WHAT ARE COMPUTERS?

Computers have been around since the Chinese Abacus. They are here to stay. There
is a certain feel and flow to the logic that directs their activities.
Electronically, all computers work about the same. Computers vary widely in size and
use. However all computers are similar in what the hardware does. So-called
microcomputers (like your desktop Personal Computer (PC)) are designed for
personal use, relatively low price, and modest data processing tasks.
Minicomputers are moderate sized (a small refrigerator size) and perform more
complex tasks with larger amounts of data. Minicomputers might be used in a small
engineering office or a local bank branch to send transaction data to a head office
computer.
Mainframe computers are large, expensive and process billions of characters of data
rapidly and fill entire rooms.
Finally, supercomputers are built to minimize distance between circuit boards and
operate at very high speed for complex uses such as designing airplanes, animating
complex movie sequences graphically or solving complex engineering formulas
having billions of steps mathematically. Supercomputers are built for raw speed.
Supercomputers are the main servers in the Internet System.
Some terms apply to all computers. INPUT is how data gets into a computer. The
keyboard and mouse are familiar INPUT devices. OUTPUT references how data is
provided from the computer. A Monitor or printer are good examples of OUTPUT
devices.
PRIMARY STORAGE or MEMORY is the computer’s immediate data storage area -
usually this is in small integrated circuit chips which hold data ONLY while power is
supplied. This PRIMARY STORAGE area is thus temporary. More permanent
SECONDARY STORAGE is used when computer power is off or when data overflows
primary storage. This is usually floppy or hard disk drives but can include paper
tapes, punch cards, or even non-volatile magnetic bubble memories.
A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people. A computer is
a device capable of solving problems or manipulating data by accepting data,
performing prescribed operations on the data, and displaying the results in the
desired form. The computer is a useful tool for data (or Information) Input, storage,
processing and output.
 
HISTORY -HOW, WHERE, WHEN DID IT ALL START?
The first computational device was the abacus. This has been in continuous use for
thousands of years. During the 1600's the Pascal adding machine was developed.
This was a mechanical device that laid the groundwork for today's odometers and
gas meters. The 1800's saw many machines developed that were controlled by
punch cards - weaving looms. The theoretical basis for electronic circuitry was
developed in the mid 1800's.
In 1947, just after the first electronic computer was built, the transistor was
invented, enabling the birth of vastly less expensive, more reliable computers. Even
with transistors, computers were still too complex and costly for widespread use until
the advent of the integrated circuit (IC) in 1961 made truly inexpensive computers
possible at last.
From this point forth there were many firsts as computers became less mechanical,
smaller, faster and cheaper. In 1971, IC technology progressed to a point where a
complete central processing unit - the heart of the computer - could be integrated on
a single piece off silicon, giving birth to the microprocessor. The microprocessor led
to the personal computer. The Personal Computer is distinguished by its size, cost,
and applications for small business and the home. The first one appeared in January
1975 and was the Altair 8800 kit. Only hobbyists bought these. Then the Radio
Shack TRS 80 and Apple computers hit the market as the first pre-assembled
microcomputers.
Market growth remained sluggish until two business students - Dan Bricklin and Dan
Fylstra - developed a program to run on Apple computers to handle the tedious
recalculations in their school assignments. This program was called VisiCalc and is
the forerunner to the spreadsheet program Lotus 123.
With VisiCalc as a useful tool, Apple sales took off. Apple became the standard
because all programs were written for Apple. Today in the US, Apple still dominates
the school market.
In 1981 IBM introduced its PC. IBM’s legacy still dominates the industry today. The
PC was unable to run Apple software. Unlike Apple or other IBM products, the IBM PC
had an open architecture. This means the technical details of how it operated were
published with the product's introduction. This permitted hundreds of companies to
write software (programs) for the IBM PC and a variety of hardware accessories.
Adding IBM's sterling reputation, the open architecture did enable rapid market
penetration. The microcomputer was no longer a toy, it was a business tool.
The open architecture also allowed for the generation of a host of lower cost
compatible computers. IBM had traded quick initial market entry for eventual erosion
of market share. In both instances, the consumers' benefit. In the early 90s
Computers were applied variously in the fields of Science, Technology and Space
exploration.
Initially, PCs revolutionized how businesses are run, but today, computers deepest
impact are felt in the merging of Communications and Information. The emergence
of the World Wide Web and the explosion of Internet usage is having far-reaching
effects on all aspects of society.
Success and progress in all spheres of life, is now driven by Information and
Technology. The future is bright, but it is up to every user of the technology to see
that it is used to positive effect.

History of Computers: UGC NET Quick Links:

  Exam Scheme
1. First Generation (1939-1954) - Syllabus
vacuum tube
Books
• 1937 - John V. Atanasoff designed the
Study Material
first digital electronic computer
• 1939 - Atanasoff and Clifford Berry Model Papers
demonstrate in Nov. the ABC prototype NCERT Books
• 1941 - Konrad Zuse in Germany « U Share
developed in secret the Z3 Testimonial
• 1943 - In Britain, the Colossus was Coaching Center
designed in secret at Bletchley Park to Website Links
decode German messages Time Management
• 1944 - Howard Aiken developed the
Suggestions
Harvard Mark I mechanical computer for
the Navy
• 1945 - John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Calendar
Eckert built ENIAC at U of PA for the U.S. CSIR NET Quick Links:
Army Exam Scheme
• 1946 - Mauchly and Eckert start
Electronic Control Co., received grant Syllabus
from National Bureau of Standards to Books
build a ENIAC-type computer with Study Material
magnetic tape input/output, renamed
Exam Papers
UNIVAC in 1947 but run out of money,
Coaching Centers
formed in Dec. 1947 the new company
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation NCERT Books
(EMCC). « U Share
• 1948 - Howard Aiken developed the Testimonial
Harvard Mark III electronic computer Coaching Center
with 5000 tubes Website Links
• 1948 - U of Manchester in Britain Time Management
developed the SSEM Baby electronic Suggestions
computer with CRT memory
• 1949 - Mauchly and Eckert in March
Calendar
successfully tested the BINAC stored-
program computer for Northrop Aircraft, IAS Quick Links:
with mercury delay line memory and a CSE Success Stories
primitive magnetic tape drive; Coaching Institutes
Remington Rand bought EMCC Feb. 1950 Study Material GS
and provided funds to finish UNIVAC Study Material Optionals
• 1950- Commander William C. Norris
Book List
led Engineering Research Associates to
NCERT Books
develop the Atlas, based on the secret
code-breaking computers used by the Current Affairs
Navy in WWII; the Atlas was 38 feet « Prelims Old Papers
long, 20 feet wide, and used 2700 General Studies
vacuum tubes « Social Sciences
• 1951 - S. A. Lebedev developed the Economics
MESM computer in Russia Sociology
• 1951 - Remington Rand successfully Philosophy
tested UNIVAC March 30, 1951, and Psychology
announced to the public its sale to the Geography
Census Bureau June 14, 1951, the first
Political Science
commercial computer to feature a
History
magnetic tape storage system, the eight
Public
UNISERVO tape drives that stood
Administration
separate from the CPU and control
Chemistry
console on the other side of a garage-
size room. Each tape drive was six feet Civil Eng.
high and three feet wide, used 1/2-inch Electrical Eng.
metal tape of nickel-plated bronze 1200 Mechanical Eng.
feet long, recorded data on eight Commerce
channels at 100 inches per second with a Botany
transfer rate of 7,200 characters per Physics
second. The complete UNIVAC system Law
weighed 29,000 pounds, included 5200
Zoology
vacuum tubes, and an offline typewriter-
Mathematics
printer UNIPRINTER with an attached
metal tape drive. Later, a punched card- Medical Science
to-tape machine was added to read IBM Agriculture
80-column and Remington Rand 90- Statistics
column cards. Geology
• 1952 - Remington Rand bought the Animal Husbandry..
ERA in Dec. 1951 and combined the « Mains-Compulsory Old Papers
UNIVAC product line in 1952: the ERA General Studies
1101 computer became the UNIVAC Essay
1101. The UNIVAC I was used in
English Compulsory
November to calculate the presidential
Hindi Compulsory
election returns and successfully predict
the winner, although it was not trusted « Mains-Optionals Old Papers
by the TV networks who refused to use « Social Sciences
the prediction. Economics
• 1954 - The sage aircraft-warning Anthropology
system was the largest vacuum tube Geography
computer system ever built. It began in Sociology
1954 at MIT's Lincoln Lab with funding History
from the Air Force. The first of 23 Philosophy
Direction Centers went online in Nov. Public
1956, and the last in 1962. Each Center Administration
had two 55,000-tube computers built by Political Science
IBM, MIT, AND Bell Labs. The 275-ton Psychology
computers known as "Clyde" were based Electrical Eng.
on Jay Forrester's Whirlwind I and had
Mechanical Eng.
magnetic core memory, magnetic drum
Civil Eng.
and magnetic tape storage. The Centers
were connected by an early network, and Geology
pioneered development of the modem Law
and graphics display. Medical Science
2.Second Generation Computers Management
(1954 -1959) - transistor Statistics
• 1950 - National Bureau of Standards Animal Husbandry..
(NBS) introduced its Standards Eastern
« Basic Sciences
Automatic Computer (SEAC) with 10,000
Botany
newly developed germanium diodes in its
Zoology
logic circuits, and the first magnetic disk
drive designed by Jacob Rabinow Physics
• 1953 – Watson Junior led IBM to Chemistry
introduce the model 604 computer, its Mathematics
first with transistors, that became the Commerce
basis of the model 608 of 1957, the first Agriculture
solid-state computer for the commercial Languages
market. Transistors were expensive at « Exam Strategy
first, cost $8 vs. $.75 for a vacuum tube. Tips and Tricks
But Watson was impressed with the new Selecting Optional
transistor radios and gave them to his
Answer Writing Mains
engineers to study. IBM also developed
Question Trend
the 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator, the
first by IBM to use magnetic drum Interview Tips
memory rather punched cards, and Important Links
began shipment of the 701 scientific Mock Test
"Defense Calculator" that was the first of « About Civil Services
the Model 700 line that dominated main Introduction
frame computers for the next decade Eligibility
• 1955 - IBM introduced the 702
Notification
business computer; Watson on the cover
of Time magazine March 28 Pattern of Exam
• 1956 - Bendix G-15A small business Application
computer sold for only $45,000, Civil Services
designed by Harry Huskey of NBS
« Syllabus
• 1959 - General Electric Corporation
Prelims Syllabus
delivered its Electronic Recording
Mains Syllabus
Machine Accounting (ERMA) computing
system to the Bank of America in « U Share
California; based on a design by SRI, the Testimonial
ERMA system employed Magnetic Ink Coaching Center
Character Recognition (MICR) as the Website Links
means to capture data from the checks Time Management
and introduced automation in banking Suggestions
that continued with ATM machines in
1974
Calendar
3. Third Generation Computers
(1959 -1971) - IC
• 1959 - Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments
patented the first integrated circuit in
Feb. 1959; Kilby had made his first
germanium IC in Oct. 1958; Robert
Noyce at Fairchild used planar process to
make connections of components within
a silicon IC in early 1959; the first
commercial product using IC was the
hearing aid in Dec. 1963; General
Instrument made LSI chip (100+
components) for Hammond organs 1968
• 1964 - IBM produced SABRE, the first
airline reservation tracking system for
American Airlines; IBM announced the
System/360 all-purpose computer, using
8-bit character word length (a "byte")
that was pioneered in the 7030 of April
1961 that grew out of the AF contract of
Oct. 1958 following Sputnik to develop
transistor computers for BMEWS
• 1968 - DEC introduced the first "mini-
computer", the PDP-8, named after the
mini-skirt; DEC was founded in 1957 by
Kenneth H. Olsen who came for the
SAGE project at MIT and began sales of
the PDP-1 in 1960
• 1969 - Development began on
ARPAnet, funded by the DOD
• 1971 - Intel produced large scale
integrated (LSI) circuits that were used
in the digital delay line, the first digital
audio device
4. Fourth Generation (1971-1991) -
microprocessor
• 1971 - Gilbert Hyatt at Micro Computer
Co. patented the microprocessor; Ted
Hoff at Intel in February introduced the
4-bit 4004, a VSLI of 2300 components,
for the Japanese company Busicom to
create a single chip for a calculator; IBM
introduced the first 8-inch "memory
disk", as it was called then, or the
"floppy disk" later; Hoffmann-La Roche
patented the passive LCD display for
calculators and watches; in November
Intel announced the first microcomputer,
the MCS-4; Nolan Bushnell designed the
first commercial arcade video game
"Computer Space"
• 1972 - Intel made the 8-bit 8008 and
8080 microprocessors; Gary Kildall wrote
his Control Program/Microprocessor
(CP/M) disk operating system to provide
instructions for floppy disk drives to work
with the 8080 processor. He offered it to
Intel, but was turned down, so he sold it
on his own, and soon CP/M was the
standard operating system for 8-bit
microcomputers; Bushnell created Atari
and introduced the successful "Pong"
game
• 1973 - IBM developed the first true
sealed hard disk drive, called the
"Winchester" after the rifle company,
using two 30 Mb platters; Robert
Metcalfe at Xerox PARC created Ethernet
as the basis for a local area network, and
later founded 3COM
• 1974 - Xerox developed the Alto
workstation at PARC, with a monitor, a
graphical user interface, a mouse, and
an ethernet card for networking
• 1975 - the Altair personal computer is
sold in kit form, and influenced Steve
Jobs and Steve Wozniak
• 1976 - Jobs and Wozniak developed
the Apple personal computer; Alan
Shugart introduced the 5.25-inch floppy
disk
• 1977 - Nintendo in Japan began to
make computer games that stored the
data on chips inside a game cartridge
that sold for around $40 but only cost a
few dollars to manufacture. It introduced
its most popular game "Donkey Kong" in
1981, Super Mario Bros in 1985
• 1978 - Visicalc spreadsheet software
was written by Daniel Bricklin and Bob
Frankston
• 1979 - Micropro released Wordstar that
set the standard for word processing
software
• 1980 - IBM signed a contract with the
Microsoft Co. of Bill Gates and Paul Allen
and Steve Ballmer to supply an operating
system for IBM's new PC model.
Microsoft paid $25,000 to Seattle
Computer for the rights to QDOS that
became Microsoft DOS, and Microsoft
began its climb to become the dominant
computer company in the world.
• 1984 - Apple Computer introduced the
Macintosh personal computer January
24.
• 1987 - Bill Atkinson of Apple
Computers created a software program
called HyperCard that was bundled free
with all Macintosh computers. This
program for the first time made
hypertext popular and useable to a wide
number of people.
5. Fifth Generation (1991 and
Beyond)
• 1991 - World-Wide Web (WWW) was
developed by Tim Berners-Lee and
released by CERN.
• 1993 - The first Web browser called
Mosaic was created by student Marc
Andreesen and programmer Eric Bina at
NCSA in the first 3 months of 1993. The
beta version 0.5 of X Mosaic for UNIX
was released Jan. 23 1993 and was
instant success. The PC and Mac versions
of Mosaic followed quickly in 1993.
Mosaic was the first software to interpret
a new IMG tag, and to display graphics
along with text. Berners-Lee objected to
the IMG tag, considered it frivolous, but
image display became one of the most
used features of the Web. The Web grew
fast because the infrastructure was
already in place: the Internet, desktop
PC, home modems connected to online
services such as AOL and Compuserve
• 1994 - Netscape Navigator 1.0 was
released Dec. 1994, and was given away
free, soon gaining 75% of world browser
market.
• 1996 - Microsoft failed to recognized
the importance of the Web, but finally
released the much imporoved browser
Explorer 3.0 in the summer.

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WHY DO WE USE COMPUTERS?

This similar to asking why do we use cars? But too many people and organizations
purchase and use Computers for the wrong reasons. Computers are practical tools to
be used in helping you get results.
Computers are needed where:
1. There is a need for a more accurate and cost effective knowledge to assist
decision making. Success and progress is now being determined by your access to
information and how you use that information to get results.
2. It is impossible to get results due to either time constraint or sheer magnitude of
work involved.
3. It will reduce the mental and physical effort in tackling certain tasks.
4.There is intense competition and there is a need for cost efficiency through the
elimination and reduction of inefficient practices.
5.There is a need to assist in enhancing Customer service.
6.There is a need for correct forecasting of market trends to ensure business
survival.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Due to technological developments, Computers are now used in virtually all spheres
of life. Here are a few of the application areas:
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY (S&T)
Computers are used in S&T to promote advances that could be useful to mankind,
i.e. discovering better and more efficient ways of doing things. They are especially
useful for humanly intractable calculations and simulation experiments. This is
especially critical in situations where it would be too risky or expensive to directly
carry out the required operation. For example, in Space exploration, underwater
exploration, testing of new drugs, etc. Computers enable S&T professionals can carry
out their practical procedures using faster, more accurate and safer methods.
EDUCATION
Computers are useful for promoting learning experiences. From the toddler to the
full grown adult, educational Computer tools are available. Computers are useful for
learning about Computers and learning about other subjects, i.e. using Computer
Assisted Learning software. Learning is usually interactive and can be reinforced over
and over.
For children, the advent of Multimedia, has made learning fun. They often don’t
realize it when they’re playing that they are also learning.
BANKING & FINANCE
Computers are very useful for handling financial transactions, most especially the
storage and processing of huge amounts of information kept by financial institutions.
Computers enhances Customer service, through the provision of upto date and
timely information for their Customers.
Computers additionally assist with the monitoring of operational costs, to ensure cost
effectiveness and profitability of operations.
In some financial institutions, Computers are used to identify trends and provide
timely information for present and future management decision making.
RECREATION
On your average PC, you can play a variety of games. You know what they say about
Jack. With the games, you could be the sole player, play against the Computer or
you and a friend could play against each other.
SECURITY
Computers are useful for storing information about crimes, criminals and suspects.
This can be very useful in Crime detection and prevention. Such systems can be
interfaced with photograph capturing and fingerprint systems. They can also be
linked to mobile radio communication systems over a wide area to enable in the fast
and efficient sharing of information on Criminal activities. Such systems would
possess enquiry facility for historical and analytic purposes.
There so many other areas where the impact of the Computer is being felt such as
Medicine, Law, Sports, Entertainment, Media, Building, Construction, etc.
In every situation the Computer performs different functions relating to Information
storage, input, output and processing. It is no wonder that productive Computer
based activity is referred to popularly as Information Technology. What are
Computers? A computer system includes computer hardware, software and people.
HARDWARE versus SOFTWARE
What is the difference between computer hardware and software?
HARDWARE
In simplest terms, hardware is the physical parts associated with a computer - the
electronic, magnetic, and mechanical devices (monitor, keyboard, printer, micro chip
boards, floppy drives, cables and physical pieces of a system. These INPUT/OUTPUT
DEVICES allow the operator to interact with the computer.
SOFTWARE
Sets of programs (stored sets of instructions) that govern the operation of the
computer system and make the hardware perform. These programs (instructions)
tell the hardware how to do a particular task such as word
processing, games, database management, etc. Although these instructions are
usually stored inside a piece of hardware (e.g., software instructions stored inside a
circuit chip or floppy drive) but they are nevertheless software.
In a way, Software refers to the instructions that enable an otherwise dead machine
to understand your inputs and transform them into desired outputs. Computer
hardware by itself lacks personality; this is determined by the software. Word
processing software turns the computer into a word processor, accounting software
turns the computer into an accounting tool, etc.
Lets discuss a bit about Software before we go back to Hardware. There are two
major types of software: Operating system software and Applications
software.
Operating system software (like DOS, UNIX or Windows 95) performs very elemental
housekeeping instructions (e.g., where is the monitor, how can I keep track of what
data is on which track or sector of a floppy drive, whether more than user can work
on the system at the same time e.g. UNIX.)
The operating system that all IBM and compatible PC's use is called DOS (sounds like
floss). DOS is software that allows the terminal, printer, computer and mass storage
systems (floppy disks) to work together as a unit, and controls the execution of
programs. It also allows you to do housekeeping chores regarding managing disks
and files.
Applications programs perform tasks on a higher level (e.g., word processing
Spreadsheet, Games, Database Management, Accounting, Payroll programs are
applications.) Generally an application software package uses the lower level
operating system (DOS) to do routine tasks (e.g., your word processing application
uses the lower level DOS operating system frequently to write and store data on a
disk.
And what is a Database?
A database is a collection of information that is organized for ease of reference. For
example, your address book is a database, just as an inventory of goods, a list of all
churches in your state or your staff list.
Before Electronic processing of information, databases had to be maintained on
paper stored in file folders that were kept in filing cabinets. With Electronic DataBase
Management Systems (DBMS), information stored electronically and be recalled
instantly and accurately.

DISKS
Think of disks as cassettes. You can record information on a cassette that can be
replayed indefinitely and if desired, recorded over. Floppy and Hard Disks operate in
a similar fashion. We record (Save) something we have created - like a document -
onto the disk. Then, hours, days, or months later we can play back (Retrieve) the
document into the computer to alter or print out.
The magnetic disk used to store information works in a manner similar to a tape
recorder - magnetic impressions are placed on the tape and can be later replayed. A
magnetic computer disk works in the same fashion but spins in a circle like a music
record rather than moving in a straight line like recording tape.
Magnetic computer disks are available in two basic types: floppy and hard disks. Just
like cassettes, the Floppy and Hard Disks do not require electricity to retain their
information. Hard Disks and Floppy Disks are similar. However, Hard Drives have a
larger capacity for file storage, are faster and are less likely to fail due to the
protected environment from within which they operate. Floppy and Hard Disks are
nonvolatile in nature because they will retain their information without the aid of
electricity.
A hard disk can hold considerably more information than a floppy disk - frequently
billions and millions of computer words (or "bytes") while a floppy disk holds less
than a million in many cases. However what the floppy disk loses in capacity in gains
in the advantage of portability since it can easily be removed from the PC and stored
which is not true of the hard disk.
When you format a disk you ask the computer to inspect the magnetic surface of the
disk for any errors, prepare it for use by future data and create an index "file
allocation table (FAT)" which is like a card index for a large library of books.
Formatting a disk is a little like taking a blank piece of paper and using a pencil and
ruler to turn it into graph paper with both horizontal and vertical lines. What was
blank before now has little cells or file drawers which can hold information.
DISK DRIVE
The port in which a floppy disk is inserted. This device "reads data from a magnetic
disk, and copies data into the computer's memory (RAM) so it can be used by the
computer, and that "writes" data from the computer's memory onto a disk so it can
be stored for later use. Each Disk Drive is labeled A,B,C, etc. because we often must
tell the computer which drive has the disk with the information or where to send the
information. A Disk Drive reads and writes on a 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch floppy disk.
FLOPPY DISKS
The most commonly used mass storage device. Allows entering programs to RAM
and saving data from RAM. Will hold data even after the computer is turned off. Data
on these disks is stored in concentric rings called tracks. The Disk surface is a thin
piece of mylar and is coated with a magnetized material similar to audio or video
tape.
The read/write heads can magnetize and demagnetize the coated surface repeatedly.
Therefore, the Disk can be used, erased, and reused indefinitely.
Floppy disks are also available as double density and high density format. A standard
floppy diskette is either 5D inches or 3A inches square. Obviously the high density of
3A" diskette contains more information than the 3A" double density diskette. A 5D"
Double-sided, Double density disk holds approximately 360k worth of information
(250 double spaced pages of text). The smaller 3.5 inch Double density disks which
hold at least twice as much - 720k.
Working with floppy diskettes.

To insert a floppy diskette into your computer drive, first remove it from the paper or
plastic slipcover if one protects it. The proper way to insert a floppy diskette in most
drives is as follows.

For larger 5 - 1/4 inch floppies, turn the printed label side up and locate the TWO
VERY TINY notches along one edge. Near the notches will be a jelly bean shaped
hole about one inch long cut into the plastic surface of the diskette. This oblong hole
is the read/write opening. Insert the diskette into the drive with the label side up and
the two tiny notches FIRST into the drive opening then close the drive locking
handle. Along one edge of the diskette you will also see a SINGLE square shaped
hole which is the write protect notch.
If this write protect notch is UNCOVERED you can BOTH read and write data to the
diskette. If the write protect notch is covered with a piece of tape, then you can
READ information from the diskette but you CANNOT write information to the
diskette. This is a safeguard feature you may wish to use from time to time. Keep
fragile diskettes away from smoke, hair, dirt and ESPECIALLY sources of magnetism
such as motors, loudspeakers or even children's magnetic toys which may ERASE
your data!
For smaller 3 - 1/2 inch size diskettes, turn the label side up and locate the metal
"shutter". Insert the diskette into the drive with the label up and the shutter FIRST
into the drive. The write protect notch or opening is a small square hole with a
SLIDING PLASTIC TAB which is slid CLOSED (cannot see an open hole) to enable
BOTH reading and writing to the diskette. The sliding tab is placed OPEN (visible
open hole) to enable reading but NOT writing.
FIXED DISK DRIVE
Usually named disk drive C. It is essentially a very large floppy disk. This Fixed Disk
(commonly called a Hard Drive) is secured within the machine and cannot be seen or
transported. The storage capacity is so large it is measured in megabytes (1M = 1K
squared = 1,048,576 bytes). Fixed Disks are available from 5M on up. The main
advantages are that it has enough space to meet most users' total storage needs,
operates much faster than a floppy (5-10 times faster), and is less likely to fail since
it "lives" within the protected computer.

INPUT DEVICES
Since we have covered data storage lets move to data input.

(a) PRIMARY INPUT DEVICES

Two primary input devices are key to getting data into a PC. The keyboard and the
mouse.
(i) KEYBOARD
Input device that lets you enter data into the computer. The layout is similar to the
standard QWERTY typewriter keyboard. However, there are many extra special keys
that are defined by the software you are running.
(ii) MOUSE
Hand operated pointing and selection device which serves as alternate input to the
keyboard. It is very useful for Graphical User Interface (GUI) Applications such as
Windows, etc., which is rolled or moved across the desktop to position a cursor or
pointer on the computer screen.
The mouse also contains several buttons to help select items on data on the monitor
screen. A mouse was initially an optional device, but it is becoming difficult to work
without it, with the spread of Windows based systems.
(b) SPECIALTY INPUT DEVICES
Lets move on to the specialty input devices like the scanner and the Digital camera.
(i) SCANNER
A scanner converts text and images to digital information. This text and images can
be from a variety of sources such as magazines, photographs, articles, scientific
diagrams, etc. The scanner creates a digital image from your photograph or drawing,
for use in graphics, DeskTop Publishing or Presentation applications.
There are different types of scanners like Hand scanner, flatbed scanner and the
multifunction scanner/fax/printer/copier. The flatbed scanner provides a larger
scanning area than the other scanners and is the usually more expensive.
(ii) DIGITAL CAMERA
The Digital Camera produces the same result as a Scanner. Any pictures taken are
transferred straight to the computer, i.e. in the form of a graphics image suitable for
image editing or DeskTop Publishing applications. It eliminates the need for film.

SOME SHORT NOTES ON COMPUTER SCIENCE :

1. Hardware (disambiguation).
Hardware is a general term that refers to the physical artifacts of a technology. It
may also mean the physical components of a computer system, in the form of
computer hardware.
Hardware historically meant the metal parts and fittings that were used to make
wooden products stronger, more functional, longer lasting and easier to fabricate or
assemble. In modern usage it includes equipment such as keys, locks, hinges,
latches, corners, handles, wire, chains, plumbing supplies, tools, utensils, cutlery and
machine parts, especially when they are made of metal. In the United States, this
type of hardware has been traditionally sold in hardware stores, a term also used to
a lesser extent in the UK.
In a more colloquial sense, hardware can refer to major items of military equipment,
such as tanks, aircraft or ships.
In slang, the term refers to trophies and other physical representations of awards.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware"
Categories: Equipment

2. System software

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

System software is any computer software which manages and controls computer
hardware so that application software can perform a task. Operating systems, such
as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X or Linux, are prominent examples of system
software. System software contrasts with application software, which are programs
that enable the end-user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as word
processing or image manipulation.
System software performs tasks like transferring data from memory to disk, or
rendering text onto a display device. Specific kinds of system software include
loading programs, Operating systems, device drivers, programming tools, compilers,
assemblers, linkers, and utility software.
Software libraries that perform generic functions also tend to be regarded as system
software, although the dividing line is fuzzy; while a C runtime library is generally
agreed to be part of the system, an OpenGL or database library is less obviously so.
If system software is stored on non-volatile memory such as integrated circuits, it is
usually termed firmware.

3. Computer software

Computer software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer

programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer
system.The term includes application software such as word processors which
perform productive tasks for users, system software such as operating systems,
which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application
software, and middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems.
"Software" is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not
hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records.
Relationship to computer hardware

Main article: Computer hardware

Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which
encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and
execute (or run) the software. In computers, software is loaded into RAM and
executed in the central processing unit. At the lowest level, software consists of a
machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of
groups of binary values signifying processor instructions which change the state of
the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of
instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular
sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier
and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine
language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language
object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a
mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet.
Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler.
The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958.[3] In
computer science and software engineering, computer software is all computer
programs. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed
by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the
Entscheidungsproblem.