bar mechanism
Kinematically speaking all the four inversions above are identical. However by changing
the proportions of lengths of the links several mechanisms with practical applications
are obtained as illustrated below.
Classications of a typical four bar linkage
In a four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between the joints on a given link as
a bar. Let,
s = length of shortest bar.
l = length of longest bar.
p, q = lengths of the other bars.
Grashofs theorem states that a four-bar mechanism has at least one revolving link
if,
s + l p + q
otherwise the input and output links will only oscillate. Therefore, four-bar linkage can
be classied as,
5
(a) Double-crank mechanism: Both the input and output links make complete revolu-
tions. There are two dierent forms of this mechanism,
(i) Parallel crank mechanism: The length of the xed link is equal to that of the
coupler, and also links 2 and 4 are of equal length, as shown in gure 1.4.
A
B
2
O 4
O
1
4
3
2
Figure 1.4: Parallel crank mechanism
(ii) Drag link mechanism: This is shown in gure 1.5. It is such that s +l p+q
and the xed link is the shortest.
A
B
2
O
4
O
1
4
3
2
Figure 1.5: Drag-link mechanism
6
(b) Double-rocker mechanism: In this case both the links 2 and 4 can only oscillate.
It is such that s + l > p + q, that is the Grashofs equation is not satised.
2
3
4
1
A
B
1
B
2
B
1
A
2
A
2
O
4
O
Figure 1.6: Double-rocker mechanism
(c) Crank-rocker mechanism: This mechanism is shown in gure 1.7. In this mech-
anism for every complete revolution of link 2 (crank link), the link 4 (lever link)
makes a complete oscillation. It is such that s +l p +q and one of the side links
is the shortest.
2
3
4
1
A
B
1
B
2
B
1
A
2
A
2
O
4
O
Figure 1.7: Crank-rocker mechanism
Assignment 1
With well-labeled diagrams, describe the inversions of a slider-crank linkage citing ex-
amples where each is applied in engineering mechanisms.
1.2 Degrees of Freedom of a rigid body
The concept of degree of freedom (DOF) is fundamental to both the synthesis and
analysis of mechanisms. Degree of freedom (also called the mobility M) of a system
7
can be dened as the number of inputs which need to be provided in order to create a
predictable output.
1.2.1 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane
Consider link AB on a xy coordinate system as shown in gure 1.8 below;

Figure 1.8: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane
To determine the dof of this body we must consider how many distinct ways the link can
be moved. The link can be translated along the x axis, translated along the y axis, and
rotated about the plane.
Therefore a rigid body in plane has three degrees of freedom.
1.2.2 Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space
Consider gure 1.9.

Figure 1.9: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in space
An unrestrained rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom: three translating motions
along the x, y and z axes and three rotary motions around the x, y and z axes respectively.
Therefore a rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom.
8
1.2.3 Mobility Criteria
One of the basic steps in kinematic and dynamic analysis of mechanical system is to
determine the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
Calculating the degrees of freedom of a rigid body system is straight forward. Any
unconstrained rigid body has six degrees of freedom in space and three degrees of freedom
in a plane. Adding kinematic constraints between rigid bodies will correspondingly
decrease the degrees of freedom of the rigid body system. Mobility criteria is a simple
method developed for determining the number of degrees of freedom of a mechanical
system.
Mobility criteria for planar mechanisms
As previously seen in gure 1.8, any unconstrained rigid body has three degrees of
freedom in a plane.
A planar system that consists of n
b
unconstrained bodies therefore has 3n
b
degrees of
freedom. For example, consider two links in plane xy as shown in gure 1.10 below;
x
y
A
B
C
D
Figure 1.10: Degree of freedom of a rigid body in plane
Each body has 3 dofs wrt the plane. Therefore the total number of dofs of the system is
3 2 = 6.
If these bodies are connected by joints, then the number of the systems dof decreases.
The reduction in the systems dof depends on the number of independent constraints
introduced by the joint. Therefore, in planar motion the number of the systems dof can
be determined according to the mobility criteria given in equation 1.1.
n
d
= 3n
b
n
c
(1.1)
Where;
n
d
number of the systems dof.
n
b
number of the bodies in the system.
9
n
c
total number of linearly independent constraint equations that describe the joints in
the system.
Gruebler represented equation 1.1 in a simpler way as;
n
d
= 3(n
b
1) 2n
l
n
h
(1.2)
Where;
n
d
number of the systems dof.
n
b
number of the bodies in the system.
n
l
number of lower pairs
n
h
number of higher pairs
Equation 1.3 is called Grueblers equation, and it cant be applied to a mechanism with
no xed link, such as manipulators.
Examples 1.1.2
If the links in gure 1.10 are connected using a revolute joint and end A is connected
to a stationary base by a revolute joint, determine the number of dofs of the resulting
planar system.
Solution: The resulting system is as shown in gure 1.11
x
y
A
B
D
y
x
z
z
Figure 1.11: Example 1
There are two links,therefore n
b
= 2.
There are two revolute joint each reducing the number of dofs by two, therefore n
c
=
2 + 2 = 4.
Using equation 1.1 we get;
n
d
= 3 2 4
= 2
10
The system therefore is a two dof system.
Examples 1.1.3
Determine the number of dofs of a slider-crank mechanism shown in gure 1.12 below;
1.3 DEGREES OF FREEDOM 7
Figure 1.5 Slider crank mechanism
of a system are dened to be the independent coordinates that are required to
describe the conguration of the system. The number of degrees of freedom
depends on the number of bodies and the number and types of joints in the
system. The slider crank mechanism shown in Fig. 5 is used in several engi-
neering applications, such as automobile engines and pumps. The mechanism
consists of four bodies: body 1 is the cylinder frame, body 2 is the crankshaft,
body 3 is the connecting rod, and body 4 is the slider block, which represents the
piston. The mechanism has three revolute joints and one prismatic joint. While
this mechanism has several bodies and several joints, it has only one degree
of freedom; that is, the motion of all bodies in this system can be controlled
and described using only one independent variable. In this case, one needs only
one force input (a motor or an actuator) to control the motion of this mecha-
nism. For instance, a specied input rotary motion to the crankshaft produces
a desired rectilinear motion of the slider block. If the rectilinear motion of the
Figure 1.12: Example 2: Slider-crank mechanism
Solution: The mechanism consists of four bodies, that is crank (denoted as OA), con-
necting rod (denoted as AB), slider block (piston) and the ground (xed link denoted
as OB). Therefore n
b
= 4
The system has three revolute joints at O, A and B. Each revolute joint reduces the
number of dofs by 2, hence these joints reduce the dofs by 2 3 = 6.
The system has one prismatic joint between the slider block and the cylinder frame.
Prismatic joints reduce the dofs by 2, hence this joint reduces the systems dof by 12 = 2.
The xed joint constraints are 3 since in planar motion two conditions are required in
order to eliminate the freedom of the body to translate, and one condition is required to
eliminate the freedom of the body to rotate.
Therefore the the constraints reduce the number of systems dofs by n
c
= 6+2+3 = 11.
Using equation 1.1 we get;
n
d
= 3 4 11
= 1
The system therefore is a single dof system.
Alternatively, we can use Grueblers equation 1.3. The number of lower pairs is n
l
= 4,
and there are no higher pairs, hence n
h
= 0. Therefore;
n
d
= 3(4 1) 2 4 0 = 1
Mobility criteria for spatial mechanisms
In spatial kinematics, the conguration of a rigid body in space is identied using six
coordinates, that is, three angular coordinates , , and each about the xy, xz and yz
planes respectively, as well as three linear coordinates x, y, z.
If the system consists of n
b
bodies, the mobility criterion in the spatial analysis can be
represented as shown in equation 1.3.
n
d
= 6n
b
n
c
(1.3)
11
Examples 1.1.4
Determine the number of dofs of a RSSR spatial mechanism shown in gure 1.13 below;
A
B
C
D
1
2
3
4
Figure 1.13: Example 3: RSSR mechanism
Solution: The mechanism consists of four bodies, that is link OA, link AB, link BC and
the xed link denoted as OC. Therefore n
b
= 4
The system has two revolute joints at O and C. Each revolute joint reduces the number
of dofs by 5, hence these joints reduce the dofs by 2 5 = 10.
The system has two spherical joints at A and B. Spherical joints reduce the dofs by 3,
hence these joints reduce the systems dof by 2 3 = 6.
The xed joint constraints are 6 since in spatial motion three conditions are required
in order to eliminate the freedom of the body to translate along any axis, and three
conditions are required to eliminate the freedom of the body to rotate about any plane.
Therefore the the constraints reduce the number of systems dofs by n
c
= 10+6+6 = 22.
Using equation 1.3 we get;
n
d
= 6 4 22
= 2
The system therefore is a two dof system.
Assignment 2
Determine the number of degrees of freedom of the mechanisms shown shown below;
(a) Damping truck:
(b) Six-bar linkage:
12

Figure 1.14: Damping truck

Figure 1.15: Six-bar linkage
(c) Door transom:

Figure 1.16: Door transom
13
(d) Fifteen-bar linkage
Figure 1
c UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN 2005
2
Figure 1.17: Fifteen-bar linkage
14
Chapter 2
Position/Displacement Analysis
2.1 Denitions
Position
The position of a point in the plane can be dened by the use of a position vector as
shown in gure 2.1.
x
y
A
R
A
x
R
y
R

Figure 2.1: The position vector of a point

A 2-D vector has two attributes which can be expressed in either polar or cartesian
coordinates. The polar form provides the magnitude and the angle of the vector which
is measured from the root of the vector, that is, |R
A
|@
The cartesian form provides the x and y linear coordinates, that is (R
x
, R
y
).
15
Displacement
Displacement of a point is the change in its position and can be dened as the straight
line distances between the initial and nal positions of a point which has moved in a
reference frame.
x
y
A
R
A
B
R
BA
R
B
Figure 2.2: The displacement of a point
The position vector R
BA
denes the displacement of the point B wrt point A and can
be expressed in position dierence equation as;
R
BA
= R
B
R
A
(2.1)
Which is read as; the position of B wrt point A is equal to the absolute position of B
minus the absolute position of A, where absolute means wrt the origin of the reference
frame.
If points A and B represent not the same particle but two independent particles moving
in the same reference frame, the vector equation 2.1 is still valid, but we now refer to
R
BA
as a relative position, that is, the position of point B relative to point A.
2.2 Position analysis
The position analysis of a kinematic chain requires the determination of the joint posi-
tions or the position of the center of gravity of the links. Then there are 3 approaches
in position analysis.
i Graphical
ii Absolute cartesian method
iii Vector loop method (Loop closure equation method)
16
2.2.1 Graphical Analysis
For any 1-dof mechanism, only one parameter is needed to completely dene the position
of all the links.
Consider a four-bar linkage shown in gure 2.3 below; Only the angle of input link
2
is
A
B
C
D
2

1
2
3
4
x
x
x
y
y
y
Figure 2.3: Measurement of angles in a four-bar linkage
needed to completely dene the position of all links.
If we draw the linkage carefully to scale in a particular position of
2
, then its only
necessary to measure the angles of link 3 (
3
) and of link 4 (
4
) with a protractor.
The graphical analysis of a mechanism is trivial: that is, the obtained solution is only
valid for the particular position of chosen
2
, and for another additional position analysis
we must completely redraw the linkage.
Examples 2.1
For a four-bar linkage shown in gure 2.2.1 below, determine graphically
3
and
4
if

2
= 60
0
.
A
B
C
D
a
b
c
d
2

mm d
mm c
mm b
mm a
200
150
100
50
=
=
=
=
Solution:
17
Step 1 Choose an arbitrary point A.
Step 2 Locate point D by drawing a line of length d.
Step 3 Locate point B by drawing a line of length a at an angle of
2
from AD.
Step 4 Locate point C which is the point of intersection of arcs of radius equal to b and
c drawn from points B and D respectively.
Step 5 Measure angles
3
and
4
.
These solutions are shown in gure 2.2.1 below.
A
B
C
D
2.2.2 Absolute cartesian method
Example 1
In the planar mechanisms shown, the driver link is the rigid link AB AB=0.15M,
BC=0.4M, CD=0.37, CE=0.23M, EF=CE=L
a
=0.3M, L
b
=0.45M, L
c
=CD. At the in-
stant shown =45
o
. Determine the position of the joints.
Position of Joint A
x
A
= 0, y
A
= 0
Position of Joint B
x
A
= ABcos = 0.106
y
B
= ABsin = 0.106
Position of Joint C
Since the lengths of the links BC and CD are constants.
(x
C
x
B
)
2
+ (y
C
y
B
)
2
= BC
2
(x
C
x
D
)
2
+ (y
C
y
D
)
2
= CD
2
Solving the system of quadratic equation we have
18
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
A A
B B
C C
D D
Pos1
Njiri 06/03/2010
Designed by Checked by Approved by Date
1 / 1
Edition Sheet
Date
A
F
4
E
C
3
y
x
B
D
n
5
0
0
0
2
1
Lb
La
Lc
Figure 2.4: Absolute Cartesian method
x
C
1
= 0.069M and y
C
1
= 0.465M
x
C
2
= 0.504M and y
C
2
= 0.141M
From the mechanism constraints
x
C
< x
D
x
C
= 0.069M
y
C
= 0.465M
Position of Joint E
(x
E
x
C
)
2
+ (y
E
y
C
)
2
= CE
2
(2.2)
Joints E, C and D are located on the same straight line
y
D
= mx
D
+ n (2.3)
y
C
= mx
C
+ n (2.4)
y
E
= mx
E
+ n (2.5)
m is the gradient and n is the y-intercept
Eq 4 and Eq 2.5 gives the value of m and n as
m = 0.041
n = 0.462
Now solving Eq 2.2 and 2.5
x
E
1
= 0.299M y
E
1
= 0.474M
orx
E
2
= 0.160M y
E
2
= 0.455M
From mechanism constraint
x
E
< x
C
From which
x
E
= 0.299M and y
E
= 0.474M
Position of Joint F
F is restricted to move in vertical position
19
x
F
= L
C
= 0.370M
(x
F
x
E
)
2
+ (y
F
y
E
)
2
= FC
2
y
F
1
= 0.256M
y
F
2
= 0.693M
From which
x
F
= 0.370M
y
F
= 0.256M
2.2.3 Loop-closure equation method
Consider a four-bar linkage whose links are drawn as position vectors which form a vector
loop as shown in gure 2.5
A
B
C
D
a
b
c
d
2

1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
Figure 2.5: Position vector loop for a four-bar linkage
The loop closes on itself, and hence the sum of the vectors in the loop must be equal to
zero. The length of the vectors are the link lengths and therefore are known.
The particular linkage position shown is dened by one input angle
2
, and we want to
solve analytical for the unknown angles
3
and
4
.
Note that the directions of the position vectors are chosen so as to dene their angles
where we want them to be measured. By denition, the angle of a vector ia always
measured at its root not its head.
Therefore;
R
2
+ R
3
R
4
R
1
= 0 (2.6)
Substituting the complex number notation for each position vector in equation 2.6, we
get;
ae
i
2
+ be
i
3
ce
i
2
de
i
1
= 0 (2.7)
The link lengths a, b, c and d are known and constant. The value of the angle of link 1 is
xed to zero,i.e,
1
= 0, and
2
is the independent variable which is the input. Therefore
we are left with
3
and
4
to be found.
20
Substituting the Euler-identity for the e
i
term, i.e., e

= cos i sin in the vector

equation 2.7 and noting that
1
= 0, we get;
0 = a(cos
2
+ i sin
2
) + b(cos
3
+ i sin
3
) c(cos
4
+ i sin
4
)
d(cos
1
+ i sin
1
) (2.8)
= a(cos
2
+ i sin
2
) + b(cos
3
+ i sin
3
) c(cos
4
+ i sin
4
) d (2.9)
Equation 2.9 can be split into its imaginary and real parts, and each equated to zero.
Real part;
0 = a cos
2
+ b cos
3
c cos
4
d (2.10)
Imaginary part;
0 = i(a sin
2
+ b sin
3
c sin
4
)
= a sin
2
+ b sin
3
c sin
4
(2.11)
The scalar equations 2.10 and 2.11 can be solved simultaneously for
3
and
4
. Lets rst
eliminate
3
to solve for
4
by rewriting equations 2.10 and 2.11 as follows;
b cos
3
= a cos
2
+ c cos
4
+ d (2.12)
b sin
3
= a sin
2
+ c sin
4
(2.13)
Square equations 2.12 and 2.13 and add them.
b
2
(cos
2

3
+ sin
2

3
) = (a cos
2
+ c cos
4
+ d)
2
+ (a sin
2
+ c sin
4
)
2
(2.14)
Expand the right hand side of equation 2.14.
b
2
= a
2
sin
2

2
+ c
2
sin
2

4
2ac sin
2
sin
4
+ a
2
cos
2

2
+ c
2
cos
2

4
+ d
2
2ac cos
2
cos
4
2ad cos
2
+ 2cd cos
4
= a
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
2ac(sin
2
sin
4
+ cos
2
cos
4
) 2ad cos
2
+ 2cd cos
4
(2.15)
Equation 2.15 can be rearranged as;
a
2
b
2
+ c
2
+ d
2
2ac

d
c
cos
2
+
d
a
cos
4
= sin
2
sin
4
+ cos
2
cos
4
(2.16)
To further simplify the equation let;
K
1
=
d
a
K
2
=
d
c
K
2
=
a
2
b
2
+c
2
+d
2
2ac
Which when substituted in 2.16 we get;
K
1
cos
4
K
2
cos
2
+ K
3
= sin
2
sin
4
+ cos
2
cos
4
(2.17)
21
To reduce equation 2.17 to a more tractable form for solution, it is necessary to substitute
the half angle identities, which will convert the sin
4
and cos
4
to tan
4
.
cos
4
=
1 tan
2
4
2
1 + tan
2
4
2
sin
4
=
2 tan

4
2
1 + tan
2
4
2
Substituting the identities in equation 2.17 and simplifying, we get an equation of
quadratic form.
Atan
2

4
2
+ Btan

4
2
+ C = 0 (2.18)
Where;
A = (1 K
2
)cos
2
K
1
+ K
3
B = 2sin
2
C = K
1
(1 + K
2
)cos
2
+ K
3
Solving equation 2.18 we get;

4
1,2
= 2 tan
1
B

B
2
4AC
2A
(2.19)
Equation 2.18 has two solutions of which as with any quadratic equation may be of three
types: real and equal, real and unequal or complex conjugate.
If the solution is complex conjugate then this implies that the link lengths chosen are
not capable of connection for the value of the input angle
2
.
For real and unequal solutions then it means that there are two values of
4
corresponding
to any one value of
2
. These are referred to as the crossed and open conguration of
the linkage. For a four-bar linkage, the
4
solution gives open conguration while the
+
4
gives the crossed conguration.
Assignment 2
Starting from a vector-loop closure equation of a four bar linkage shown in gure 2.5,
show that;
K
1
cos
3
+ K
4
cos
2
+ K
5
= cos
2
cos
3
+ sin
2
sin
3
(2.20)
Where;
K
1
=
d
a
K
4
=
d
b
K
5
=
c
2
d
2
a
2
b
2
2ab
22
Also show that equation 2.20 above reduces to a quadratic equation of form;
Dtan
2

3
2
+ E tan

3
2
+ F = 0 (2.21)
Where;
D = (1 + K
4
) cos
2
K
1
+ K
5
E = 2 sin
2
F = K
1
+ (K
4
1) cos
2
+ K
5
Loop-closure equation of an oset four bar slider crank linkage
Consider an oset four bar slider-crank linkage shown in gure 2.6 below;
A
B
2

2
3
x
x
x
y
y
y
4

c
d
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
Figure 2.6: Oset slider-crank equation
The term oset means that the slider axis extended does not pass through the crank
pivot.
For a non oset slider crank mechanism, the linkage is represented by only three position
vectors: R
2
, R
3
and R
1
= R
s
. R
1
only varies in magnitude only.
23
For an oset slider-crank mechanism it is easier to use four position vectors R
1
, R
2
, R
3
and R
4
. R
1
which is a variable length, constant direction vector represents the slider
position with magnitude d, and R
4
which is perpendicular to R
1
denes the constant
magnitude oset of the slider.
The position vector arrangement gives a loop equation as;
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
1
= 0 (2.22)
Substitute the complex number equivalence for the position vectors to equation 2.22;
ae
i
2
be
i
3
ce
i
4
de
i
1
= 0 (2.23)
Substitute the Euler equivalents to equation 2.23;
a(cos
2
+i sin
2
) b(cos
3
+i sin
3
) c(cos
4
+i sin
4
) d(cos
1
+i sin
1
) = 0 (2.24)
Noting that
1
= 0
0
and
4
= 90
0
, equation 2.24 becomes;
a(cos
2
+ i sin
2
) b(cos
3
+ i sin
3
) ci d = 0 (2.25)
Separating real and imaginary components of equation 2.25;
0 = a cos
2
b cos
3
d (2.26)
0 = a sin
2
b sin
3
c (2.27)
From equation 2.27,

3
= sin
1

a sin
2
c
b

(2.28)
Once
3
is calculated, we use equation 2.26 to determine d.
d = a cos
2
b cos
3
(2.29)
NOTE: There are also two valid solutions corresponding to the two branches of the
linkage.
24
Chapter 3
Velocity Analysis
Once a position analysis is done, the next step is to determine the velocities of all links
and points in a mechanism, which can be found using graphical or analytical methods.
3.1 Denition of velocity
Velocity is dened as the rate of change of position wrt time. Velocity can be angular
() or linear (V ), which are dened as;
=
d
dt
(3.1)
and
V =
dR
dt
(3.2)
Consider link PA pivoted at point A and in pure rotation in the xy plane.
x
y

A
P

PA
V
PA
R
Figure 3.1: A link in pure rotation
25
We are interested with the velocity of point P when the link if subjected to an angular
velocity . R
PA
can be represented as a complex number in polar form as;
R
PA
= pe
i
(3.3)
which when dierentiated wrt to time we get;

R
PA
=
dR
PA
dt
= pie
i
d
dt
= ipe
i
= iR
PA
(3.4)
Equation 3.4 shows that the velocity vector is rotated at 90
0
from the angle of the
position vector. This is just a mathematical verication of what is already known,
namely: velocity is always in a direction perpendicular to the radius of rotation and is
tangential to the path of rotation.
Velocity V
PA
in gure 3.1 above can be referred to as an absolute velocity denoted
simply as V
p
, since it is referenced to point A which is stationary and is the origin of the
coordinate system.
3.1.1 Relative velocity
Consider a gure 3.2 in which link AP is in pure rotation and is joined to a block which
is in pure translation.
x
y

A
P
PA
V
PA
R
P
V
A
V
Figure 3.2: Velocity dierence
V
A
is the linear velocity of the slider block and is known. V
PA
is the velocity of point P
relative to point A, and since A is moving, then V
PA
cannot be considered as an absolute
velocity.
V
PA
is represented using a velocity dierence equation as;
V
PA
= V
P
V
A
(3.5)
26
where V
P
is the absolute velocity of point P given from equation above as;
V
P
= V
A
+ V
P
= V
A
+ AP (3.6)
3.2 Graphical methods in velocity analysis of link-
ages
To solve a velocity problem graphically, we need to know the lengths of all the links, the
angular positions of all the links and the instantaneous input velocity of any one driving
link or point.
We must rst do a complete position analysis on the linkage using any method discussed
in section 2, but in the preceding analysis we assume that position analysis has been
done and that the input angular velocity of the driving link is known.
The graphical methods include;
1. Use of velocity diagrams.
2. Use of instant centers
3.2.1 Velocity diagrams
To illustrate how to use velocity diagram method in velocity analysis problems of linkages,
lets consider a four bar linkage shown in gure below.
Steps;
1. Start at the end of the linkage where there is most velocity information. For this
example at point B since the magnitude and direction of V
B
are known, that is
V
A
= AB
2
at a direction perpendicular to link AB.
2. Draw the velocity vector of magnitude equal to V
B
at a convenient point, say point
a as shown in gure 3.3, and its direction perpendicular to link AB.
3. Move next to a point about which we have some velocity information. For our
example, point C since the direction of velocity of point C (V
C
) is predictable,
because link DC is in pure rotation about point D.
4. Draw a vector V
C
which is perpendicular to link DC and rooted at point d which
is chosen at a point coincident to point a since point D is xed. Point a, d is a
point of no velocity.
5. Use equation 3.5 to write the velocity dierence equation for point C relative to
point B in link BC, that is, V
CB
= V
C
V
B
, which gives a closed vector equation
of form, V
C
= V
B
+ V
CB
.
27
A
B
C
D
2

1
2
3
4
x
x
x
y
y
y 2

d a,
b
c
B
V
C
V
CB
V
Figure 3.3: Drawing a velocity diagram of a four bar linkage
6. Assuming that link BC is rigid, then there can be no component of V
CB
directed
along link CB since point C cant move towards or away from point B without
stretching or shrinking the link. Therefore the direction of V
CB
must be perpen-
dicular to link BC and rooted at point b as shown in gure 3.3.
7. Where the lines representing vectors V
C
and V
CB
intersect is the point c.
8. From the velocity diagram obtained determine the velocities of the points and links
desired,
For link BC
V
BC
= bc

3
=
V
BC
BC
For link DC
V
C
= dc

4
=
V
C
DC
Examples 3.1
For a four bar linkage shown in gure 3.4 nd using the velocity diagram method the
angular velocity of link CB and the absolute velocity of point D in link AB, given that:
28
AD = DB = 0.45m, OA = 0.5m, PB = 0.65m, OC = 1.4m and crank OA rotates
clockwise with angular velocity of 2.6rad/s
Solution: Absolute velocity of point A;
V
A
=
OA
OA = 2.6 0.5 = 1.3m/s
V
A
is drawn perpendicular to link OA, rooted at a convenient point, say

o

and at a
direction dictated to the direction of
OA
. Only the direction of absolute velocity of
point B is predictable, that is, draw vector V
B
from point, say

c

coincident to point

o

and in a direction perpendicular to link CB. Vector V

BA
is drawn perpendicular to link
AB and rooted at point

a

. ADB will produce a geometrically similar velocity image

adb

. From the velocity diagram shown in gure 3.4;

Angular velocity of link BC is given by

BC
=
V
BC
BC
=
bc
BC
=
1.02
0.65
= 1.57rad/s clockwise
Absolute velocity of point D is given by;
V
D
= od = 1.04m/s
(3.7)
29
Figure 3.4: Solution to example 1
Examples 3.2
A slider crank mechanism has a crank radius of 160mm and a connecting link 500mm
ling. The crank rotates at a steady speed of 4500RPM. Using the velocity diagram
method nd the velocity of a point on the connecting link 360mm from the slider, when
the crank has turned through an angle of 40
0
as shown in gure 3.5
Solution:
(a) V
B
= 0.16 4500
2
60
= 75.4m/s perpendicular to OB. Draw ob
(b) Because of the constraints V
A
, that is V
AO
must be horizontal.
30
Figure 3.5: Example 2 problem
(c) Draw V
AB
perpendicular to AB rooted at b and V
A
parallel to OA rooted at o so
as to locate point a at the point of intersection in the velocity diagram.
(d) APB is geometrically similar to apb hence point p can be located in the velocity
diagram.
O
B
A
o
b
a
0
40
p
P
AP
AB
ab
ap
AP
ap
AB
ab
= =
Figure 3.6: Example 2 solution
From the completed velocity diagram in gure 3.6,
The angular velocity of connecting link AB is given as;

AB
=
V
AB
AB
=
ab
AB
=
59
0.5
= 118rad/sclockwise
(3.8)
The absolute velocity of point P is given as;
V
P
= op = 66.48m/s
(3.9)
Examples 3.3
31
In the mechanism shown in gure 3.7, D is the slider at the end of the link rotating about
center P and C is a xed point on AB coincident with D at the instant shown. OA =
0.6m, AB = 1.9m, BQ = 1.0m and PD = 1.4. If the crank OA rotates anticlockwise
at 120RPM, determine the angular velocity of member PD, and the speed of sliding at
D.
Figure 3.7: Example 3 problem
Solution:
(a) V
A
= 0.6 120
2
60
= 7.54m/s perpendicular to OA. Draw oa
(b) Since O, P and Q are xed points, then o, p and q will be coincident on the velocity
diagram.
(c) Draw V
BQ
perpendicular to BQ rooted at q and V
BA
perpendicular to BA rooted
at a so as to locate point b at the point of intersection in the velocity diagram.
(d) ACB is geometrically similar to acb hence point c can be located in the velocity
diagram.
(e) Draw V
DP
perpendicular to DP and V
DC
parallel to AB to locate point d in the
velocity diagram.
32
O
P
D
C
B
Q
A
p q o , ,
a
b
c
d
A
V
B
V
DC
V
BA
V
DP
V
Figure 3.8: Example 3 solution
From the completed velocity diagram,
The angular velocity of link PD is given as;

PD
=
V
DP
PD
=
pd
PD
=
2.2
1.4
= 1.57rad/sclockwise
(3.10)
The sliding velocity at D is given as;
V
DC
= cd = 9.37m/s
(3.11)
33
3.2.2 Use of Instant centers of velocity method
An instant center is dened as, A point common to two bodies and which has the same
linear velocity in both magnitude and direction.
Any two links in a mechanism have motion relative to one another and thus have a
common instant center. Therefore the number of instant centers for a mechanism is
equal to all the possible combinations of two links from the total number of links. Let n
be the number of links in a mechanism, then the number of instant centers is given by;
N
I
C
=
n(n 1)
2
(3.12)
All instant centers which can be found merely by inspection are called primary instant
centers. The remaining instant centers in the mechanism are found by applying Arnold-
Kennedys theorem which states that, Any three bodies whether connected or not, in
plane motion relative to one another, have exactly three instant centers which lie in the
same straight line.
Primary instant centers can be summarized as,
Instant center for a revolute joint - two links connected by a revolute joint have an
instant center at the joint.
Instant center for a prismatic joint - Two links connected with a prismatic joint
have an instant center at an innite distance along a line perpendicular to the point
of contact.
Instant center for a rolling body - If two bodies have a rolling contact, then their
instant center lies at the point of contact.
Examples 3.4
Locate all the instant centers for the four bar linkage shown in gure 3.9.
Solution:
1. By inspection, determine all the primary centers, which are I
12
, I
14
, I
23
and I
34
.
According to equation 3.12 there are N
I
C
=
4(41)
2
= 6 instant centers in a four bar
linkage. Therefore the other two instant centers are found using Arnold-Kennedys
theorem
2. Draw a circle of an arbitrary radius and place circles to represent all the links
approximately equally spaced around the perimeter of the circle as shown in gure
3.10. Since I
12
, I
14
, I
23
and I
34
are known draw on the circle straight lines con-
necting the corresponding numbers of links in the circle. For example for I
12
draw
a line connecting link symbols 1 and 2.
3. On the circle draw a dotted line corresponding to a link combination not considered,
rst say links 1 and 3. This forms two triangles.
34
2
4
1
23
I
34
I
14
I
23
I
3
24
I
13
I
Figure 3.9: Locating instant centers in a four bar linkage
1
2
3
4
Figure 3.10:
One triangle with edges 12, 23 and 13. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedys theorem, instant centers I
12
, I
23
and I
13
must lie on the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I
12
and I
23
, therefore
instant center I
13
must lie somewhere along the line.
The other triangle has edges 14, 34 and 13. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedys theorem, instant centers I
14
, I
34
and I
13
must lie on the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I
14
and I
34
, therefore
instant center I
13
must lie somewhere along the line.
Instant center I
13
is at the point of intersection of the two lines.
35
4. On the circle draw a dotted line corresponding to the other link combination not
considered, that is 2 and 4. This forms two triangles.
One triangle with edges 12, 14 and 24. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedys theorem, instant centers I
12
, I
14
and I
24
must lie on the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I
12
and I
14
, therefore
instant center I
24
must lie somewhere along the line.
The other triangle has edges 23, 34 and 24. Therefore according to Arnold-
Kennedys theorem, instant centers I
23
, I
34
and I
24
must lie in the same
straight line. Extend the line joining instant centers I
23
and I
34
, therefore
instant center I
13
must lie somewhere along the line.
Instant center I
24
is at the point of intersection of the two lines.
Therefore, all the six instant centers of the four bar linkage have been located.
Once the instant centers have been found, they can therefore be used to do a very rapid
graphical velocity analysis of the linkage. Depending on the particular position of the
linkage being analyzed, some of the instant centers may be far away from the link. For
example if links 2 and 4 are nearly parallel, their extended lines will intersect at a point
far away, and therefore instant center I
13
will not available for velocity analysis.
Consider gure 3.11 when the crank link 2 is rotating anticlockwise.
2
4
1
23
I
34
I
14
I
23
I
3
24
I
13
I
A
B
2

D
B
V
A
V
D
V
'
D
V
'
B
V
Figure 3.11: Locating instant centers in a four bar linkage
36
We need to determine the angular velocities of links 3 and 4, and the absolute velocity
of point D in the coupler. From the denition of an instant center, both link sharing the
instant center will have an identical velocity at that point.
Instant center I
13
involves link 3 and 1, but link 1 is stationary meaning that all points
in this link have a zero velocity. Therefore point I
13
has zero velocity at this instant, and
hence it is considered to be a xed pivot about which link 3 is in pure rotation about
point I
13
.
The magnitude and direction of V
A
is known, therefore,
V
A
=
2

OA =
3

AI
13

3
=
V
A

AI
13
=

2

OA

AI
13
Once
3
is known then we can determine
4
and V
D
V
B
=
4

BC =
3

BI
13

4
=
V
B

BC
=

3

BI
13

BC
Velocity of point D in the coupler is,
V
D
=
3

DI
13
Alternatively, the absolute velocities V
B
and V
D
can be obtained as follows,
(i) First join the tip of V
A
to center I
13
(ii) Draw arcs centered at I
13
from points B and C.
(iii) At the points where the arcs intersect line AI
13
, draw perpendicular lines to intersect
the line from I
13
to the tip of V
A
. Then V
B
= V

B
and V
D
= V

D
.
Note: The instant center method is a quick graphical method used to analyze velocities
in a mechanism, but it will only work if the instant centers are in a reachable positions.
Examples 3.4
Repeat Examples 3.1 using the instantaneous center method. i.e. AD = DB = 0.45m,
OA = 0.5m, PB = 0.65m, OC = 1.4m and crank OA rotates clockwise with angular
velocity of 2.6rad/s, nd the angular velocity of link CB and the absolute velocity of
point D in link AB.
Solution: Draw the linkage to scale and locate all the instant centers.
Linear velocity of point A is,
V
A
=
OA

OA = 2.6 0.5 = 1.3m/s
37
1
2
3
4
12
,I O
14
,I C
34
,I B
23
, I A
13
I
24
I
D
D
V
B
V
Figure 3.12:
Also from gure above V
A
can also be obtained as,
V
A
=
AB

AI
13

AB
=
V
A

AI
13
=
1.3
1.0806
= 1.203rad/s
The linear velocity of point D is,
V
D
=
AB

DI
13
= 1.203 0.861 = 1.04m/s
Angular velocity of link CB is obtained as,
V
B
=
AB

BI
13
=
CB

CB

CB
=

AB

BI
13

CB
=
1.203 0.8485
0.65
= 1.57rad/s
Assignment 2
1. Locate all the instant centers of a slider-crank mechanism, and hence solve the
Example 3.2 using the instantaneous center method.
2. In the mechanism shown in gure 3.13, the crank OA is rotating anticlockwise at
100rev/min. If OA = 20mm, all other links 80mm, DC is vertical, O is 100mm
to the left and 80mm below D, use the instant center method to determine the
absolute velocity of the slider C, and the angular velocities of all the links in the
mechanism.
38
O
A
B
C
D
) (ii
A
B
C
0
45
Figure 3.13:
3. Figure 3.14 shows a mechanism (Stephenson type1) with the following dimensions:
A
o
B
o
= B
o
B = AB = DE = 205mm, CD = 100mm, AC = CB = 110mm
and A
o
A = 50mm. It produces an oscillatory output with a dwell when the input
rotates at a constant speed. Calculate the absolute velocities of B, C, D and the
angular velocity of the output link ED when the crank A
o
A makes an angle of
225
0
with A
o
B
o
using the instantaneous center method. Point E is 50mm to the
right of point B
o
and 150mm above A
o
B
o
.
B
s rad / 100
2
=
D
C
A
o
A
o
B
E
0
225
Figure 3.14:
39
3.2.3 Angular Velocity Ratio and Mechanical Advantage
Angular velocity Ratio
This is the ratio of the angular velocity of the output link to the angular velocity of the
input link. Consider gure 3.15.
2
4
1
23
, I A
34
, I B
14
, I C
12
, I O
3
24
I
13
I
2

D
B
V
A
V
1

N
M
Figure 3.15:
The components of V
A
and V
B
along AB are,
V

A
=
2
OAcos
1
=
2
ON (3.13)
V

B
=
4
CBcos
2
=
4
CM (3.14)
Since link AB is rigid, then V

A
= V

B
, hence

2
ON =
4
CM (3.15)

2
=
ON
CM
(3.16)
Since triangles I
24
ON and I
24
CM are similar, we have
ON
I
24
O
=
CM
I
24
C
hence the required
velocity ratio is,

2
=
I
24
O
I
24
C
(3.17)
40
Mechanical Advantage
The power in a translational mechanical system is dened as the product of the force
and the velocity. And for a rotational mechanical system, the power is the product of
torque and the angular velocity.
Generally, power in=power out+power losses.
Mechanical advantage can be dened as the ratio of the output power (P
out
) to the input
power (P
in
), that is,
=
P
out
P
in
Mechanical systems can be very ecient if they are well made with low friction joints.
For a linkage, mechanical advantage (MA) can be dened as the ratio of the output
torque (T
out
) to the input torque (T
in
), and which for a four-bar linkage is,
MA =
T
4
T
2
Consider gure 3.16,
A
B
C
D

' B
' C
AB
T
CD
T
CD

AB

P
Figure 3.16:
Input power to link AB,
P
2
= T
2

2
Output power to link CD,
P
4
= T
4

4
Assuming no friction at joints, then the input power is equal to output power,
P
2
= P
4
T
2

2
= T
4

4
T
4
T
2
= MA =

2

4
=
1
V R
(3.18)
41
Relationship between the MA and the transmission angle
The transmission angle for a four bar linkage as shown in gure 3.17 can be obtained as
follows,
AB
2
o
= a
2
+ d
2
2ad cos
2
= b
2
+ c
2
2bc cos
cos =
b
2
+ c
2
a
2
d
2
+ 2ad cos
2
2bc
(3.19)
a
c
d
o
B o
A
b
A
B

Figure 3.17:
For smooth operation of any mechanism without jerky movements, it is important to
ensure that the transmission angle lies between 40
0
and 140
0
. The ideal value is 90
0
but this cant remain constant during a cycle.
To show how the mechanical advantage and the transmission angle for a four-bar linkage
are related consider gure 3.16. The mechanical advantage is given by,
MA =
T
4
T
2
=

2

4
But it has been shown that from the angular velocity ratio,

4
=
DC

AB

(3.20)
But from triangles ABB

and DCC

, we have;
AB

= ABsin
DC

= DC sin
which when substituted in equation 3.20, we have,

4
=
DC sin
ABsin
42
Hence the mechanical advantage in equation equation 3.18 becomes,
MA =

2

4
=
DC sin
ABsin
The equation above shows that the mechanical advantage for any four-bar linkage depend
on the transmission angle and angle .
If tends to zero, (which during kinematic synthesis, this is avoided), then the output
torque goes to zero regardless of the amount of input torque applied.
But when angle goes to zero, which it can and occurs twice per cycle in a Grashof
linkage, the mechanical advantage tends to innite. Example of a mechanism which em-
ploys this aspect is a rock-crasher mechanism, (draw an illustration). A quite moderate
torque applied to input link generates a huge torque on the out put link to crash the
rock when 0.
3.3 Analytical methods for velocity analysis
Once an expression for position of a point or a link is obtained, it can be dierentiated
with respect to time to get the velocity of the point or link.
For instance we earlier obtained an equation relating
2
and
4
for a four-bar linkage
using vector loop closure equation as,
K
1
cos
4
K
2
cos
2
+ K
3
= cos(
2

4
)
K
1
cos
4
K
2
cos
2
+ K
3
= cos
2
cos
4
+ sin
2
sin
4
Where,
K
1
=
d
a
K
2
=
d
c
K
3
=
a
2
b
2
+c
2
+d
2
2ac
To obtain the velocity of the output link
4
, we dierentiate this equation with respect
to time.
(sin
4
)K
1
d
4
dt
(sin
2
)K
2
d
2
dt
= sin
2
cos
4
d
2
dt
sin
4
cos
2
d
4
dt
+sin
4
cos
2
d
2
dt
+ sin
2
cos
4
d
4
dt
43
But
d
2
dt
=
2
and
d
4
dt
=
4
, then

4
K
1
sin
4
+
2
K
2
sin
2
=
2
sin
2
cos
4

4
sin
4
cos
2
+
2
sin
4
cos
2
+
4
sin
2
cos
4

4
K
1
sin
4
+
2
K
2
sin
2
=
2

sin
4
cos
2
sin
2
cos
4

+
4

sin
2
cos
4
sin
4
cos
2

4
K
1
sin
4
+
2
K
2
sin
2
=
4
sin(
2

4
)
2
sin(
2

4
)

sin(
2

4
) + K
1
sin
4

=
2

sin(
2

4
) + K
2
sin
2

4
=
2

sin(
2

4
) + K
2
sin
2
sin(
2

4
) + K
1
sin
4

(3.21)
Similarly, the angular velocity of the coupler can be determined by dierentiating equa-
tion,
K
1
cos
3
+ K
4
cos
2
+ K
5
= cos
2
cos
3
+ sin
2
sin
3
where;
K
1
=
d
a
K
4
=
d
b
K
5
=
c
2
d
2
a
2
b
2
2ab
with respect to time and making
d
3
dt
=
3
the subject of formula.
44
Chapter 4
Acceleration analysis
Once a velocity analysis is done, the next step is to determine the accelerations of all links
and points of interest in the mechanism or machine. The accelerations in mechanisms
can be found using dierent methods, such as,
(i) Graphical methods
(ii) Analytical methods
4.1 Denition of acceleration
Acceleration is dened as the rate of change of velocity wrt time. Acceleration can be
angular () or linear (A), dened as,
=
d
dt
(4.1)
and
A =
dV
dt
(4.2)
Consider link PA in pure rotation in the xy plane. We need to determine the acceleration
of point P when the link is subjected to an angular velocity and an angular acceleration
.
R
PA
can be represented as a complex number in polar form as;
R
PA
= pe
i
(4.3)
which when dierentiated wrt to time we get;

R
PA
=
dR
PA
dt
= pie
i
d
dt
= ipe
i
= iR
PA
(4.4)
45
x
y

A
P

PA
R

t
PA
A
n
PA
A
PA
A
Figure 4.1: Acceleration of a link in pure rotation
Equation 4.4 can be dierentiated wrt time to obtain an expression for acceleration of
point P.
A
AP
=
d(pie
i
)
dt
= ie
i
p
d
dt
+ pi
2
e
i
d
dt
= ipe
i
+ i
2
pe
i

2
= iR
PA
+ i
2
R
PA

2
(4.5)
As seen in equation 4.5, there are two terms in the expression for acceleration,
The rst term which is multiplied by the constant complex operator i. Therefore
this component is at 90
0
to the original position vector, and is called the tangential
component of acceleration (A
t
AP
). The tangential component will be perpendicular
to the radius of rotation in a direction dictated by the angular acceleration () of
the link, and is thus tangential to the path of motion as shown in gure 4.1.
A
t
PA
= R
PA
(4.6)
The second term which is multiplied by i
2
or 1. This term is called the normal
or centripetal component of acceleration (A
n
PA
) and is directed towards the center
of rotation as shown in gure 4.1.
A
n
PA
= R
PA

2
(4.7)
Therefore the total acceleration A
PA
of point P is the sum of the tangential and cen-
tripetal components as shown in gure 4.1. A
PA
for this case can also be referred to as
the absolute acceleration A
P
of point P since it is referenced to point A which is the
origin of the coordinate system.
46
4.1.1 Relative acceleration
Consider a gure 4.2 in which link AP is in pure rotation and is joined to a block which
is in pure translation.
x
y

A
P

PA
R

t
PA
A
n
PA
A
PA
A
P
A
A
A
t
PA
A
PA
A
n
PA
A
A
A
P
A
Figure 4.2: Acceleration dierence
The absolute acceleration A
P
of point P if found using the acceleration dierence equa-
tion as,
A
P
= A
A
+ A
PA
(4.8)
(A
t
P
+ A
n
P
) = (A
t
A
+ A
n
A
) + (A
t
PA
+ A
n
PA
) (4.9)
4.2 Graphical acceleration analysis - Acceleration di-
agrams
To draw an acceleration diagram, we need three equations,
A
P
= A
A
+ A
PA
|A
t
| = r
|A
n
| = r
2
47
Four-bar linkage as a typical case
The linkage is shown in a particular position of the input in gure 4.3. Let
2
and
2
be the angular velocity and acceleration of link 2,
3
and
4
the angular velocities of the
coupler link 3 and output link 4 respectively.

3
and
4
can be obtained from a velocity diagram, or from instant center method.
The point A has two known components of acceleration:
Tangential component A
t
A
=
2
a perpendicular to link O
1
A and in the direction
dictated by
2
Normal component A
n
A
=
2
2
a in the radial direction towards O
1
Similarly the point B considered as point on the link AB has two components of accel-
eration:
Tangential component A
t
BA
=
3
b perpendicular to link AB.
Normal component A
n
BA
=
2
3
b in the direction towards A.
Similarly the point B considered as point on the link O
2
B has two components of accel-
eration:
Tangential component A
t
B
=
4
c perpendicular to link O
2
B.
Normal component A
n
B
=
2
4
c in the radial direction towards O
2
.
The vector equation (acceleration dierence) for point B becomes,
A
B
= A
A
+ A
BA
(4.10)
(A
t
B
+ A
n
B
) = (A
t
A
+ A
n
A
) + (A
t
BA
+ A
n
BA
) (4.11)
Equation 4.11 can be solved graphically by drawing an acceleration diagram using the
following procedure.
1. Starting from an arbitrary point o called a pole, draw the vector oa equal to
A
n
A
=
2
2
a in a direction parallel to link O
2
A to correspond to the fact that the
radial direction is from A towards O
1
.
2. From point a draw a vector aa equal to A
t
A
=
2
a perpendicular to vector oa
to correspond to the fact that the tangential acceleration is perpendicular to link
O
1
A. This locates point a, and then oa is the total acceleration of point A in the
linkage.
3. From a draw vector ab equal to A
n
BA
=
2
3
b in a direction parallel to link AB
towards A. This locates the point b
48
4. From point b draw a line perpendicular to ab. The point b lies somewhere on
this line.
5. From the pole o draw the vector ob equal to A
n
B
=
2
4
c in a direction parallel to
link BO
2
and towards O
2
to locate the point b.
6. From point b draw a line perpendicular to ob, then also b lies somewhere on
this line.
7. Finally where the lines bb and bb intersect is the position for point b
1
O
2
O
A
B
2

2
4

o
a
' a
' b
" b
b
a
b
c
d
c
2
4

a
2
2

a
2

b
2
3

b
3

c
4

Figure 4.3: Acceleration diagram of a four-bar linkage

49
Examples 3.5
Figure below shows one of the four-bar linkages used in shoe-stitching machine. For the
position shown calculate the angular acceleration of the output link BB
o
when the input
link AA
o
rotates at a constant speed of 500rev/min. A
o
A = 40mm, AB = 100mm,
A
o
B
o
= 100mm, B
o
B = 50mm and
2
= 25
0
.
Solution: Before we draw the acceleration diagram we need the angular velocity
3
of
the coupler link AB, and the angular velocity
4
of the output link BB
o
. To obtain
these values lets use the velocity diagram method. Therefore we need to draw a velocity
diagram for the linkage at the given position.
Absolute velocity of point A is,
V
A
=
2
A
o
A =
2 500
60
0.04 = 2.09m/s
From the velocity diagram drawn, angular acceleration of the coupler is,

3
=
V
BA
AB
=
ab
AB
=
3.54
0.1
= 35.4rad/s
Angular velocity of the output link is

4
=
V
B
B
o
B
=
ob
B
o
B
=
3.29
0.05
= 65.8rad/s
50
o
a
A
V
b
A
B
o
B
o
A
BA
V
B
V
o
a
n
A
A
' b
n
BA
A
' ' b
b
t
BA
A
t
B
A
n
B
A
Figure 4.4:
The known acceleration components are,
(i) A
n
A
=
2
2
A
o
A = 52.36
2
0.04 = 109.7m/s
2
directed towards A
o
. From a pole point
draw oa
(ii) A
t
A
=
2
A
o
A = 0 since the crank is rotating at a constant velocity. Hence point a
coincide with a.
(ii) A
n
BA
=
2
3
AB = 35.4
2
0.1 = 125.3m/s
2
parallel to AB and directed towards A.
From point a draw ab.
(iv) A
n
B
=
2
4
B
o
B = 65.8
2
0.05 = 216.5m/s
2
parallel to B
o
B and directed towards
B
o
. From the pole point draw ob
The acceleration diagram is completed by locating point b. This is the point of inter-
sections of the lines drawn perpendicular from points b and b. From the acceleration
51
diagram, the angular acceleration of the output link is,

4
=
A
t
B
B
o
B
=
bb

B
o
B
=
12.8
0.05
= 256rad/s
2
Also the angular acceleration of the coupler is,

3
=
A
t
BA
AB
=
bb

AB
=
234.6
0.1
= 2346rad/s
2
Examples 3.6
An engine mechanism shown in gure below has a crank CB = 100mm long, and the
connecting rod BA = 300mm long. The center of gravity G of the connecting rod is
100mm from B. In the position shown (< BCA = 120
0
), the crank has a speed of
25rad/s and an angular acceleration of 400rad/s
2
both in the clockwise direction.
Find the velocity and acceleration of point G and angular velocity and acceleration of
AB.
Solution:Absolute velocity of point B is,
V
B
=
CB
BC = 25 0.1 = 7.85m/s
From the velocity diagram the velocity of point G is,
V
G
= cg = 6.92m/s
and the angular velocity of link AB is,

AB
=
V
AB
AB
=
ab
AB
=
4.1
0.3
= 13.67rad/s
The known acceleration components are,
(i) A
n
B
=
2
BC
BC = (25)
2
0.1 = 616.9m/s
2
directed towards C. From a pole point
draw cb.
(ii) A
t
B
=
BC
BC = 4000.1 = 125.7m/s
2
perpendicular to BC. From point b

, draw
vector b

b perpendicular to cb

.
(ii) A
n
AB
=
2
AB
AB = 13.67
2
0.3 = 46.1m/s
2
parallel to AB and directed towards B.
From point b draw ba.
The acceleration diagram is completed by locating point a. This is the point of intersec-
tion of the line drawn perpendicular from point a and a line parallel to line AC, which
represent the A
t
AB
and the acceleration of the slider respectively.
52
A
C
B
G
c
b
B
V
A
V
AB
V
a
BG
AB
ab
bg
AB
ab
BG
bg
. =
=
g
c
' b
b
n
B
A
t
B
A
n
AB
A
t
AB
A
C
A
a
' a
g
Figure 4.5:
From the acceleration diagram the acceleration of point G is,
A
G
= cg = 466.7m/s
2
and the angular acceleration of link AB is,

AB
=
A
t
AB
AB
=
ab
AB
=
610
0.3
= 2033.3rad/s
2
Examples 3.7
In the mechanism shown below, D is constrained to move on a horizontal path. Find,
for the given conguration, the velocity and acceleration of point D and the angular
velocity and acceleration of BD when OC is rotating in a counter-clockwise direction at
a speed of 180rev/min, increasing at the rate of 50rad/s
2
.
Solution:Absolute velocity of point C is,
V
C
=
OC
OC =
2 180
60
018 = 3.39m/s
From the velocity diagram the velocity of block D is,
V
D
= ad = 2.05m/s
53
A
B
C
D
O
mm BD
mm AB
mm BC
mm OC
540
240
360
180
=
=
=
=
mm 105
mm 360
0
60
Figure 4.6:
The angular velocity of link BD is,

BD
=
V
DB
BD
=
bd
BD
=
2.4
0.54
= 4.45rad/s
The angular velocity of link AB is,

AB
=
V
B
AB
=
ab
AB
=
2.75
0.24
= 11.5rad/s
The angular velocity of link BC is,

BC
=
V
BC
BC
=
bc
BC
=
0.9
0.36
= 2.5rad/s
The known acceleration components are,
(i) A
n
C
=
2
OC
OC = (6)
2
0.18 = 63.96m/s
2
directed towards O. From a pole point
draw oc
(ii) A
t
C
=
OC
OC = 50 0.18 = 9m/s
2
perpendicular to link OC. From point c draw
vector c

c.
(ii) A
n
BC
=
2
BC
BC = 2.5
2
0.36 = 2.25m/s
2
parallel to BC and directed towards C.
From point c draw cb.
(iv) A
n
B
=
2
AB
AB = 11.5
2
0.24 = 31.7m/s
2
parallel to AB and directed towards
A. From the pole point draw ob NB. Point b is the intersection of lines drawn
perpendicular to vectors ob and cb rooted at points b and b respectively.
(v) A
n
DB
=
2
BD
BD = 4.45
2
0.54 = 10.7m/s
2
parallel to BD and directed towards
B. From point b draw vector bd NB. Point d is the intersection of line drawn
perpendicular to vectors bd rooted at d

and the line drawn parallel to AD rooted

at pole point a.
54
A
B
D
C
O
a o,
c
C
V
BC
V
B
V
b
d
D
V a o,
' c
c
' b
' ' b
b
' d
d
Figure 4.7:
From the acceleration diagram the acceleration of the bloc D is,
A
D
= ad = 3.3m/s
2
and the angular acceleration of link BD is,

BD
=
A
t
DB
BD
=
d

d
BD
=
50.4
0.54
= 93.3rad/s
2
4.2.1 Acceleration of a block sliding on a rotating link: Coriolis
component of acceleration
Figure 4.8 shows block P sliding relative to the link AB which is in pure rotation. The
instantaneous location of the block is dened by a position vector R
P
which is both
rotating and changing length as the system moves.
55
A
B
P
P
R
,
p

Figure 4.8:
We want to determine the total acceleration at the center of the block P under this
combined motion of rotation and sliding. First we represent the the position vector R
P
in complex polar form,
R
P
= pe
i
There are two functions of time in equation above, that is p and . Dierentiating
equation above we get,
V
P
= pie
i
+ pe
i
(4.12)
First term (p) is the transmission component and is perpendicular to the radius of
rotation, while the second term is the slip component and is directed along the axis of
slip.
Dierentiating equation 4.12 with respect to time we get the total acceleration of point
P as,
A
P
= ipe
i
+ i
2
p
2
e
i
+ i pe
i
+ i pe
i
+ pe
i
= ipe
i
+ i
2
p
2
e
i
+ 2i pe
i
+ pe
i
(4.13)
These terms represent the following components of acceleration,
A
P
= A
tangential
P
+ A
normal
P
+ A
coriolis
P
+ A
slip
P
(4.14)
Therefore the coriolis component of acceleration is 2 p and is perpendicular to the radius
of rotation, and will always be present when there is a velocity of slip associated with any
member which has an angular velocity. When doing graphical acceleration analysis one
must be alert to recognize the presence of coriolis component, calculate it, and include
it in the acceleration diagram.
56
Examples 3.8
In the gure below, rod PR is constrained to move horizontally, and is driven by a
crank OA and a sliding block at P. For the given conguration determine graphically
the acceleration of rod PR when OA has an angular velocity of 5rad/s in a counter-
clockwise direction an angular acceleration of 35rad/s
2
.
O
A
P R
o
30
m 3
Figure 4.9:
Solution: Let P

be a point on the link OA which is coincident with the block P. First

draw the velocity diagram to determine, the sliding velocity of the block relative to link
OA.
Velocity of P

relative to O is
V
P
=
OA
OP

=
3
cos 30
0
5 = 17.32m/s
Draw op = 17.32m/s and perpendicular to link OA.
The sliding velocity of point P relative to P

is parallel to link OA. From point p

draw
a line parallel to OA. The velocity diagram is completed by drawing vector V
P
parallel
to link PR to locate point p at the point of intersection of the two last lines.
From the velocity diagram, the velocity of P relative to P

(the sliding velocity) is,

V
PP
= p

p = 10m/s
A
n
P
= OP

2
OA
= 5
2

3
cos 30
0
= 86.6m/s
2
. From pole point o draw op

= 86.6m/s
2
parallel to OA and towards pivot O.
A
t
P
=
OA
OP

= 35
3
cos 30
0
= 121.2m/s
2
. From point p

draw p

= 121.2m/s
2
to
locate point p

.
57
There is a coriolis acceleration which is the acceleration of P relative to P

given by,
A
c
PP
= 2V
PP

OP
= 2 10 5 = 100m/s
2
From point p

draw p

p
1
= 100m/s
2
perpendicular to link OA.
Sliding acceleration of point P relative to P

(A
PP
) is parallel to link OA. From point
p
1
draw a line parallel to link OA to intersect a line drawn from o parallel to link PR to
represent A
PO
. This locates point p.
O
A
P
R
o
' p
p
P
V
' P
V
' PP
V
' P
o
' ' p
' p
1
p
p
Figure 4.10:
From the acceleration diagram, acceleration of link PR is,
A
P
= op = 24.5m/s
2
Examples 3.9
The end A of a bar AB is constrained to move along the vertical path AD and the bar
passes through a swivel bearing pivoted at C. Draw velocity and acceleration diagrams
for the given conguration when A has a velocity of 3m/s towards D and an acceleration
of 25m/s
2
in the opposite direction, and hence determine,
(i) the acceleration and velocity of sliding of the bar through the swivel.
58
(ii) angular velocity and acceleration of link AB.
Solution: Let point C

be a point on the link AB which is coincident with swivel C.

Draw da = V
AD
= 3m/s parallel to AD and towards D. V
C

A
is perpendicular to link
AB and rooted at a. Sliding velocity V
C

C
is parallel to AB and rooted at C.
From the velocity diagram, the sliding velocity of the bar through the swivel is,
V
C

C
= cc

= 1.5m/s
Angular velocity of the link AB is,

AB
=
V
C

A
AC
=
ac

AC
=
2.6
0.461
= 5.63rad/s
A
D
C
B
' C
c d,
a
' c
Figure 4.11:
59