Chapter 4

Basic Electronic Devices and Circuits

EE 111
Electrical Engineering
Majmaah University
2
nd
Semester 1432/1433 H
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Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Introduction
The invention of the transistor was the beginning of a
technological revolution that is still continuing.
All of the complex electronic devices and systems today are
an outgrowth of early developments in semiconductor
transistors.
Two basic types of transistors are
the bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
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the bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
and the field-effect transistor (FET).
The BJT is used in two broad areas
as a linear amplifier to boost or amplify an electrical
signal,
as an electronic switch.
The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons
as current carriers in the transistor structure.
BJT Structure
The BJT has three regions called the emitter, base, and
collector. Between the regions are junctions as indicated.
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B
(base)
C (collector)
n
p
n
Base-Collector
junction
Base-Emitter
junction
E (emitter)
B
C
p
n
E
p
npn pnp
The base is a thin
lightly doped region
compared to the
heavily doped emitter
and moderately doped
collector regions.
BJT Structure
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BJT Symbols
B
(base)
C (collector)
n
p
n
Base-Collector
junction
Base-Emitter
junction
E (emitter)
B
C
p
n
E
p
npn pnp
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npn pnp
BJT Biasing
In normal operation, the base-emitter (BE) is forward-
biased and the base-collector (BC) is reverse-biased.
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npn

+
+
BC reverse-
biased

BE forward-
biased
For the npn type shown, the
collector is more positive
than the base, which is more
positive than the emitter.
C n
E n
B p
BJT Biasing
In normal operation, the base-emitter (BE) is forward-
biased and the base-collector (BC) is reverse-biased.
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For the pnp type, the voltages
are reversed to maintain the
forward-reverse bias.

+
+

BC reverse-
biased
+
BE forward-
biased

+
pnp
C p
E p
B n
BJT Operation (npn)
Direction of
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Direction of
electron
flow:
I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
BJT Operation (npn)
The heavily doped n-type emitter region has a very high
density of conduction-band (free) electrons.
These free electrons easily diffuse through the forward-
biased BE junction into the lightly doped and very thin p-type
base region (wide arrow).
The lightly doped p-type base has a low density of holes,
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The lightly doped p-type base has a low density of holes,
which are the majority carriers (white circles).
A small percentage of the total number of free electrons
injected into the base region recombine with holes and move
as valence electrons through the base region, and holes into
the emitter region as hole current (red arrows).
BJT Operation (npn)
When the electrons that have recombined with holes as valence
electrons leave the crystalline structure of the base, they become free
electrons in the metallic base lead and produce the external base
current.
Most of the free electrons that have entered the base do not
recombine with holes because the base is very thin (no enough holes).
As the free electrons move toward the reverse-biased BC junction,
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As the free electrons move toward the reverse-biased BC junction,
they are swept across into the collector region by the attraction of the
positive collector supply voltage.
The free electrons move through the collector region, into the
external circuit, and then return into the emitter region along with the
base current (I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
).
The emitter current is slightly greater than the collector current
because of the small base current that splits off from the total current
injected into the base region from the emitter (I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
).
BJT Currents
The direction of conventional current is in the direction of the arrow
on the emitter terminal.
The emitter current is the sum of the collector current and the small
base current. That is, I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
.
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I
E I
E
I
C
I
B
I
C
I
B
n
p
n
p
n
p
+

+
I
E
I
C
I
B
+

+
I
E
I
C
I
B
+

npn pnp
DC Bias Circuits
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DC Beta (
DC
) and DC Alpha (
DC
)
The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc collector current (I
C
)
to the dc base current (I
B
) and is designated dc beta (
DC
).
Typical values of
DC
range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.
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The ratio of the dc collector current (I
C
) to the dc emitter current (I
E
) is the
dc alpha (
DC
).
The alpha is a less-used parameter than beta in transistor circuits.
Typically, values of
DC
range from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater, but
DC
is
always less than 1.
The reason is that I
C
is always slightly less than I
E
by the amount of I
B
(I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
).
DC Beta (
DC
) and DC Alpha (
DC
)
Example:
If I
E
= 100 mA and I
B
= 1 mA,
then
I
C
= I
E
I
B
= 100 1 = 99 mA
and

DC
= I
C
/ I
E
= 99 / 100 = 0.99.
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Transistor DC Model
Unsaturated BJT.
forward-biased diode
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BJT Circuit Analysis
I
B
: dc base current
I
E
: dc emitter current
I
C
: dc collector current
V
BE
: dc voltage at base
with respect to emitter
V : dc voltage at
KCL: I
E
= I
C
+ I
B
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V
CB
: dc voltage at
collector with respect
to base
V
CE
: dc voltage at
collector with respect
to emitter
KVL: V
CE
= V
CB
+ V
BE
V
BB
forward-biases the BE junction, and V
CC
reverse-biases the BC junction.
When BE is forward-biased, it is like a forward-biased diode and has a
nominal forward voltage drop of ~0.7 V
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> 0
The collector characteristic curves show the relationship
of the three transistor currents.
The curve shown is for a fixed
BJT Characteristics
I
C
Breakdown
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The curve shown is for a fixed
base current. The first region is
the saturation region. As V
CE
is
increased, I
C
increases until B.
B
C
A
0 0.7 V V
CE(max)
V
CE
Saturation
region
Active region
Breakdown
region
Then it flattens in the region
between points B and C, which
is the active region.
After C, is the breakdown
region.
I
C
versus V
CE
curve
for one value of I
B
BJT Characteristics
Consider point A on the characteristic curve:
Assume that V
BB
is set to produce a certain value of I
B
and V
CC
is zero.
For this condition, both the BE junction and the BC junction are forward-
biased,
because the base is at approximately 0.7 V while the emitter and the
collector are at 0 V.
I
B
is through the BE junction,
because of the low impedance path to ground and, therefore, I
C
is zero.
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because of the low impedance path to ground and, therefore, I
C
is zero.
When both junctions are forward-biased, the transistor is in the saturation
region of its operation.
Consider the portion of the curve between points A and B:
Saturation is the state of a BJT in which I
C
has reached a maximum and is
independent of I
B
(I
C

DC
I
B
). I
B
is constant, but I
C
is increasing.
When V
CC
is increased, V
CE
increases as I
C
increases.
I
C
increases as V
CC
is increased because V
CE
remains less than 0.7 V due
to the forward-biased BC junction.
V
CE
= V
CB
+ V
BE
= negative + 0.7 < 0.7 and I
C
= (V
CC
V
CE
) / R
C
BJT Characteristics
Consider the portion of the curve between points B and C:
Ideally, when V
CE
exceeds 0.7 V, the BC junction becomes reverse-biased
and the transistor goes into the active, or linear, region of its operation.
Once the BC junction is reverse-biased, I
C
levels off and remains
essentially constant for a given value of I
B
as V
CE
continues to increase.
Actually, I
C
increases very slightly as V
CE
increases due to widening of the
BC depletion region.
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BC depletion region.
This results in fewer holes for recombination in the base region which
effectively causes a slight increase in
DC
.
For this portion of the characteristic curve, the value of I
C
is determined
only by the relationship I
C
=
DC
I
B
.
Consider the portion of the curve to the right of point C:
When V
CE
reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the reverse-biased BC
junction goes into breakdown; and I
C
increases rapidly.
A transistor should never be operated in this breakdown region.
I
C
I
B6
By setting up other values of
base current, a family of
collector curves is developed.
BJT Characteristics
Family of I
C
versus V
CE
curves for
several values of I
B
(I
B1
< I
B2
< I
B3
, etc.)
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0
V
CE
I
B5
I
B4
I
B3
I
B2
I
B1
I
B
= 0
Cutoff region
collector curves is developed.

DC
is the ratio of collector
current to base current.
It can be read from the curves.
The value of
DC
is nearly the
same wherever it is read.
C
DC
B
I
I
=
BJT Characteristics
A family of collector characteristic curves is produced when
I
C
versus V
CE
is plotted for several values of I
B
.
When I
B
= 0, the transistor is in the cutoff region although
there is a very small collector leakage current.
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Cutoff is the non-conducting state of a transistor.
The amount of collector leakage current for I
B
= 0 is
exaggerated on the graph for illustration.
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What is the
DC
for the transistor shown?
I
C
I
B6
= 60 A
(mA)
BJT Characteristics
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Choose a base current near the
center of the range. In this case
I
B3
which is 30 A.
V
CE
I
B6
I
B5
I
B4
B3
I
I
B2
B1
I
I
B
= 0
= 10 A
= 20 A
= 30 A
= 0
= 60 A
= 40 A
= 50 A
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
Read the corresponding
collector current in this case,
5.0 mA. Calculate the ratio:
C
DC
B
5.0 mA
30 A
I
I

= = =
167
Cutoff
In a BJT, cutoff is the condition in which there is no base
current (I
B
= 0), which results in only an extremely small
leakage current (I
CEO
0) in the collector circuit (due mainly
to thermally produced carriers).
For practical work, this current is assumed to be zero.
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For practical work, this current is assumed to be zero.
I
B
= 0

+
I
CEO
R
C
V
CC
V
CE
V
CC
R
B
In cutoff, neither the BE junction,
nor the BC junction are forward-
biased.
The subscript CEO represents
collector-to-emitter with the base
open.
Saturation
In a BJT, saturation is the condition in which there is
maximum I
C
.
The saturation current is determined by the external circuit
(V
CC
and R
C
in this case) because the CE voltage is minimum
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(V
CC
and R
C
in this case) because the CE voltage is minimum
(V
CE
0.2 V). V
CE
= V
CC
I
C
R
C
In saturation, an increase of I
B
has
no effect on the collector circuit and
the relation I
C
=
DC
I
B
is no longer
valid.

+
V
CC
V
BB
V
CE
= V
CC
I
C
R
C
R
B
R
C
I
B
I
C

+
+
Saturation
When the BE junction becomes forward-biased and I
B
is
increased, I
C
also increases (I
C
=
DC
I
B
),
and V
CE
decreases as a result of more drop across R
C
,
V
CE
= V
CC
I
C
R
C
When V reaches its saturation value, V , the BC junction
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When V
CE
reaches its saturation value, V
CE(sat)
, the BC junction
becomes forward-biased and I
C
can increase no further, even with
a continued increase in I
B
.
At the point of saturation, the relation I
C
=
DC
I
B
is no longer
valid.
V
CE(sat)
for a transistor occurs somewhere below the knee of the
collector curves, and it is usually only a few tenths of a volt.
DC Load Line
the transistor. It is drawn by
connecting the saturation
The DC load line represents the circuit that is external to
I
C
Saturation
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and cutoff points.
The transistor characteristic
curves are shown superimposed
on the load line.
The region between the
saturation and cutoff points is
called the active region.
0
V
CE
I
B
= 0
Cutoff
V
CE(sat)
V
CC
I
C(sat)
Saturation
DC Load Line
What is the saturation current for the
circuit? Assume V
CE
= 0.2 V in
saturation.

+
V
CC
15 V
V
BB
3 V
R
C
R
B

DC
= 200
220 k
3.3 k
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CC
SAT
C
0.2 V 15 V 0.2 V
3.3 k
V
I
R

= = =

4.48 mA
Is the transistor saturated?
B
3.0 V 0.7 V
10.45 A
220 k
I

= =

I
C
= I
B
= 200 (10.45 A) = 2.09 mA
Since I
C
< I
SAT
, it is not saturated.
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(repeated)
DC and AC Quantities
The text uses capital letters for both AC and DC currents (I) and voltages
(V), with rms values assumed unless stated otherwise.
DC Quantities use upper case roman subscripts. Example: V
CE
. The
second letter in the subscript indicates the reference point ().
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CE
second letter in the subscript indicates the reference point ().
AC Quantities and time varying signals use lower case italic
subscripts. Example: V
ce
.
Internal transistor resistances are indicated as lower case
quantities with a prime and an appropriate subscript. Example: r
e

.
External resistances are indicated as capital R with either a
capital or lower case subscript depending on whether it is a DC or
ac resistance. Examples: R
C
and R
c
.
BJT Amplifiers
A BJT amplifies AC signals by converting some of the DC power from
the power supplies to AC signal power.
An ac signal at the input is superimposed in the dc bias by capacitive
coupling.
The output ac signal is inverted and rides on a dc level of V
CE
.
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+
V
CC
V
BB
R
B
R
C
V
b
V
c
r
e
V
in
V
CE
V
c
V
BB
V
in
0
0
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BJT Switches
A BJT can be used as a switching device
in logic circuits to turn on or off current to
a load. As a switch, the transistor is
normally in either cutoff (load is OFF) or
saturation (load is ON).
0
I
C
V
CE
I
B
= 0
Cutoff
V
CE(sat)
V
CC
I
C(sat)
Saturation
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In cutoff, the transistor
looks like an open switch.
In saturation, the transistor
looks like a closed switch.
R
B
0 V
R
C
I
C
= 0
+V
CC
R
C
C
E
+V
CC
I
B
= 0

+
R
B
R
C
I
C(sat)
+V
CC
R
C
C
E
+V
CC
I
B
+V
BB
I
C(sat)
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A Sample of Common Transistor Packages
1
1 Emitter
2
Base
3 Collector
1
Base
3 Collector
1
3
2
Base
3 Collector
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1
2
3
1 Emitter
TO-92
2 Emitter
1
2
SOT-23
1 Emitter
Base
3 2
1
TO-18
C (case)
E
B
TO-3
B
C
E
C
TO-220AB
E
C
B
TO-225AA
Selected Key Terms Selected Key Terms Selected Key Terms
BJT (bipolar
junction
transistor)
Emitter
a transistor constructed with three doped
semiconductor regions separated by two pn
junctions.
the most heavily doped of the three
semiconductor regions of a BJT.
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Base
Collector
semiconductor regions of a BJT.
one of the three semiconductor regions of a BJT.
The base is thin and lightly doped compared to
the other regions.
the largest of the three semiconductor regions of
a BJT.
Selected Key Terms Selected Key Terms Selected Key Terms
Beta
Saturation
the ratio of dc collector current to the dc base
current in a BJT; current gain from base to
collector.
the state of a BJT in which the collector
current has reached a maximum and is
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Cutoff
current has reached a maximum and is
independent of the base current.
the nonconducting state of a transistor.