RETScreen® International

Clean Energy Decision Support Centre

www.retscreen.net

CLEAN ENERGY PROJECT ANALYSIS :

RETS CREEN® ENGINEERING & CASES TEXTBOOK

SMALL HYDRO
PROJECT ANALYSIS
CHAPTER

Disclaimer
This publication is distributed for informational
purposes only and does not necessarily reflect
the views of the Government of Canada nor
constitute an endorsement of any commercial
product or person. Neither Canada, nor its
ministers, officers, employees and agents make
any warranty in respect to this publication nor
assume any liability arising out of this
publication.

© Minister of Natural
Resources Canada 2001 - 2004.
ISBN: 0-662-35671-3
Catalogue no.: M39-98/2003E-PDF

© Minister of Natural Resources Canada 2001 - 2004.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 SMALL HYDRO BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.1 Description of Small Hydro Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Civil works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 Electrical and mechanical equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Small Hydro Project Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.1 Types of small hydro developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Hydro project engineering phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 RETSCREEN SMALL HYDRO PROJECT MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1.1 Flow-duration curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.1.2 Available flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 Firm flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 Energy demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.2 Average load factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Turbine efficiency curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.2 Power available as a function of flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.3 Plant capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 Power-duration curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.5 Renewable energy available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.6 Renewable energy delivered - central-grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.7 Renewable energy delivered - isolated-grid and off-grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.8 Small hydro plant capacity factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.9 Excess renewable energy available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4 Project Costing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.1 Turbine efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5.2 Plant capacity and annual renewable energy delivered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5.3 Project costs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

APPENDIX A - TURBINE EFFICIENCY FORMULAE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

APPENDIX B - FORMULAE FOR FORMULA COSTING METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

HYDRO.3
 1. Small Hydro Background

SMALL HYDRO PROJECT ANALYSIS CHAPTER

Clean Energy Project Analysis: RETScreen® Engineering & Cases is an electronic textbook for professionals and uni-
versity students. This chapter covers the analysis of potential small hydro projects using the RETScreen® International Clean
Energy Project Analysis Software, including a technology background and a detailed description of the algorithms found in the
RETScreen® Software. A collection of project case studies, with assignments, worked-out solutions and information about how
the projects fared in the real world, is available at the RETScreen® International Clean Energy Decision Support Centre Website
www.retscreen.net.

1 SMALL HYDRO BACKGROUND1

Hydroelectricity is one of the most mature forms of renewable energy, providing more than
19% of the world’s electricity consumption from both large and small power plants. Coun-
tries such as Brazil, the United States, Canada and Norway produce significant amounts of
electricity from very large hydroelectric facilities. However, there are also many regions of
the world that have a significant number of small hydro power plants in operation, such as
the one depicted in Figure 1. In China, for example, more than 19,000 MW of electricity
is produced from 43,000 small hydro facilities.

Figure 1:
2.6 MW Small Hydro Power
Project in Canada.

Photo Credit:
SNC-Lavalin

1. Some of the text in this “Background” description comes from the following reference: Bennett, K., Small Hydro in
Canada: An Overview, prepared for Industry, Science and Technology Canada, Aboriginal Economic Programs,
1990.

HYDRO.5
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

There is no universally accepted definition of the term “small hydro” which, depending on
local definitions can range in size from a few kilowatts to 50 megawatts or more of rated
power output. Internationally, “small” hydro power plant capacities typically range in size
from 1 MW to 50 MW, with projects in the 100 kW to 1 MW range sometimes referred to
as “mini” hydro and projects under 100 kW referred to as “micro” hydro. Installed capac-
ity, however, is not always a good indicator of the size of a project. For example, a 20 MW,
low-head “small” hydro plant is anything but small as low-head projects generally use much
larger volumes of water, and require larger turbines as compared with high-head projects.

1.1 Description of Small Hydro Power Plants

A small hydro generating station can be described under two main headings: civil works,
and electrical and mechanical equipment. Refer to Figure 2 below for a schematic of a
typical small hydro power plant.

Figure 2:
Small Hydro Project
System Schematic.

1.1.1 Civil works

The main civil works of a small hydro development are the diversion dam or weir, the water
passages and the powerhouse as depicted in Figure 3. The diversion dam or weir directs
the water into a canal, tunnel, penstock or turbine inlet. The water then passes through the
turbine, spinning it with enough force to create electricity in a generator. The water then
flows back into the river via a tailrace. Generally, small hydro projects built for applica-
tion at an isolated area are run-of-river developments, meaning that water is not stored in
a reservoir and is used only as it is available. The cost of large water storage dams cannot
normally be justified for small waterpower projects and consequently, a low dam or diver-
sion weir of the simplest construction is normally used. Construction can be of concrete,
wood, masonry or a combination of these materials. Considerable effort continues to be
spent to lower the cost of dams and weirs for small hydro projects, as the cost of this item
alone frequently renders a project not financially viable.

HYDRO.6
 1. Small Hydro Background

Figure 3:
Civil Works for a 700 kW Mini Hydro Project.

Photo Credit:
Ottawa Engineering

The water passages of a small hydro project comprise the following:

An intake which includes trashracks, a gate and an entrance to a canal,

penstock or directly to the turbine depending on the type of development.
The intake is generally built of reinforced concrete, the trashrack of steel,
and the gate of wood or steel.

A canal, tunnel and/or penstock, which carries the water to the power-
house in developments where the powerhouse is located at a distance
downstream from the intake. Canals are generally excavated and follow
the contours of the existing terrain. Tunnels are underground and exca-
vated by drilling and blasting or by using a tunnel-boring machine. Pen-
stocks, which convey water under pressure, can be made of steel, iron,
fibreglass, plastics, concrete or wood.

The entrance and exit of the turbine, which include the valves and gates
necessary to shut off flow to the turbine for shutdown and maintenance.
These components are generally made of steel or iron. Gates downstream
of the turbine, if required for maintenance, can be made of wood.

HYDRO.7
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

A tailrace, which carries the water

from the turbine exit back to the river.
The tailrace, like the canal, is exca-
vated.

The powerhouse contains the turbine or tur-

bines and most of the mechanical and electri-
cal equipment as depicted in Figure 4. Small
hydro powerhouses are generally kept to the
minimum size possible while still provid-
ing adequate foundation strength, access for
maintenance, and safety. Construction is of
concrete and other local building materials.

Simplicity in design, with an emphasis on

Figure 4:
practical, easily constructed civil structures is
Small Hydro Powerhouse Containing Francis Turbine.
of prime concern for a small hydro project in
order to keep costs at a minimum. Photo Credit:
PO Sjöman Hydrotech Consulting

1.1.2 Electrical and mechanical equipment

The primary electrical and mechanical components of a small hydro plant are the
turbine(s) and generator(s).

A number of different types of turbines have been designed to cover the broad range of hy-
dropower site conditions found around the world. Turbines used for small hydro applications
are scaled-down versions of turbines used in conventional large hydro developments.

Turbines used for low to medium head applications are usually of the reaction type and
include Francis and fixed and variable pitch (Kaplan) propeller turbines. The runner or
turbine “wheel” of a reaction turbine is completely submersed in water. Turbines used for
high-head applications are generally referred to as impulse turbines. Impulse turbines
include the Pelton (see Figure 5), Turgo and crossflow designs. The runner of an impulse
turbine spins in the air and is driven by a high-speed jet of water.

Small hydro turbines can attain efficiencies of about 90%. Care must be given to selecting the
preferred turbine design for each application as some turbines only operate efficiently over a
limited flow range (e.g. propeller turbines with fixed blades and Francis turbines). For most
run-of-river small hydro sites where flows vary considerably, turbines that operate efficiently
over a wide flow range are usually preferred (e.g. Kaplan, Pelton, Turgo and crossflow de-
signs). Alternatively, multiple turbines that operate within limited flow ranges can be used.

There are two basic types of generators used in small hydro plants - synchronous or
induction (asynchronous). A synchronous generator can be operated in isolation while
an induction generator must normally be operated in conjunction with other generators.
Synchronous generators are used as the primary source of power produced by utilities and
for isolated diesel-grid and stand-alone small hydro applications. Induction generators with

HYDRO.8
 1. Small Hydro Background

capacities less than about 500 kW are generally best suited for small hydro plants provid-
ing energy to a large existing electricity grid.

Other mechanical and electrical components of a small hydro plant include:

Speed increaser to match the ideal rotational speed of the turbine to that
of the generator (if required);

Water shut-off valve(s) for the turbine(s);

River by-pass gate and controls (if required);

Hydraulic control system for the turbine(s) and valve(s);

Electrical protection and control system;

Electrical switchgear;

Transformers for station service and power transmission;

Station service including lighting and heating and power to run control
systems and switchgear;

Water cooling and lubricating system (if required);

Ventilation system;

Backup power supply;

Telecommunication system;

Fire and security alarm systems (if required); and

Utility interconnection or transmission and distribution system.

Figure 5:
Pelton Turbine.

Photo Credit:
PO Sjöman Hydrotech Consulting

HYDRO.9
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

1.2 Small Hydro Project Development

The development of small hydro projects typically takes from 2 to 5 years to complete,
from conception to final commissioning. This time is required to undertake studies and
design work, to receive the necessary approvals and to construct the project. Once
constructed, small hydro plants require little maintenance over their useful life, which
can be well over 50 years. Normally, one part-time operator can easily handle operation
and routine maintenance of a small hydro plant, with periodic maintenance of the larger
components of a plant usually requiring help from outside contractors.

The technical and financial viability of

each potential small hydro project are RETScreen® International
very site specific. Power output depends Small Hydro Project Model
on the available water (flow) and head
(drop in elevation). The amount of en- The RETScreen® International Small Hydro
ergy that can be generated depends on Project Model can be used world-wide to easily
the quantity of water available and the evaluate the energy production, life-cycle costs
and greenhouse gas emissions reduction for
variability of flow throughout the year.
central-grid, isolated-grid and off-grid small
The economics of a site depends on the hydro projects, ranging in size from multi-
power (capacity) and the energy that a turbine small and mini hydro installations to
project can produce, whether or not the single-turbine micro hydro systems.
energy can be sold, and the price paid for
the energy. In an isolated area (off-grid
and isolated-grid applications) the value of energy generated for consumption is generally
significantly more than for systems that are connected to a central-grid. However, isolated
areas may not be able to use all the available energy from the small hydro plant and, may
be unable to use the energy when it is available because of seasonal variations in water
flow and energy consumption.

A conservative, “rule-of-thumb” relationship is that power for a hydro project is equal to

seven times the product of the flow (Q) and gross head (H) at the site (P = 7QH). Produc-
ing 1 kW of power at a site with 100 m of head will require one-tenth the flow of water
that a site with 10 m of head would require. The hydro turbine size depends primarily on
the flow of water it has to accommodate. Thus, the generating equipment for higher-head,
lower-flow installations is generally less expensive than for lower-head, higher-flow plants.
The same cannot necessarily be said for the civil works components of a project which are
related much more to the local topography and physical nature of a site.

HYDRO.10
 1. Small Hydro Background

1.2.1 Types of small hydro developments

Small hydro projects can generally be categorised as either “run-of-river developments” or
“water storage (reservoir) developments,” which are described in more detail below.

Run-of-river developments
“Run-of-river” refers to a mode of operation in which the hydro plant uses only
the water that is available in the natural flow of the river, as depicted in Figure 6.
“Run-of-river” implies that there is no water storage and that power fluctuates with
the stream flow.

Figure 6:
Run-of-River Small
Hydro Project in a
Remote Community.

Photo Credit:
Robin Hughes/PNS

The power output of run-of-river small hydro plants fluctuates with the hydrologic
cycle, so they are often best suited to provide energy to a larger electricity system.
Individually, they do not generally provide much firm capacity. Therefore, isolated
areas that use small hydro resources often require supplemental power. A run-of-river
plant can only supply all of the electrical needs of an isolated area or industry if the
minimum flow in the river is sufficient to meet the load’s peak power requirements.

Run-of-river small hydro can involve diversion of the flow in a river. Diversion is
often required to take advantage of the drop in elevation that occurs over a distance
in the river. Diversion projects reduce the flow in the river between the intake and
the powerhouse. A diversion weir or small dam is usually required to divert the
flow into the intake.

HYDRO.11
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

Water storage (reservoir) developments

For a hydroelectric plant to provide power on demand, either to meet a fluctuating
load or to provide peak power, water must be stored in one or more reservoirs 2 .
Unless a natural lake can be tapped, providing storage usually requires the con-
struction of a dam or dams and the creation of new lakes. This impacts the local
environment in both negative and positive ways, although the scale of development
often magnifies the negative impacts. This often presents a conflict, as larger hydro
projects are attractive because they can provide “stored” power during peak demand
periods. Due to the economies of scale and the complex approval process, storage
schemes tend to be relatively large in size.

The creation of new storage reservoirs for small hydro plants is generally not financially
viable except, possibly, at isolated locations where the value of energy is very high.
Storage at a small hydro plant, if any, is generally limited to small volumes of water in
a new head pond or existing lake upstream of an existing dam. Pondage is the term
used to describe small volumes of water storage. Pondage can provide benefits to small
hydro plants in the form of increased energy production and/or increased revenue.

Another type of water storage development is “pumped storage” where water is “recy-
cled” between downstream and upstream storage reservoirs. Water is passed through
turbines to generate power during peak periods and pumped back to the upper reser-
voir during off-peak periods. The economics of pumped storage projects depends on
the difference between the values of peak and off-peak power. Due to the inefficiencies
involved in pumping versus generating, the recycling of water results in a net consump-
tion of energy. Energy used to pump water has to be generated by other sources.

The environmental impacts that can be associated with small hydro developments can vary
significantly depending on the location and configuration of the project.

The effects on the environment of developing a run-of-river small hydro plant at an exist-
ing dam are generally minor and similar to those related to the expansion of an existing
facility. Development of a run-of-river small hydro plant at an undeveloped site can pose
additional environmental impacts. A small dam or diversion weir is usually required. The
most economical development scheme might involve flooding some rapids upstream of
the new small dam or weir.

The environmental impacts that can be associated with hydroelectric developments that
incorporate water storage (typically larger in size) are mainly related to the creation of a
water storage reservoir. The creation of a reservoir involves the construction of a relatively
large dam, or the use of an existing lake to impound water. The creation of a new reservoir
with a dam involves the flooding of land upstream of the dam. The use of water stored in
the reservoir behind a dam or in a lake results in the fluctuation of water levels and flows
in the river downstream. A rigorous environmental assessment is typically required for
any project involving water storage.

2. Except in the run-of-river case where the minimum flow in the river can provide the peak power requirement.

HYDRO.12
 1. Small Hydro Background

1.2.2 Hydro project engineering phases

According to Gordon (1989), there are normally four phases for engineering work required
to develop a hydro project. Note, however, that for small hydro, the engineering work is
often reduced to three phases in order to reduce costs. Generally, a preliminary investiga-
tion is undertaken that combines the work involved in the first two phases described below.
The work, however, is completed to a lower level of detail in order to reduce costs. While
reducing the engineering work increases the risk of the project not being financially viable,
this can usually be justified due to the lower costs associated with smaller projects.

Reconnaissance surveys and hydraulic studies

This first phase of work frequently covers numerous sites and includes: map studies;
delineation of the drainage basins; preliminary estimates of flow and floods; and
a one day site visit to each site (by a design engineer and geologist or geotechnical
engineer); preliminary layout; cost estimates (based on formulae or computer data);
a final ranking of sites based on power potential; and an index of cost.

Pre-feasibility study
Work on the selected site or sites would include: site mapping and geological inves-
tigations (with drilling confined to areas where foundation uncertainty would have
a major effect on costs); a reconnaissance for suitable borrow areas (e.g. for sand and
gravel); a preliminary layout based on materials known to be available; preliminary
selection of the main project characteristics (installed capacity, type of development,
etc.); a cost estimate based on major quantities; the identification of possible envi-
ronmental impacts; and production of a single volume report on each site.

Feasibility study
Work would continue on the selected site with a major foundation investigation pro-
gramme; delineation and testing of all borrow areas; estimation of diversion, design
and probable maximum floods; determination of power potential for a range of dam
heights and installed capacities for project optimisation; determination of the project
design earthquake and the maximum credible earthquake; design of all structures in
sufficient detail to obtain quantities for all items contributing more than about 10%
to the cost of individual structures; determination of the dewatering sequence and
project schedule; optimisation of the project layout, water levels and components;
production of a detailed cost estimate; and finally, an economic and financial evalu-
ation of the project including an assessment of the impact on the existing electrical
grid along with a multi-volume comprehensive feasibility report.

System planning and project engineering

This work would include studies and final design of the transmission system; inte-
gration of the transmission system; integration of the project into the power network
to determine precise operating mode; production of tender drawings and specifi-
cations; analysis of bids and detailed design of the project; production of detailed
construction drawings and review of manufacturer’s equipment drawings. However,
the scope of this phase would not include site supervision nor project management,
since this work would form part of the project execution costs.

HYDRO.13
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

2 RETSCREEN SMALL HYDRO PROJECT MODEL

The RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model provides a means to assess the available energy
at a potential small hydro site that could be provided to a central-grid or, for isolated loads,
the portion of this available energy that could be harnessed by a local electric utility (or
used by the load in an off-grid system). The model addresses both run-of-river and reser-
voir developments, and it incorporates sophisticated formulae for calculating efficiencies
of a wide variety of hydro turbines.

The Small Hydro model can be used to evaluate small hydro projects typically classified
under the following three names:

Small hydro;

Mini hydro; and

Micro hydro.

The Small Hydro Project Model has been developed primarily to determine whether work
on the small hydro project should proceed further or be dropped in favour of other alter-
natives. Each hydro site is unique, since about 75% of the development cost is determined
by the location and site conditions. Only about 25% of the cost is relatively fixed, being
the cost of manufacturing the electromechanical equipment.

Seven worksheets (Energy Model, Hydrology Analysis and Load Calculation (Hydrology &
Load), Equipment Data, Cost Analysis, Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Analysis (GHG
Analysis), Financial Summary and Sensitivity and Risk Analysis (Sensitivity)) are provided in
the Small Hydro Project Workbook file.

The Energy Model, Hydrology & Load and Equipment Data worksheets are completed
first. The Cost Analysis worksheet should then be completed, followed by the Financial
Summary worksheet. The GHG Analysis and Sensitivity worksheets are optional analy-
sis. The GHG Analysis worksheet is provided to help the user estimate the greenhouse gas
(GHG) mitigation potential of the proposed project. The Sensitivity worksheet is provided
to help the user estimate the sensitivity of important financial indicators in relation to key
technical and financial parameters. In general, the user works from top-down for each of
the worksheets. This process can be repeated several times in order to help optimise the
design of the small hydro project from an energy use and cost standpoint.

The RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model provides the user with two different methods for
estimating project costs: the “Formula” and the “Detailed” costing methods. All the hydro
cost equations used in the “Formula” costing method are empirical, based on data collected
over 20 years for both large and small hydro facilities. They have been extended to include
more site data for this analysis (Gordon, 1989 & 1991). If used correctly, the “Formula”
costing method will provide a baseline, or minimum, cost estimate for a proposed project.

HYDRO.15
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

The “Detailed” costing method allows the user to estimate costs based on estimated quanti-
ties and unit costs. The use of this costing method requires that the user estimate the size
and the layout of the required structures. If the user chooses to use this method, the results
should be compared with results from the “Formula” costing method.

In order to use the RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model, the user may require certain
information that can be obtained from available topographic maps. Topographic maps
can be purchased or ordered from most map stores. In cases where a previous hydrologic
assessment has been undertaken for the site in question, the pertinent data from this as-
sessment can be used in the model. The user should be aware that if the available head,
or drop in elevation, at a site is unknown, a site visit will be required to measure the head
unless detailed mapping is available. The measurement of head can be done easily using
simple surveying techniques.

This section describes the various algorithms used to calculate, on an annual basis, the
energy production of small hydro power plants in RETScreen. A flowchart of the algo-
rithms is shown in Figure 7. User inputs include the flow-duration curve (Section 2.1) and,
for isolated-grid and off-grid applications, the load-duration curve (Section 2.2). Turbine
efficiency is calculated at regular intervals on the flow-duration curve (Sections 2.3.1 and
2.3.2 and Appendix A). Plant capacity is then calculated (Section 2.3.3) and the power-dura-
tion curve is established (Section 2.3.4). Available energy is simply calculated by integrating
the power-duration curve (Section 2.3.5). In the case of a central-grid, the energy delivered
is equal to the energy available (Section 2.3.6). In the case of an isolated-grid or off-grid ap-
plication, the procedure is slightly more complicated and involves both the power-duration
curve and the load-duration curve (Section 2.3.7). The Formula Costing Method (Section
2.4) is described in detail in Appendix B and a validation of the RETScreen Small Hydro
Project Model is presented in Section 2.5.

There are some limitations associated with the Small Hydro Project Model. First, the model
has been designed primarily to evaluate run-of-river small hydro projects. The evaluation
of storage projects is possible, however, a number of assumptions are required. Variations
in gross head due to changes in reservoir water level cannot be simulated. The model re-
quires a single value for gross head and, in the case of reservoir projects, an appropriate av-
erage value must be entered. The determination of the average head must be done outside of
the model and will require an understanding of the effects of variations in head on annual
energy production. Second, for isolated-grid and off-grid applications in isolated areas, the
energy demand has been assumed to follow the same pattern for every day of the year. For
isolated locations where energy demand and available energy vary significantly over the
course of a year, adjustments will have to be made to the estimated amount of renewable
energy delivered. This is done by changing the “Available flow adjustment factor” in the
Energy Model worksheet. These limitations aside, the model is fairly easy to understand and
use. As will be seen in the next sections, the model condenses in an easy-to-use format
a wealth of information, and it should be of great assistance to engineers involved in the
preliminary evaluation of small hydro projects.

HYDRO.16
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

Figure 7:
Small Hydro Energy Flow-duration curve Load-duration curve
Model Flowchart. [section 2.1] [section 2.2]

Calculation of
turbine efficiency curve
[sections 2.3.1 & 2.3.2]

Calculation of
plant capacity
[section 2.3.3]

Calculation of power-
duration curve
[section 2.3.4]

Calculation of renewable
energy available
[section 2.3.5]

Calculation of renewable Calculation of renewable

energy delivered energy delivered
(central-grid) (isolated-grid and off-grid)
[section 2.3.6] [section 2.3.7]

2.1 Hydrology
In RETScreen, hydrological data are specified as a flow-duration curve, which is assumed
to represent the flow conditions in the river being studied over the course of an average
year. For storage projects, data must be entered manually by the user and should represent
the regulated flow that results from operating a reservoir; at present, the head variation
with storage drawdown is not included in the model. For run-of-river projects, the required
flow-duration curve data can be entered either manually or by using the specific run-off
method and data contained in the RETScreen Online Weather Database.

HYDRO.17
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

A flow-duration curve is a graph of the historical flow at a site ordered from maximum to
minimum flow. The flow-duration curve is used to assess the anticipated availability of
flow over time, and consequently the power and energy, at a site. The model then calculates
the firm flow that will be available for electricity production based on the flow-duration
curve data, the percent time the firm flow should be available and the residual flow.

2.1.1 Flow-duration curve

The flow-duration curve is specified by twenty-one values Q0 , Q5 ,… , Q100 representing
the flow on the flow-duration curve in 5% increments. In other words, Qn represents the
flow that is equalled or exceeded n % of the time. An example of a flow-duration curve is
shown in Figure 8.

20

Flow used
Available flow
15
Flow (m3/s)

10
Residual flow

Firm flow

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent time flow equalled or exceeded (%)

Figure 8:
Example of a Flow-Duration Curve.

When the specific run-off method is used, the flow-duration curve is expressed in normal-
ised form, i.e. relative to the mean flow. The mean flow Q is calculated as:

Q = R AD (1)

HYDRO.18
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

where R is the specific run-off and AD is the drainage area. Then the actual flow data
Qn ( n =0,5,…,100) is computed from the normalised flow data qn extracted from the
weather database through:

Qn = qn Q (2)

2.1.2 Available flow

Often, a certain amount of flow must be left in the river throughout the year for environ-
mental reasons. This residual flow Qr is specified by the user and must be subtracted from
all values of the flow-duration curve for the calculation of plant capacity, firm capacity and
renewable energy available, as explained further on in this chapter. The available flow Qn′
( n = 0, 5, …, 100) is then defined by:

Qn′ = max ( Qn − Qr , 0 ) (3)

The available flow-duration curve is shown in Figure 8, with as an example Qr set to 1 m3/s.

2.1.3 Firm flow

The firm flow is defined as the flow being available p % of the time, where p is a percent-
age specified by the user and usually equal to 95%. The firm flow is calculated from the
available flow-duration curve. If necessary, a linear interpolation between 5% intervals is
used to find the firm flow. In the example of Figure 8 the firm flow is equal to 1.5 m3/s
with p set to 90%.

2.2 Load
The degree of sophistication used to describe the load depends on the type of grid consid-
ered. If the small hydro power plant is connected to a central-grid, then it is assumed that
the grid absorbs all of the energy production and the load does not need to be specified.
If on the other hand the system is off-grid or connected to an isolated-grid, then the por-
tion of the energy that can be delivered depends on the load. The RETScreen Small Hydro
Project Model assumes that the daily load demand is the same for all days of the year and
can be represented by a load-duration curve. An example of such a curve is shown in Fig-
ure 9. As for the flow-duration curve of Section 2.1.1, the load-duration curve is specified
by twenty-one values L0 , L5 ,… , L100 defining the load on the load-duration curve in 5%
increments: Lk represents the load that is equalled or exceeded k % of the time.

HYDRO.19
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

5,000

4,500

4,000

3,500

3,000
Load (kW)

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000

500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent time load equalled or exceeded (%)

Figure 9:
Example of a Load-Duration Curve.

2.2.1 Energy demand

Daily energy demand 3 is calculated by integrating the area under the load-duration curve
over one day. A simple trapezoidal integration formula is used. The daily demand Dd
expressed in kWh is therefore calculated as:

20
L + L5 k  5
Dd = ∑  5( k −1)  24 (4)
k =1  2  100

with the L expressed in kW. The annual energy demand D is obtained by multiplying the
daily demand by the number of days in a year, 365:

D = 365 Dd (5)

3. It is assumed that the reader is already familiar with the concepts of load and demand. Load refers to instantaneous
values (power, expressed for example in W) whereas demand refers to integrated values (energy, expressed for example
in J or in Wh).

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 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

2.2.2 Average load factor

The average load factor L is the ratio of the average daily load ( Dd 24) to the peak load
( L0):

Dd 24
L= (6)
L0

This quantity is not used by the rest of the algorithm but is simply provided to the user to
give an indication of the variability of the load.

2.3 Energy Production

The RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model calculates the estimated renewable energy
delivered (MWh) based on the adjusted available flow (adjusted flow-duration curve),
the design flow, the residual flow, the load (load-duration curve), the gross head and the
efficiencies/losses. The calculation involves comparing the daily renewable energy available
to the daily load-duration curve for each of the flow-duration curve values.

2.3.1 Turbine efficiency curve

Small hydro turbine efficiency data can be entered manually or can be calculated by
RETScreen. Calculated efficiencies can be adjusted using the Turbine manufacture/design
coefficient and Efficiency adjustment factor in the Equipment Data worksheet of the model.
Standard turbine efficiencies curves have been developed for the following turbine types:

Kaplan (reaction turbine)

Francis (reaction turbine)

Propellor (reaction turbine)

Pelton (impulse turbine)

Turgo (impulse turbine)

Cross-flow (generally classified as an impulse turbine).

The type of turbine is selected based on its suitability to the available head and flow
conditions. The calculated turbine efficiency curves take into account a number of fac-
tors including rated head (gross head less maximum hydraulic losses), runner diameter
(calculated), turbine specific speed (calculated for reaction turbines) and the turbine
manufacture/design coefficient. The efficiency equations were derived from a large number
of manufacture efficiency curves for different turbine types and head and flow conditions.
The turbine efficiency equations are described in Appendix A.

HYDRO.21
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

For multiple turbine applications it is assumed that all turbines are identical and that a
single turbine will be used up to its maximum flow and then flow will be divided equally
between two turbines, and so on up to the maximum number of turbines selected. The
turbine efficiency equations and the number of turbines are used to calculate plant turbine
efficiency from 0% to 100% of design flow (maximum plant flow) at 5% intervals. An
example turbine efficiency curve is shown in Figure 10 for 1 and 2 turbines.

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Efficiency (-)

0.5 1 turbine
2 turbines
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of rated flow (%)

Figure 10:
Calculated Efficiency Curves for Francis Turbine
(Gross Head = 146 m; Design Flow = 1.90 m3/s).

2.3.2 Power available as a function of flow

Actual power P available from the small hydro plant at any given flow value Q is given
by the following equation, in which the flow-dependent hydraulic losses and tailrace re-
duction are taken into account:

P = ρ g Q  H g − ( hhydr + htail )  et eg (1 − ltrans ) (1− l para ) (7)

where ρ is the density of water (1,000 kg/m3), g the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2),
H g the gross head, hhydr and htail are respectively the hydraulic losses and tailrace effect
associated with the flow; and et is the turbine efficiency at flow Q , calculated as explained
in Section 2.3.1. Finally, eg is the generator efficiency, ltrans the transformer losses, and l para

HYDRO.22
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

the parasitic electricity losses; eg , ltrans , and l para are specified by the user in the Energy
Model worksheet and are assumed independent from the flow considered.

Hydraulic losses are adjusted over the range of available flows based on the following
relationship:

Q2
hhydr = Hg lhydr ,max (8)
Qdes 2

where lhydr , max is the maximum hydraulic losses specified by the user, and Qdes the design
flow. Similarly the maximum tailrace effect is adjusted over the range of available flows
with the following relationship:

(9)

where htail , max is the maximum tailwater effect, i.e. the maximum reduction in available
gross head that will occur during times of high flows in the river. Qmax is the maximum
river flow, and equation (9) is applied only to river flows that are greater than the plant
design flow (i.e. when Q > Qdes ).

2.3.3 Plant capacity

Plant capacity Pdes is calculated by re-writing equation (7) at the design flow Qdes . The
equation simplifies to:

(10)

where Pdes is the plant capacity and et , des the turbine efficiency at design flow, calculated
as explained in Section 2.3.1.

The small hydro plant firm capacity is calculated again with equation (7), but this time
using the firm flow and corresponding turbine efficiency and hydraulic losses at this flow.
If the firm flow is greater than the design flow, firm plant capacity is set to the plant capac-
ity calculated through equation (10).

HYDRO.23
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

2.3.4 Power-duration curve

Calculation of power available as a function of flow using equation (7) for all 21 values of
the available flow Q0′ , Q5′ ,… , Q100
′ used to define the flow-duration curve, leads to 21 values
of available power P0 , P1 ,… , P100 defining a power-duration curve. Since the design flow
is defined as the maximum flow that can be used by the turbine, the flow values used in
equations (7) and (8) are actually Qn ,used defined as 4 :

Qn ,used = min ( Qn′ , Qdes ) (11)

An example power-duration curve is shown in Figure 11, with the design flow equal to
3 m3/s.

25 5,000

Available flow 4,500

Flow used
20 Available power 4,000

3,500

15 3,000

Power (kW)
Flow (m /s)
3

2,500

10 2,000

1,500

5 1,000

500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of time flow equalled or exceeded (%)

Figure 11:
Example of a Power-Duration Curve.

4. In equation (9), however, neither the residual flow nor the maximum flow should be taken into account, and it is indeed
Qn that should be used, not Qn ,used .

HYDRO.24
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

2.3.5 Renewable energy available

Renewable energy available is determined by calculating the area under the power curve
assuming a straight-line between adjacent calculated power output values. Given that the
flow-duration curve represents an annual cycle, each 5% interval on the curve is equiva-
lent to 5% of 8,760 hours (number of hours per year). The annual available energy Eavail
(in kWh/yr) is therefore calculated from the values P (in kW) by:

(12)

where ldt is the annual downtime losses as specified by the user. In the case where the de-
sign flow falls between two 5% increments on the flow-duration curve (as in Figure 11) the
interval is split in two and a linear interpolation is used on each side of the design flow.

Equation (12) defines the amount of renewable energy available. The amount actually de-
livered depends on the type of grid, as is described in the following sections.

2.3.6 Renewable energy delivered - central-grid

For central-grid applications, it is assumed that the grid is able to absorb all the energy
produced by the small hydro power plant. Therefore, all the renewable energy available will
be delivered to the central-grid and the renewable energy delivered, Edlvd , is simply:

Edlvd = Eavail (13)

2.3.7 Renewable energy delivered - isolated-grid and off-grid

For isolated-grid and off-grid applications the procedure is slightly more complicated be-
cause the energy delivered is actually limited by the needs of the local grid or the load, as
specified by the load-duration curve (Figure 9). The following procedure is used: for each
5% increment on the flow-duration curve, the corresponding available plant power output
(assumed to be constant over a day) is compared to the load-duration curve (assumed to
represent the daily load demand). The portion of energy that can be delivered by the small
hydro plant is determined as the area that is under both the load-duration curve and the
horizontal line representing the available plant power output. Twenty-one values of the daily
energy delivered G0 , G5 ,… , G100 corresponding to available power P0 , P5 ,… , P100 are
calculated. For each value of available power Pn , daily energy delivered Gn is given by:

HYDRO.25
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

(14)

where Pn′, k is the lesser of load Lk and available power Pn :

Pn′,k = min ( Pn , Lk ) (15)

In the case where the available power Pn′, k falls between two 5% increments on the load-
duration curve, the interval is split in two and a linear interpolation is used on each side
of the available power.

The procedure is illustrated by an example, using the load-duration curve from Figure 9
and values from the power-duration curve shown in Figure 11. The purpose of the example
is to determine the daily renewable energy G75 delivered for a flow that is exceeded 75%
of the time. One first refers to Figure 11 to determine the corresponding power level:

P75 = 2,630 kW (16)

Then one reports that number as a horizontal line on the load-duration curve, as shown in
Figure 12. The area that is both under the load-duration curve and the horizontal line is
the renewable energy delivered per day for the plant capacity that corresponds to flow Q75 ;
integration with formula (14) gives the result:

G75 = 56.6 MWh/d (17)

The procedure is repeated for all values P0 , P5 ,… , P100 to obtain twenty one values of
the daily renewable energy delivered G0 , G5 ,… , G100 as a function of percent time the
flow is exceeded as shown in Figure 13. The annual renewable energy delivered Edlvd is
obtained simply by calculating the area under the curve of Figure 13, again with a trap-
ezoidal rule:

(18)

where, as before, ldt is the annual downtime losses as specified by the user.

HYDRO.26
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

5,000
Daily renewable energy delivered
4,500
Load
4,000

3,500

P75 = 2,630 kW
3,000
Load (kW)

2,500

2,000

1,500 Daily renewable energy delivered G 75

1,000

500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent time load equalled or exceeded (%)

Figure 12:
Example of Calculation of Daily Renewable Energy Delivered.

80,000
Annual renewable energy delivered
70,000 Daily renewable energy delivered
Daily renewable energy delivered (kWh/d)

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

Annual renewable energy delivered

20,000

10,000

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent time flow equalled or exceeded (%)

Figure 13:
Example of Calculation of Annual Renewable Energy Delivered.

HYDRO.27
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

2.3.8 Small hydro plant capacity factor

The annual capacity factor K of the small hydro power plant is a measure of the available
flow at the site and how efficiently it is used. It is defined as the average output of the plant
compared to its rated capacity:

Edlvd
K= (19)
8760 Pdes

where the annual renewable energy delivered Edlvd calculated through (13) or (18) is ex-
pressed in kWh, and plant capacity calculated through (10) is expressed in kW.

2.3.9 Excess renewable energy available

Excess renewable energy available Eexcess is the difference between the renewable energy
available Eavail and the renewable energy delivered Edlvd :

Eexcess = Eavail − Edlvd (20)

Eavail is calculated through equation (12) and Edlvd through either (13) or (18).

2.4 Project Costing

The Small Hydro Project Model is unique among RETScreen technology models in that it
offers two methods for project costing: the detailed costing method, or alternatively, the
formula costing method.

The detailed costing method is described in the online user manual. The formula costing
method is based on empirical formulae that have been developed to relate project costs
to key project parameters. The costs of numerous projects have been used to develop the
formulae. The formulae are described in Appendix B.

HYDRO.28
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

2.5 Validation
Numerous experts have contributed to the development, testing and validation of the
RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model. They include small hydro modelling experts, cost
engineering experts, greenhouse gas modelling specialists, financial analysis professionals,
and ground station (hydrology) and satellite weather database scientists.

This section presents three examples of the validations completed. In Section 2.5.1, a turbine
efficiency curve as calculated by RETScreen is compared to manufacturer’s efficiency data
for an installed unit with the same characteristics. Then, the annual renewable energy de-
livered and plant capacity calculated by RETScreen are compared to values calculated by
another software program in Section 2.5.2. And finally, project costs, as calculated by the
formula costing method, are compared to the as-built costs of one small hydro project in
Section 2.5.3.

2.5.1 Turbine efficiency

Small hydro turbine efficiency as calculated by RETScreen was compared to the manufac-
turer guaranteed turbine efficiency for the Brown Lake Hydro Project in British Columbia,
Canada.

The following provides a summary of the Brown Lake project and the turbine performance
data as provided by the manufacturer:

Project name:
Brown Lake Hydro Project

Project location:
Approximately 40 km south of Prince Rupert, British Columbia
on the confluence of Brown Creek and Ecstall River.

Project features:
600 m rock tunnel tapping into Brown Lake, 50 m of 1.5 m diameter steel
penstock, single horizontal Francis turbine, horizontal synchronous genera-
tor, 1,500 m of submarine power cable, substation and connection to BC
Hydro at 69 kV. Automatic operation and remote monitoring.

Date commissioned:
December 1996

Turbine manufacturer:
GEC Alsthom (runner by Neyrpic)

Turbine type:
Francis

HYDRO.29
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

Nameplate rating:
Flow (m3 /s) Efficiency
6,870 kW at 103.6 m net head
7.35 0.93
Maximum rated power: 7.00 0.93
7,115 kW at 105.6 m net head 6.65 0.93
6.30 0.92
RPM: 5.95 0.91
514 5.60 0.90
5.25 0.90
Diameter:
4.90 0.88
1,100 mm
4.55 0.87
Number of blades: 4.20 0.85
13 3.85 0.84
3.50 0.82
Efficiency data:
Table 1: Manufacturer’s Turbine Efficiency Data.
(see Table 1)

A gross head value of 109.1 m was entered into RETScreen, which corresponds to a net
head of 103.6 m with maximum hydraulic losses of 5%. Comparison between the manu-
facturer’s efficiency data and the efficiency curve generated by RETScreen is shown in
Figure 14. As illustrated in the figure, the RETScreen calculated efficiency curve provides
a good approximation of the as-designed turbine efficiencies.

1.0

0.8

0.6
Efficiency

0.4

Manufacturer’s data
0.2
RETScreen calculated efficiency

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent of rated flow (%)

Figure 14:
Comparison of RETScreen Calculated Hydro Turbine Efficiency against Manufacturer’s Data.

HYDRO.30
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

Note that detailed on-site index testing would be required to verify the manufacturers
as-designed efficiency curve. Accurate index tests are very costly and not normally un-
dertaken for small hydro projects unless there is sufficient concern that the turbine is not
performing as designed. An index test would likely yield some differences in the shape of
the manufacturer’s efficiency curve.

2.5.2 Plant capacity and annual renewable energy delivered

A comparison between the RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model and another software
program called HydrA is presented in a report for the International Energy Agency – Imple-
menting Agreement for Hydropower Technologies and Programmes entitled “Assessment
Methods for Small-hydro Projects” by E.M. Wilson, D.Sc., FICE, FASCE, dated April 2000.
HydrA is a software package used to estimate the hydropower potential at any location in
the United Kingdom or Spain. HydrA incorporates a regional flow estimation model derived
from extensive statistical analysis of national river flow data and catchment information.

The following is extracted from the report:

Comparison of the RETScreen 5 and HydrA energy analyses was made for a Scottish catch-
ment where the HydrA-derived flow-duration curve was entered in RETScreen. The standard
generic efficiency curves in both programs were left unchanged, although these differ to some
extent. Rated flow and residual flows [sic] were made the same. The resulting annual energy
values were obtained:

Mean flow: 1.90 m³/s

Residual flow: 0.27 m³/s
Rated turbine flow: 1.63 m³/s
Gross hydraulic head: 65.0 m
Net hydraulic head: 58.5 m

Applicable Gross Annual Av. Net Annual Av. Maximum Power Rated Capacity Minimum Operational
Turbines Output MWh Output MWh Output kW kW Flow m³/s

RETScreen
Francis 3 092 819.0
Crossflow 2 936 745.0
Turgo 3 125 758.0
HydrA
Francis 3 270.3 3 107 858.7 824.4 0.76
Crossflow 3 072.7 2 919 748.3 700.5 0.51
Turgo 3 163.1 3 005 809.1 728.2 0.43

It may be concluded from this simple test that there is little difference in the energy calcula-
tions.

5. A beta version of the RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model Version 2000 was used for the test.

HYDRO.31
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

2.5.3 Project costs

Project costs as calculated by RETScreen using the Formula Costing Method were com-
pared to a detailed as-built cost evaluation prepared for the existing 6 MW Rose Blanche
hydroelectric development in Newfoundland, Canada.

The key parameters of the Rose Blanche project are summarised below:

Project name:
Rose Blanche Hydroelectric Development

Owner/developer:
Newfoundland Power

Project location:
Rose Blanche Brook, approximately 45 km east
of Channel Port Aux Basques.

Date commissioned:
December 1998

Project type:
Run-of-river (with several days’ storage)

Installed capacity:
6 MW

Design net head:

114.2 m

Rated flow:
6.1 m3/s

Turbine/generator:
Twin Francis turbines connected to a single generator.

Other project features:

Small dam with minimal storage, 1,300 m penstock,
short transmission line (approximately 3 km).

The data inputs for the RETScreen Formula Costing Method and the results are shown in
Figure 15, and a comparison of the costs as calculated by RETScreen and the detailed cost
evaluation for the real project is presented in Figure 16. The detailed project costs estimated
in 1998 have been converted to 2000 values using an inflation factor of 1.03.

HYDRO.32
 2. RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model

fi
RETScreen Cost Analysis - Small Hydro Project Search Marketplace

Costing method: Formula Currency: $ Cost references: None

Second currency: USA Rate: $/USD 1,47730
Formula Costing Method Notes/Range
Input Parameters
Project country Canada
Cold climate? yes/no Yes
Frost days at site day 200 See Map Visit NASA satellite data site
Number of turbines turbine 2
Flow per turbine m‡/s 3.1
Approx. turbine runner diameter (per unit) m 0.8
Project classification:
Suggested classification - Mini
Selected classification - Small
Existing dam? yes/no No
New dam crest length m 250.0
Rock at dam site? yes/no Yes
Maximum hydraulic losses % 5%
Intake and miscellaneous losses % 1% 1% to 5%
Access road required? yes/no Yes
Length km 5.0
Tote road only? yes/no No
Difficulty of terrain - 3.0 1.0 to 6.0
Tunnel required? yes/no No
Canal required? yes/no No
Penstock required? yes/no Yes
Length m 1,300.0
Number of identical penstocks penstock 1
Allowable penstock headloss factor % 4.0% 1.0% to 4.0%
Pipe diameter m 1.61
Average pipe wall thickness mm 8.1
Distance to borrow pits km 3.0
Transmission line
Length km 5.0
Difficulty of terrain - 1.0 1.0 to 2.0
Voltage kV 44.0
Interest rate % 9.0%

Cost Adjustment Amount

Initial Costs (Formula Method) (local currency) Factor (local currency) Relative Costs
Feasibility Study $ 504,000 1.00 $ 504,000 3.1% 0% USD -
Development $ 529,000 1.00 $ 529,000 3.3% 0% USD -
Land rights $ - 0.0% 0% USD -
Development Sub-total: $ 529,000 3.3% 0% USD -
Engineering $ 537,000 1.00 $ 537,000 3.3% 0% USD -
Energy Equipment $ 3,032,000 1.00 $ 3,032,000 18.6% 100% USD 564 543
Balance of Plant
Access road $ 1,096,000 1.00 $ 1,096,000 6.7% 0% USD -
Transmission line $ 217,000 1.00 $ 217,000 1.3% 100% USD 146 890
Substation and transformer $ 175,000 1.00 $ 175,000 1.1% 100% USD 29 107
Penstock $ 1,831,000 1.00 $ 1,831,000 11.3% 100% USD 726 325
Canal $ - 1.00 $ - 0.0% 100% USD -
Tunnel $ - 1.00 $ - 0.0% 100% USD -
Civil works (other) $ 6,326,000 1.00 $ 6,326,000 38.9% 0% USD -
Balance of Plant Sub-total: $ 9,645,000 $ 9,645,000 59.3% 26% USD 902 322
Miscellaneous $ 2,015,000 1.00 $ 2,015,000 12.4% 0% USD -
GHG baseline study and MP Cost $ - $ - 0.0% 100% USD -
GHG validation and registration Cost $ - $ - 0.0% 100% USD -
Miscellaneous Sub-total: $ 2,015,000 12.4% 0% USD -
Initial Costs - Total (Formula Method) $ 16,262,000 $ 16,262,000 100.0% 28% USD 1 466 865

Figure 15:
Cost Analysis Worksheet for Rose Blanche Hydroelectric Project.

The RETScreen Formula Costing Method calculated total cost is approximately 14% higher
than the detailed project cost evaluation for the real project. The RETScreen estimate, how-
ever, includes a cost for the feasibility study, which is not part of the detailed cost estimate.
If the feasibility cost is deducted from the RETScreen estimate, the difference in results
reduces to 11% (RETScreen results being 11% higher than the detailed cost estimate).

For the RETScreen Formula Costing Method the project classification was selected as
“small” to represent the higher design and construction standards that would normally
be attributable to projects designed and constructed by a large utility. If the recommended
project classification of “mini” were used, and the feasibility study cost removed, the
RETScreen estimate would be approximately 9% lower than the detailed cost evaluation.

HYDRO.33
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

Rose Blanche Hydroelectric Development, Newfoundland, Canada

RETScreenfi Formula Costing Method Detailed Project Costs Variance

(1) (2) (1)/(2)
Cost Adjustment Amount Amount
Initial Costs (Formula Method) (local currency) Factor (local currency) (local currency)
Feasibility Study $ 504,000 1.00 $ 504,000 $ -
Development $ 529,000 1.00 $ 529,000 $ 463,500 114%
Land rights $ - $ -
Development Sub-total: $ 529,000 $ 463,500 114%
Engineering $ 537,000 1.00 $ 537,000 $ 875,500 61%
Energy Equipment $ 3,032,000 1.00 $ 3 032,000 $ 2,729,500 111%
Balance of Plant
Access road $ 1,096,000 1.00 $ 1,096,000 $ 957,900 114%
Transmission line $ 217,000 1.00 $ 217,000 $ 372,860 58%
Substation and transformer $ 175,000 1.00 $ 175,000 $ 539,720 32%
Penstock $ 1,831,000 1.00 $ 1,831,000 $ 3,090 000 59%
Canal $ - 1.00 $ - $ -
Tunnel $ - 1.00 $ - $ -
Civil works (other) $ 6,326,000 1.00 $ 6,326,000 $ 4,351,750 145%
Balance of Plant Sub-total: $ 9,645,000 $ 9,645,000 $ 9,312,230 104%
Miscellaneous $ 2,015,000 1.00 $ 2,015,000 $ 821,940 245%
GHG baseline study and MP Cost $ - $ - $ -
GHG validation and registration Cost $ - $ - $ -
Miscellaneous Sub-total: $ 2,015,000 $ 821,940 245%
Initial Costs - Total (Formula Method) $ 16,262,000 $ 16,262,000 $ 14,202,670 114%

Figure 16:
Comparison of Costs Calculated Using RETScreen Formula Method vs. Detailed Project Costs.

While there are some discrepancies in the details between the two cost estimates, overall
the totals correspond well. Some of the discrepancies could be explained by a different cost
categorisation that was used for the detailed evaluation (grouping of certain categories of
the detailed estimate were required in order to match the RETScreen categories). The ac-
curacy of the cost estimate by the RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model Formula Costing
Method is nevertheless sufficient at the pre-feasibility stage of a study.

2.6 Summary
In this section the algorithms used by the RETScreen Small Hydro Project Model have been
shown in detail. Generic formulae enable the calculation of turbine efficiency for a variety
of turbines. These efficiencies, together with the flow-duration curve and (in the case of
isolated-grid and off-grid applications) the load-duration curve, enable the calculation of
renewable energy delivered by a proposed small hydro power plant. Condensed formulae
enable the estimation of project costs; alternatively, a detailed costing method can be used.
The accuracy of the model, with respect to both energy production and cost estimation, is
excellent for pre-feasibility stage studies for small hydro projects.

HYDRO.34
REFERENCES
Acres International Limited, Hydrologic Design Methodologies for Small-Scale Hydro at
Ungauged Sites - Phase I, Prepared for Environment Canada, Inland Waters Directorate,
Executed for Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1984.

Bennett, K., Small Hydro in Canada: An Overview, Prepared for Industry, Science and
Technology Canada, Aboriginal Economic Programs, 1990.

Energy, Mines and Resources Canada (EMR), Small Power Production in Remote Communities:
A Shared Opportunity, 1988.

Gordon, J. L., What We Must Not Forget, 1991.

Gordon, J. L., Black Boxing Hydro Costs, 1989.

Gulliver, J.S., Arndt, E.A., Hydropower Engineering Handbook, 1991.

Leopold, L.B., Water: A Primer, 1974.

Wilson, E.M., Assessment Methods for Small-Hydro Projects, International Energy Agency
– Implementing Agreement for Hydropower Technologies and Programs, April 2000.

HYDRO.35
 Appendix A – Turbine Efficiency Formulae

APPENDIX A – TURBINE EFFICIENCY FORMULAE

FRANCIS, KAPLAN AND PROPELLOR TURBINES (REACTION TURBINES):

ITEM FORMULA

Reaction turbine d = kQd 0.473

runner size
(d ) where: d = runner throat diameter in m
kQ = 0.46 for d < 1.8
= 0.41 for d ≥ 1.8
kQd = design flow (flow at rated head and full gate opening in m3/s)

Specific speed nq = kh −0.5

( nq )
where: nq = specific speed based on flow
kh = 800 for propeller and Kaplan turbines
= 600 for Francis turbines
kh = rated head on turbine in m
(gross head less maximum hydraulic losses)

HYDRO.37
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

FRANCIS TURBINES:
ITEM FORMULA

Specific speed
{( n
q − 56 ) / 256 }
2
adjustment to peak
^ enq =
efficiency
(^enq )

Runner size
adjustment to peak
efficiency
( )

Turbine peak
e p = ( 0.919 − ^ enq + ^ ed ) − 0.0305 + 0.005 Rm
efficiency
( ep ) where: Rm = turbine manufacture/design coefficient
(2.8 to 6.1; default = 4.5). Refer to online manual.

Peak efficiency flow

(Qp )
Q p = 0.65 Qd nq 0.05

  (3.94−0.0195 nq )  
 ( Qp − Q ) 
Efficiencies at flows
below peak    e
eq = 1 − 1.25  
efficiency flow   Qp   p
( eq )      
 

Drop in efficiency
at full load
( )

Efficiency at full load

( )

Efficiencies at flows
above peak
efficiency flow
( )

HYDRO.38
 Appendix A – Turbine Efficiency Formulae

KAPLAN AND PROPELLOR TURBINES:

ITEM FORMULA

Specific speed

{( n − 170 ) / 700 }
adjustment to peak 2

efficiency ^ enq = q
(^enq )

Runner size
adjustment to peak
efficiency
( )

Turbine peak
e p = ( 0.905 − ^ enq + ^ ed ) − 0.0305 + 0.005 Rm
efficiency
( ep ) where: Rm = Turbine manufacture/design coefficient
(2.8 to 6.1; default 4.5). Refer to online manual.

KAPLAN TURBINES:
ITEM FORMULA

Peak efficiency flow

(Qp ) Q p = 0.75 Qd

Efficiency at flows   Qp − Q  
6
above and below peak
eq = 1 − 3.5   e
efficiency flow   Q   p
( eq )   p  

PROPELLOR TURBINES:
ITEM FORMULA

Peak efficiency flow

(Qp )
Q p = Qd

Efficiencies at flows   Qp − Q  
1.13
below peak
eq = 1 − 1.25   e
efficiency flow   Q   p
( eq )   p  

HYDRO.39
 Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

PELTON TURBINES:
ITEM FORMULA
0.5
Rotational speed  Q 
(n) n = 31  h d 
 j 
where: j = Number of jets (user-selected value from 1 to 6)

Outside diameter
of runner
( )

Turbine peak
efficiency e p = 0.864 d 0.04
( ep )

Peak efficiency flow

( )

Efficiency at flows
above and below
peak efficiency flow
( )

TURGO TURBINES:
ITEM FORMULA

Efficiency
Pelton efficiency minus 0.03
( )

CROSS-FLOW TURBINES:
ITEM FORMULA

Peak efficiency flow

(Qp )
Q p = Qd

14
Efficiency  Q −Q   Q −Q 
( eq ) eq = 0.79 − 0.15  d  − 1.37  d
 Q   Q 
 p   p 

HYDRO.40
 APPENDIX B – FORMULAE FOR FORMULA COSTING METHOD

VARIABLES LISTED ALPHABETICALLY

A Access road difficulty factor Jt Higher cost vertical axis turbine factor np Number of penstocks
Transmission line wood pole
B Foreign costs civil works factor k Allowable tunnel headloss (ratio to Hg) P vs. steel tower factor
User-defined equipment manufacture
C Civil cost factor K cost coefficient to account for country of Q Flow under consideration (m3/s)
manufacture

Cg Lower cost generator factor Kt Lower cost small horizontal axis turbine factor Qd Design flow (m3/s)

Cv Tunnel volume of concrete lining (m3) la Access road length (km) Qu Flow per unit (m3/s)

d Runner diameter (m) lb Distance to borrow pits (km) R Rock factor

Ratio of the cost of local labour costs compared
D Transmission line difficulty factor Lc to Canadian cost expressed as a decimal
Rv Tunnel volume of rock excavation (m3)

Side slope of rock terrain through

dp Diameter of penstock(s) (m) l cr Canal length in rock (m) Sr which canal will be built (degrees)

Side slope of soil terrain through

E Engineering cost factor l cs Canal length in impervious soil (m) Ss which canal will be built (degrees)

Ratio of the cost of local construction

Ec equipment costs compared to Canadian ld Dam crest length (m) T Tote road factor
costs expressed as a decimal

f Frost days at site lp Penstock length (m) t ave Average penstock thickness (mm)
Appendix B – Formulae For Formula Costing Method

F Frost days factor lT Transmission line length (km) tb Penstock thickness at turbine (mm)

Ratio of the cost of local fuel costs compared

Fc lt Tunnel length (m) Tc Tunnel lining length ratio
to Canadian costs expressed as a decimal

G Grid connected factor MW Total capacity (MW) tt Penstock thickness at intake (mm)

HYDRO.41
Hg Gross head (m) MWu Capacity per unit (MW) V Transmission line voltage (kV)

i Interest rate (%) n Number of turbines W Penstock weight (steel) (kg)

 BASIC PARAMETERS

HYDRO.42
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO

Design flow (maximum flow used by

generating station) in m3 /s User-defined value
( Qd )

Recommended classification
Qd > 12.8 12.8 ≥ Qd > 0.4 Qd ≤ 0.4

Selected classification
User-defined value based on acceptable risk (flood, etc.). Qd ≤ 0.4

Number of turbines
User-defined value 1
(n)
Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

Flow per turbine in m3 /s

= Qd n = Qd
( Q 0)

Approx. turbine runner diameter in m

Q = 0.482 Q 0.45
(d )

Gross head in m
User-defined value
( )

MW/unit in MW (hidden)
( MWu )

Total Capacity in MW (hidden)

= MWu n = MWu
( MWu)
 OTHER VARIABLES AND COSTING FACTORS (IN ORDER OF USE IN FORMULAE)
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO

= 0.67 if existing dam

Engineering cost factor (hidden)
= 1.0 if no dam
(E ) as specified by yes/no selection

Grid-connected factor to account for the

use of induction generators (hidden) = 0.9 if MW < 1.5 and central-grid connected
(G)

Factor to account for use of lower-cost

motors as generators for projects below = 0.75 if MW < 10
10 MW (hidden) = 1.0 if MW ≥ 10
( Cg )

Factor to account for cost increase with

vertical axis Kaplan, Francis and Propeller = 1 if Hg ≤ 25
units at heads above 25 m (hidden) = 1.1 if Hg > 25
(Jt )

Factor to account for cost decrease with

small horizontal Kaplan, Francis and = 0.9 if d < 1.8
Propeller axis units (hidden) = 1.0 if d ≥ 1.8
( Kt )
Appendix B – Formulae For Formula Costing Method

Factor to adjust access road costs to reflect = 0.25 if tote road

lower-cost tote road construction (hidden) = 1.0 otherwise
(T ) as specified by yes/no selection

Access road difficulty of terrain factor

HYDRO.43
User-defined factor with recommended range of 1 to 6
(A)

Length of access road in m

User-defined value
(la )
 OTHER VARIABLES AND COSTING FACTORS (IN ORDER OF USE IN FORMULAE)
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO

Transmission line difficulty of terrain factor

User-defined factor with recommended range of 1 to 2
(D )

Length of transmission line in km

User-defined value

HYDRO.44
(lt )

Transmission line voltage in kV

User-defined value
(V )
Factor to reflect cost of wood pole vs. steel
= 0.85 if V < 69
tower construction (hidden) = 1.0 if V ≥ 69
( P)
= 0.44 if existing dam
Civil cost factor (hidden)
= 1.0 if no dam
( C) as specified by yes/no selection
= 1 if rock at dam site
Rock factor (hidden)
= 1.05 if no rock N/A
(R) as specified by yes/no selection

Distance to a borrow pit in km

Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

User-defined value
(lb )

Length of dam crest in m

User-defined value
(ld )

Number of identical penstocks

User-defined value
( np )

Weight of penstock(s) in kg (hidden)

Calculated value (penstock cost formula)
(W)

Diameter of penstock(s) in m
Calculated value (penstock cost formula)
( dp )

Length of penstock(s) in m
User-defined value
(lp )
 OTHER VARIABLES AND COSTING FACTORS (IN ORDER OF USE IN FORMULAE)
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO
Average pipe wall thickness
of penstock(s) in mm Calculated value (penstock cost formula)
(tave )

Penstock pipe wall thickness

at intake in mm (hidden) Calculated value (penstock cost formula)
(tt )

Penstock pipe wall thickness at turbine

in mm (hidden) Calculated value (penstock cost formula)
(tb )

Terrain side slope of soil through which

canal is to be constructed in degrees User-defined value
( Ss )

Length of canal to be constructed

in soil in m User-defined value
(lcs )

Terrain side slope of rock through which

canal is to be constructed in degrees User-defined value
( Sr )
Appendix B – Formulae For Formula Costing Method

Length of canal to be constructed

in rock in m User-defined value
(lcr )

Tunnel rock excavation volume in m3 (hidden)

HYDRO.45
Calculated value (tunnel cost formula) N/A
( Rv)

Tunnel concrete lining volume in m3 (hidden)

Calculated value (tunnel cost formula) N/A
( Cv )

Length of tunnel in m
User-defined value N/A
(lt )
 OTHER VARIABLES AND COSTING FACTORS (IN ORDER OF USE IN FORMULAE)
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO
Allowable tunnel headloss expressed
as a ratio to the gross head User-defined value N/A
(k)

HYDRO.46
Percent length of tunnel that is lined factor User-defined value with recommended range of 15%
N/A
(Tc ) (excellent rock) to 100% (poor rock)

Interest rate
User-defined value
(i )

Number of days with frost at site

User-defined value
(f )

Frost-days factor (hidden) 110

=
(F) (365 − f )0.9
Local vs. Canadian equipment costs ratio
User-defined value
( Ec )
Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

Local vs. Canadian fuel costs ratio

User-defined value
( Fc )

Local vs. Canadian labour costs ratio

User-defined value
( Lc )

Civil works foreign cost factor (hidden).

Used in program to determine
local cost of the civil works
components of foreign projects
(B )

Equipment manufacture cost coefficient

User-defined value with recommended range of 0.5 to 1.0
( K)
 BASIC COSTING FORMULAE
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO
Feasibility study (Eq.#1)

Development (Eq.#2)
0.54
 MW 
Engineering (Eq.#3) = 0.04  0.3  ×106
H 
 g 

Energy equipment Generator and Control:

(Eq.#4) (all turbine types)

Kaplan turbine and governor:

Francis turbine and governor:

Propeller turbine and governor:

Pelton/Turgo turbine and governor:

Appendix B – Formulae For Formula Costing Method

Cross-flow turbine and governor: Cost of Pelton/Turgo ×0.5

Installation of energy
equipment (Eq.#5)

Access road (Eq.#6)

HYDRO.47
Transmission line
(Eq.#7)
 BASIC COSTING FORMULAE
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO

Substation, and
transformer (Eq.#8)

Installation of substation

HYDRO.48
and transformer (Eq.#9)

Civil works (Eq.#10)

Penstock (Eq.#11)
Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter
 BASIC PARAMETERS
ITEM SMALL MINI MICRO

Installation of penstock
= 5 W 0.88
(Eq.#12)

Canal (Eq.#13)

Tunnel (Eq.#14)

N/A

Miscellaneous (Eq.#15)
Appendix B – Formulae For Formula Costing Method

Initial Costs – Total

(Formula Method)

HYDRO.49
 CANADIAN AND NON-CANADIAN PROJECTS - APPLICATION OF “F,” “B,” AND “K” FACTORS
Canadian Projects Non-Canadian Projects
Costing Category Apply “F” Factor % Local Component Apply “F” to Local Apply “B” to Local Apply “K” to Foreign

Feasibility study (Eq.#1) 15%

HYDRO.50
Development (Eq.#2) 50%

Engineering (Eq.#3) Yes 40% Yes Yes

Energy equipment (Eq.#4) 0% Yes

Installation of energy
Yes 100% Yes Yes
equipment (Eq.#5)

Access (Eq.#6) Yes 100% Yes Yes

60% if V < 69
Transmission line (Eq.#7) Yes
40% if V ≥ 69
Yes Yes Yes

Substation and transformer

Small Hydro Project Analysis Chapter

0% Yes
(Eq.#8)

Installation of substation and

Yes 100% Yes Yes
transformer (Eq.#9)

Civil works (Eq.#10) Yes 85% Yes Yes Yes

Penstock (Eq.#11) 0% Yes

Installation of penstock
Yes 100% Yes Yes
(Eq.#12)

Canal (Eq.#13) Yes 100% Yes Yes

Tunnel (Eq.#14) Yes 85% Yes Yes Yes

Miscellaneous (Eq.#15)
 RETScreen FORMULA COSTING METHOD COST CATEGORIES
Cost Category Formula(e) number(s)

Feasibility Study 1

Development 2

Engineering 3

Energy Equipment 4

Balance of plant

Access road 6

Transmission line 7

Substation and transformer 8

Penstock 11

Canal 13
Appendix B – Formulae For Formula Costing Method

Tunnel 14

Civil works (other) 5 + 9 + 10 + 12

Subtotal

HYDRO.51
Miscellaneous 15