Analyzing & Testing

Thermal Characterization of Polymers

Thermoplastics, Thermoplastic Elastomers, Elastomers and Thermosets
2
The World of Polymers
Henri Braconnot's work in the 1830s
is perhaps the first modern example of
polymer science. He, along with others,
developed derivatives of the natural
polymer cellulose, producing new, semi-
synthetic materials, such as celluloid and
cellulose acetate. Since that time, eight
Nobel Prizes have been dedicated to
polymer sciences.
Just 50 years ago, materials we now
take for granted were non-existent.
With further advances in the under-
standing of polymers, and with new
applications being researched all the
time, there is no reason to believe that
his revolution will stop any time soon.
Polymer materials have greatly changed
the world we live in without them,
the world would not be as we know
it today. There is something innately
fascinating about them, yet we've
become accustomed to their integral
presence in our everyday lives. Polymers
are used not only to create plastic and
rubber parts, but also to produce fibers,
films, adhesives and glues, and varnishes
and paints. And today, the possibility
of recycling them makes them even
more interesting from an ecological and
economical point of view.
The importance of polymers in
our daily lives has not come about
arbitrarily, but rather as a result of
the distinct advantages that they
offer. These advantages include:
Light weight
Good thermal and electrical
insulation capacity
Resistance to corrosion effects
Chemically inert
High strength and dimensional
stability
Absorption of mechanical shocks
Resistance to abrasion effects
Good dyeability
Potential for decorative surface
effects
Low production costs
Coatings Films
Adhesives Fibers
Resins/Paints Thermoplastics
Thermosets
Polymers
Foams Composites
Rubber Thermoplastic Elastomers
Elastomers
Additives
3
Thermal Analysis
During their production, processing
and application, polymers are often
subjected to temperature-dependent
structural changes. Thermal analysis for
characterization of polymers is widely
practiced today in research and industry.
More and more applications are being
backed up by national and international
standards (ISO, EN, ASTM, DIN, etc.).
Thermal analysis techniques measure
the thermal transitions (DSC, DMA,
DIL, LFA), chemical reactions and
decompositions (TGA, DSC, DEA,
rheology), viscoelastic properties (DMA,
rheology), and thermal conductivity/
diffusivity (HFM, GHP, LFA) as a
function of temperature, heating rate,
deformation, and atmosphere. These
techniques give insight into the specific
thermal properties of polymer materials
and products, but more importantly,
they can be used to determine the
composition of plastic and rubbers
compounds, and to gain information
regarding the condition or processing
history of specific samples relative to
reference samples.
Thermal Analysis Measurement
Tasks
The variety of thermoanalytical test
methods opens a broad application
range for polymer testing, e.g.:
Specic heat
Thermal transitions
Melting, crystallization and reaction
enthalpies
Glass transition temperatures
Degree of crystallinity
Thermal stability
Oxidation Induction Time / Oxidation
Onset Temperature (OIT, OOT)
Viscoelastic behavior
Youngs modulus
Kinetics of reactions
Compositional analysis
Thermal expansion coefcient
Filler content
Thermal conductivity/diffusivity, etc.
This makes thermal analysis very
well-suited for quality control and
quality assurance. Incoming materials
inspection as well as materials selection
can be carried out safely and easily.
Also for the research and development
of new materials, thermal analysis is an
indispensable tool for investigating a
broad range of materials properties.
NETZSCH Analyzing & Testing has a
product portfolio and applications in
thermal analysis and thermophysical
properties testing that rank among the
best in the market as far as meeting the
high demands associated with reliable
manufacturing and state-of-the-art
technologies.
Our solutions consist of well-proven test
methods in R&D and quality control for
studying nearly any kinds of material
used in the various branches of the
polymer industry.
4
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
Differential Scanning Calorimetry
(DSC) is the most frequently employed
thermal analysis method. It can be used
to analyze nearly any energetic effects
occurring in a solid or liquid during
thermal treatment. DSC analysis in
accordance with ISO 11357 provides
the following valuable information
for the research and quality control of
polymers:
Thermophysical properties
Specific heat
Product Identication and
Characterization
Melting/crystallization temperatures
Melting/crystallization enthalpies
Cross-linking temperatures
Cross-linking enthalpies
Degree of crystallinity
Glass transition temperatures

Advanced Materials Analysis
Decomposition effects
Oxidative stability (OIT, OOT)
Reaction kinetics
Degree of curing
Purity determination of additives
Curing by UV irradation
Stability under pressure
Peak Separation
Product/Process Information
Incoming goods inspection
Thermomechanical history
Failure analysis
Competitor product analysis
Process optimization
Thermokinetics
Reaction behavior
Predictions
Process optimization

For standard applications, the DSC 204
F1 Phoenix

and DSC 214 Polyma can

be used. The systems are easy to handle
and can be operated from -180C
to 700C and -170 C to 600 C,
respectively.
Thermally activated reactions can be
studied by conventional DSC, but
cationic polyadditions and radical
polymerizations can also be started by
UV irradiation with sufficiently high
energy. For this purpose, NETZSCH
offers the Photo-DSC 204 F1 Phoenix

.
DSC 214 Polyma
DSC 204 F1 Phoenix

Differential Scanning Calorimetry

5
Numerous physical processes and
chemical reactions are influenced by the
surrounding gas pressure. In practice, it
is therefore often necessary to define a
higher pressure under which to conduct
DSC measurements. With the high-
pressure DSC 204 HP Phoenix

, thermal
effects in a sample can be analyzed in
the pressure range from vacuum to
15 MPa (150 bar) and at temperatures
from -150C to 600C, depending on
the type of gas. The sample chamber
atmosphere can be static or dynamic.
The electronic pressure monitor and
control, along with precise regulation of
the purge gas flow, provide for excellent
accuracy and reproducibility of the
measurement results.
DSC 204 HP Phoenix

Photo-DSC 204 F1 Phoenix

6
Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and
Simultaneous Thermal Analysis (STA)
Thermogravimetry
Thermogravimetry (TG), or Thermo-
gravimetric Analysis (TGA), is a well
proven thermal analysis method for
measurements of mass changes versus
temperature or time. TGA is used in
the research & development of various
substances and engineering materials
both solids and liquids in order to
obtain knowledge about their thermal
stability and composition.
In recent decades, TGA has been
used increasingly in quality control
and assurance for raw materials and
incoming goods, as well as in the failure
analysis of finished parts, especially
in the polymer-processing industry.
TGA provides complementary and
supplementary characterization
information to the most commonly used
methods of thermal analysis.
Various international standards describe
the general principles of thermogravim-
etry for polymers (ISO 11358) or other
specific applications, such as the TGA
method for the compositional analysis
of rubber (ASTM D6370).
Our vertical, top-loading design not
only provides for easy operation
and sample loading, but also allows
gases to flow naturally in an upward
direction. Evolved gas analyzers such
as mass spectrometers, FT-IR (Fourier
Transform Infrared) spectrometers and/
or GC-MS (gas chromatograph-mass
spectrometers) can then be coupled
directly to the top of the unit. The
Automatic Sample Changer (ASC)
can also be used to conduct routine
measurements around the clock.
TG 209 F3 Tarsus

TG 209 F1 Libra

7
STA 449 F1 Jupiter

Simultaneous Thermal Analysis (STA)

generally refers to the simultaneous
application of thermogravimetry (TG)
and DSC to one and the same sample in
a single instrument. The main advantage
of this is that test conditions are
perfectly identical for the TGA and DSC
signals (same atmosphere, gas flow rate,
vapor pressure of the sample, heating
rate, thermal contact to the sample
crucible and sensor, radiation effect,
etc.). In addition, sample throughput
is improved as more information is
simultaneously gathered from each
test run.
The DSC, TGA and STA systems all meet
the majority of the respective instrument
and application standards, including:
ISO 11357, ISO 11358, ASTM E967,
ASTM E968, ASTM E793, ASTM D3895,
DIN 51004, DIN 51006, DIN 51007.
TGA Measurement Information
Mass changes
Temperature stability
Estimation of product lifetime
Oxidation/reduction behavior
Filler content
Moisture and volatiles content
Decomposition
Compositional analysis of multi-
component materials/blends
Thermokinetic analysis
DSC Measurement Information
Specic heat
Melting/crystallization behavior
Solid-solid transitions
Polymorphism
Degree of crystallinity
Glass transition temperatures
Cross-linking reactions
Oxidative stability
Purity determination of additives
Thermokinetic analysis
Variety of STA sample holders
Simultaneous Thermal Analysis
8
Top-level polymer research and
characterization can be achieved by
coupling the thermoanalytical methods
of TGA, DSC, STA, TMA and DIL systems
to a mass spectrometer (MS), gas
chromatograph mass spectrometer
(GC-MS) or Fourier Transform Infrared
(FT-IR) spectrometer. These hyphenated
techniques may also include simultane-
ous coupling of the MS and FT-IR
or GC-MS and FT-IR to the thermal
analyzer. In addition, the unique adapter
allows for coupling even when used in
combination with an automatic sample
changer (ASC).
Instrument Coupling Possibilities
TGA-, DSC-, or STA-MS via capillary
coupling
STA-MS via Skimmer

coupling
TGA-, or STA-GC-MS
TGA-, DSC-, or STA-FT-IR
TMA-MS
DIL-MS
Evolved gases are directed straight
to the gas analyzer via a heated
capillary or transfer line. In addition to
decomposition, such systems can also
be used for investigating composition,
evaporation and solid-gas reactions.
TGA-FT-IR coupling via an external FT-IR gas cell
STA-GC-MS coupling
Coupling Measurement Information
Compositional analysis
Polymers
Plasticizers
Solvents
Additives
Evaporation
Vapor pressure
Sublimation
Decomposition
Dehydration
Stability
Residual solvent
Pyrolysis
Solid-gas reactions
Combustion
Oxidation
Adsorption/desorption
Thermal Analysis Coupled to Evolved Gas Analysis (EGA) and
Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)/Dilatometry (DIL)
Thermal Analysis Coupled to Evolved Gas Analysis (EGA)
9
Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) and
dilatometry (DIL) are two of the most
important characterization techniques
in the field of thermal analysis. DIL
determines the length change of
samples under a negligible load (DIN
51045). The closely related TMA
method also determines the dimensional
changes of solids, liquids or pasty
materials as a function of temperature
and/or time under a defined static load
(ISO 11359, DIN 51 005, ASTM E831,
ASTM D696, ASTM D3386).
In addition, measurements under
bending, tension and penetration under
modulated forces can be carried out
with the TMA 402 F1 Hyperion

.
Investigations can be performed on
plastics and elastomers, paints and dyes,
composite materials, adhesives, films,
fibers and composite materials.
The NETZSCH dilatometers and TMA
systems for polymers and composites
fulfill the respective instrument and
applications standards for dilatometry
and thermomechanical analysis.

TMA 402 F1 Hyperion

DIL 402 C
Variety of TMA 402 sample holders

TMA/DIL Measurement Information
Thermal expansion
Coefcient of thermal expansion
Volumetric expansion
Density change
Shrinkage steps
Glass transition temperatures
Softening points
Penetration behavior
Phase transitions
Creep behavior
Anisotropic behavior
Youngs modulus
Thermokinetics
Thermomechanical Analysis and Dilatometry
10
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA
or DMTA) allows for the quantitative
determination of the mechanical
properties of a sample under an
oscillating force and as a function of
temperature, time, frequency and strain
(DIN 53513, DIN EN ISO 6721, DIN
53440, DIN-IEC 1006, ASTM D4065,
ASTM D4092, ASTM D4473, ASTM
D5023, ASTM D5024, ASTM D5026,
ASTM D5418).
The results portray the viscoelastic
properties, typically provided as a
graphical plot of E', E", and tan versus
temperature.
DMA identifies transition regions,
such as glass transitions in plastics and
resins, and may be used for quality
control or product development in the
temperature range from -180C to
600C.
Special sample holder with ball-shaped pushrod for
curing of low-viscosity liquids DMA 242 E Artemis
Dynamic Mechanical Testing
Supports Research and Quality
Control of Polymers
R&D: The DMA method is a very
sensitive tool for generating data
that can help define the mechanical
properties of polymers and composites
in order to support product develop-
ment in industries such as automotives.
Quality Control: and transitions
can be used to compare production
with standards and competitors'
products.
Our DMA experts support you by
finding the right approach for specific
applications and areas of interest.
DMA Measurement Information
Design data concerning stiffness and
damping properties (modulus values
and damping factor under a variety
of conditions)
Data on the composition and
structure of polymer blends
(compatibility)
Glass transition temperature of
highly cross-linked, amorphous
or semi-crystalline polymers and
composites
Curing / post-curing
Aging
Creep and relaxation
Stress and strain sweeps
Multi-frequency tests
Prediction of the material behavior
using Time-Temperature-Superposi-
tion (TTS) experiments
Immersion tests
Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) and Dielectric Analysis (DEA)
11
Dielectric Analysis
A variety of questions may arise during
the curing process of reactive resins.
At which temperature, or after
how much time, does the resin
begin to cure?
How high is the reactivity?
When is curing completed?
Is the curing prole identical for
every position in the mold?
How can the curing cycle be
optimized in order to save energy
and costs?
Is there any potential for post-curing?
For investigation of the curing behavior
of thermosetting resin systems,
composite materials, adhesives and
paints, dielectric analysis (DEA) in
accordance with ASTM E2038 or E2039
has stood the test of time.
DEA allows for the measurement of
changes in the dielectric properties
during curing. The liquid or pasty resin
must be placed in direct contact
with two electrodes comprising the
dielectric sensor. A sinusoidal voltage
(excitation) is applied and the resulting
current (response) is measured, along
with the phase shift between voltage
and current. These values are then
used to determine the ion mobility
(ion conductivity) and the alignment
of dipoles. In turn, the dielectric
properties of permittivity ' and loss
factor "are calculated from these
effects. Of primary interest with
regard to curing is the ion viscosity.
This is the reciprocal value of the ion
conductivity, which is proportional to
the loss factor.
Use of the DEA technique is not limited
to the lab environment; it can also be
applied to in-situ curing in the mold
under processing conditions. For
production monitoring and process
control, a specific ion viscosity value
can be programmed to trigger de-
molding when the part being produced
is sufficiently cured. This reduces cycle
times and increases throughput, thereby
lowering costs and potentially allowing
lower prices to be charged for the
finished part.
The modular concept of the DEA 288
Epsilon allows for the study of the
curing behavior of thermosetting
resins, adhesives, paints and coatings in
nearly every application. The lab version
with up to 8 channels can be used in
conjunction with a newly designed
furnace with cooling options for
research & development. The industrial
versions are intended for production
monitoring and process control, and are
designed with up to 16 channels.
DEA Measurement Information
Ion viscosity
Reactivity
Cure monitoring
Degree of cure
Glass transition temperature
Process control and optimization
Diffusion properties
Aging and decomposition effects
DEA 288 Epsilon Lab Version
DEA 288 Epsilon Slim Version
12
Having an understanding of the
behavior of various polymers under
different temperature and pressure
conditions is crucial when producing
polymer materials which must have
specific final properties, in order to
ensure that material failure does
not occur when used in its intended
application.
Today, many different polymer types
are appearing on the market which
might be considered to exhibit improved
behavior over former materials or to
meet new application requirements.
However, their thermal behavior might
prove critical during the production
process or later as a finished part.
Time- and temperature-dependent
curing reactions play an important role.
Fluctuations in the curing agent may
occur and require special attention.
The NETZSCH Thermokinetics Advanced
Software module is capable of creating
kinetic models of any chemical
processes for which the reaction (e.g.,
cross-linking, curing, decomposition) is
a function of temperature and time. It
can also be used to predict the behavior
of chemical systems for user-defined
temperature conditions and to achieve
process optimization.
The software can analyze different
types of thermal curves which show
changes in various measured material
properties during the reaction process,
including data from DSC, TGA, DIL,
DMA, DEA, rheology, FT-IR and mass
spectrometry analyses.
Two Main Tasks of Thermokinetics:
Prediction to predict the polymer
for a new temperature program
Optimization to nd the optimum
temperature program in order to
achieve a given polymer reaction
The software allows for the analysis
of heterogeneous reactions, including
phase-boundary reactions, reactions
with diffusion and nucleation, and reac-
tions with partial diffusion control, such
as processes which change from the
glassy to the non-glassy state.
Analysis in Thermokinetics allows for the
determination of a number of reaction
steps, and for each step, the following
values:
Reaction type
Activation energy
Order of reaction
Other kinetic parameters
Various Methods of Kinetic Analysis
and Predictions are Integrated into
the Program:
Model-free kinetic analysis (Fried-
man, Ozawa-Flynn-Wall, and ASTM
E698)
Model-t using multivariate non-
linear regression (model denition,
multiple step reactions, 18 different
reaction types, F-test with regard
to t quality and signicance of an
additional step, graphic presentation)
Multiple-step reactions (up to 6
steps)
Isothermal prediction and prediction
on the basis of a user-dened tempe-
rature program
Thermokinetics Laser Flash Technique (LFA)
The Thermokinetics Advanced Software Module
13
Laser Flash Technique (LFA)

Thermal conductivity and thermal
diffusivity are the most important
thermophysical material parameters for
describing the heat transport properties
of a material or component.
During development and quality
control, the extent to which materials
fulfill their performance expectations is
continuously scrutinized. Some of the
questions which arise include:
How is a particular insulation
material performing?
What is the ideal coating material?
How can the heat transfer from an
electronic component be improved?
How must a heat exchanger be desi-
gned in order to achieve the required
efciency level, and what is the best
material to use?
Broad variety of sample holders for liquids,
powders, fibers, for studies of anisotropic behavior
The production/molding process can be
optimized in various ways, one of which
is by using finite element simulations. In
order to apply these, the thermophysical
properties must be known not
only for the solid region, but also at
temperatures above and below the glass
transition.
For issues such as these, the Laser Flash
technique (LFA) has become a fast and
reliable tool; it is an absolute method for
determining thermophysical properties,
including the specific heat. These data
can then be used for:
Prediction of the heat transfer and
temperature prole as a starting
point for description of the proces-
sing behavior
Thermal diffusivity and thermal con-
ductivity as input data for numerical
simulation
For standard polymer applications in
the temperature range from -100C
to 500C, the compact LFA 467
HyperFlash is available. The integrated
automatic sample changer can test up
to 16 samples in one run. The LFA 467
HyperFlash is able to test thin and high-
conductivity materials as well as 2- and
3-layer structures a capability which
allows for such analyses as the influence
of coatings on heat transfer under real
conditions.
The LFA 467 HyperFlash operates
in accordance with national and
international standards (e.g., ASTM
E1461, DIN EN 821).
LFA 467 HyperFlash
14
Materials with low thermal conductivi-
ties, such as insulators, can be tested in
a Heat Flow Meter (HFM) or Guarded
Hot Plate (GHP).
All NETZSCH HFM and GHP instruments
are based on all respective application
and industry standards:
ASTM C177, ASTM C335-05Ae1,
ASTM C1363-05, ASTM D5470-
06, ASTM E1530-06, ASTM F433-
02(2009), ASTM C1363-05
DIN EN 12667/12939, DIN EN 13163
ISO 8301, ISO 8302, ISO 8894-1 (EN
993-14), ISO 8894-2 (EN 993-15)
JIS A 1412

Heat Flow Meters

Heat Flow Meters are accurate, fast and
easy-to-operate instruments for
measuring the thermal conductivity of
insulations (e.g., polystyrene or poly-
urethane foams). The HFM 436 Lambda
series owes its speed of measurement
and precision to patented temperature
control and heat ux measurement
technology. High stability over the
course of several days provides excellent
repeatability. This is valuable for con-
ducting aging studies or examining the
long-term consistency of a product.
The HFM 436 Lambda allows the
operator to apply a precise load on
the specimen, enabling control of
HFM 436 Lambda
Insulation Testing
the thickness, and thus density, of
compressible materials. This optional
feature also ensures that the plates
make intimate contact with the
specimen across the entire surface
in order to produce a minimal and
uniform contact resistance, two
necessary requirements for obtaining
reproducible thermal conductivity
results.

The HFM 436 series consists of four
instrument versions which cover the
plate temperature range from -30C
to 100C. The maximum specimen size
ranges from 305 mm x 305 mm x 100
mm to 610 mm x 610 mm x 200 mm.
15
GHP 456 Titan

Guarded Hot Plate

The GHP 456/476 Titan

is the ideal tool

for researchers and scientists in the eld
of insulation testing. The GHP principle
is based on the absolute measurement
method and therefore requires no
calibration standards.
It offers optimum accuracy regardless
of the temperature range of interest.
Combining cutting-edge technology
with the highest quality standards,
NETZSCH has designed a robust and
easy-to-operate instrument, featuring
unparalleled reliability and optimum
accuracy in the temperature range from
-160C to 250C.

The system is fully symmetrical and
requires two samples for each test.
According to the relevant standards,
this arrangement ensures the maximum
possible accuracy of better than 2%
(for most materials and samples).
16
100 150 200 250
Temperatur /C
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
[1.22]
DSC /(mW/mg)
10 K/min
15 K/min
20 K/min
25 K/min
30 K/min
35 K/min
applied cooling rates
before heating segment
PET
249.2 C
150.5 C
exo
Thermoplastics
Failure Analysis of a PA6 Clip
Occasionally, failures occur in thermo-
plastic parts which can result in
significant property damage or injury.
The failure might be due to a variety
of causes, including selection of the
wrong material for the application,
manufacturing defects in the plastic
raw material, production defects in the
plastic part, or degradation of the plastic
by exposure to aggressive chemicals,
contaminants, UV radiation, etc.
DSC is a convenient method for
DSC comparison of the 1
st
heating runs of two clips made of PA6 reinforced
with glass fiber; sample masses 12.98 mg and 13.13 mg; heating rate 10 K/min
comparing good parts with poor ones.
In this example, the first heating runs
on two PA6 clips already show that the
poor clip (blue curve) has an additional
melting peak at 239C. This indicates
Thermal Behavior of Semi-
Crystalline PET
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a
semi-crystalline thermoplastic polymer
with a relatively slow crystallization
rate. High cooling rates lead to
a high amorphous content, high
glass transition steps (T
g
) and post-
crystallization during heating.
Low cooling rates allow more crystalline
parts to crystallize during cooling,
leading to a smaller glass transition step
and no post-crystallization. The material
then has an increased crystallinity and
therefore loses its transparency.
In the DSC experiments, the various
levels of amorphousness (T
g
75C to
Glass transition, cold crystallization and melting as a function of different cooling
rates change in the crystallinity degree by means of DSC
means of the DSC 204 F1 Phoenix

with
intracooler at different cooling rates
prior to the heating runs shown.
85C), cold crystallization (151C) and
melting (249C) are apparent. The
samples were cooled from the melt by
the presence of a second phase. The
peak temperature correlates with the
melting temperature of PA66, which
is often blended with PA6. This is
confirmed in the 2
nd
heating.
17
Oxidative Induction Time (OIT)
The Oxidative Induction Time (OIT)
has been proven to be a useful
diagnostic tool in assessing the extent
of degradation in polymers under an
oxygen gas flow. Factors that influence
OIT include test temperature, sample
preparation, sample geometry, sample
mass, particle size, crucible material, etc.
The Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) can
be determined in standard aluminum or
in open copper crucibles in accordance
with ASTM D3895.
This plot represents an OIT measure-
ment on high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) carried out in a copper and in
an Al crucible, (red and blue curves,
respectively). It can clearly be seen that,
Influence of the crucible material on the Oxidative Induction Time (OIT) of HDPE
by DSC; sample masses 12.21 mg and 12.11 mg
Influence of the Thermal History on
Amorphous PMMA
The thermal and mechanical properties
of polymer materials may vary greatly as
a result of the thermal history associated
with the sample. This DSC plot depicts
the second heating runs of polymethyl
DSC measurement: shift of the glass transition to lower temperatures with
increasing production steps; sample masses 11.54 mg and 12.5 mg;
heating rate 10 K/min
under isothermal conditions at 250C
under an oxygen atmosphere, oxidation
of HDPE begins approximately 23 min
earlier in the copper crucible than in
the Al crucible. Copper works here as a
catalyst for the oxidation.
methacrylate (PMMA) pellets and a
finished PMMA part. It can clearly
be seen that the glass transition
temperature observed for the pellets
(midpoint 111C, red curve) is shifted
to a lower temperature in the finished
part (midpoint 105C, black curve). Each
step in the production process from the
pellet to the finished part influences the
material's properties.
18
DSC / (mW/mg)
Mid: -28.3C
Cp: 0.205 J/(gK)
Mid: 55.1C
Cp: 0.179 J/(gK)
30.17 J/(gK)
144.2C
196.0C
-2.82 J/g
224.5C
220.4C
51.41 J/g
Temperature / C
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
-50 50 100 150 200 250 0
exo
Thermoplastics
Influence of Atmospheric Moisture
in PA6
Among the most important polyamides,
PA6 is a major fiber-forming polymer
and useful in engineering plastics.
Polyamides can adsorb atmospheric
moisture, which affects their mechanical
properties.
The endothermic step at -28C of the
1
st
heating (red curve) indicates the
glass transition of the moist PA6. The
endothermic effect between 20C and
180C is due to the evaporation of
water contained in the sample. In the
2
nd
heating, the sample is dry and the
glass transition temperature is shifted
to the real value of 55C. Water acts
Anisotropic Behavior of a Part of
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polybutylene
Terephthalate (PBT)
A glass fiber-reinforcement to PBT gives
the polymer a high mechanical stiffness
and thermal stability.
1
st
and 2
nd
heating of moist PA6 by means of DSC; sample mass 9.4 mg;
heating rate 20 K/min
DMA measurements on PBT/30%GF parallel to the fiber direction (solid curves)
and perpendicular to it (dotted curves); 3-point bending; heating rate 2 K/min;
frequency 1 Hz
as a plasticizer and lowers the glass
transition temperature. The peaks at
225C (1
st
heating) and 220C (2
nd

heating) are related to melting. The
2
nd
heating additionally shows a cold
crystallization at 196C.
In this example, the viscoelastic
properties of a finished part made
of glass fiber-reinforced PBT were
determined using the DMA 242 E. The
measurements were carried out in the
direction of the fiber and perpendicular
to it in order to investigate the
anisotropic behavior.
The viscoelastic properties parallel to
the fiber orientation (solid lines) indicate
a significantly higher stiffness (E') and
a lower damping (tand level). In the
perpendicularly-oriented fiber direction
(dotted lines), on the other hand,
damping is higher and stiffness lower,
respectively.
19
Detection of Added Carbon Black in
PE by TGA
Polyethylene (PE) is one of the most
common materials in day-to-day
life. However, static electricity may
build up in polyethylene materials
unless additives are used. PE is also
broken down by UV light and burns
readily unless flame retardants are
applied. Carbon black is one of the
best and most economic stabilizers.
When homogeneously distributed
in components made of PE, such as
pipes, it can prevent UV degradation
for serveral years even if stored in open
sunlight.
The level of added carbon black content
in PE can be easily determined by TGA
measurements. The prerequisite is a
Determination of Different Filler
Contents in PA6 by TGA
Fillers are very important raw materials
contained in many articles we use in
our day-to-day life. Whereas fillers
were previously used mostly to lower
TGA measurement on polyethylene with added carbon black;
sample mass 17.39 mg; Al
2
O
3
crucible; heating rate 10 K/min
Determination of the melting temperature (identification) and filler content by TGA with c-DTA

;
sample mass 12.45 mg; Al
2
O
3
crucible; heating rate 10 K/min
the price of finished products, they are
nowadays primarily used to improve
the technical characteristics of finished
products.
The determination of inorganic fillers
can be carried out in a nitrogen
atmosphere by TGA. This PA6 sample
was filled with 25.5% glass fiber.
Decomposition of an additional
inorganic filler can be observed
between 900C and 1100C (see
insert). Furthermore, by applying the
c-DTA

feature of the TG 209 F1 Libra

before polymer decomposition starts,
an endothermic peak at 221C can
be detected. This effect represents the
melting peak of PA6.
vacuum-tight TGA system. After the
total decomposition of PE in a highly
pure nitrogen atmosphere, combustion
of even the smallest amounts of added
carbon black can be observed in an
oxidizing air atmosphere.
20
Thermoplastics
Thermophysical Behavior of PP
Even in the Molten State
Thermophysical properties measurement
refers to the process of directly
measuring a material's physical
properties as it is subjected to changes
in temperature. In this example,
the thermophysical properties of
polypropylene (PP) were determined
between 20C and 300C with the
LFA systems.
From room temperature to the onset of
melting at 150C (extrapolated onset of
the melting peak from a DSC run), the
thermal diffusivity decreases significantly
from 0.098 to 0.075 mm/s. After
melting, it reaches an almost constant
value of 0.085 mm/s at 250C. As
expected, the specific heat increases
Thermal Diffusivity and Thermal
Conductivity of PA46 Filled with
Al
2
O
3
The crystalline nature of polyamide (PA)
significantly affects its physical and
mechanical properties. Highly crystalline
LFA measurement on PP between 20C and 300C; sample thickness
1.05 mm, 11.0 mm
Thermophysical properties of filled PA46 depending on the alumina content at
room temperature
during heating: from 1.5 J/(gK) at RT to
2.2 J/(gK) at 90C and, during softening
and melting, from 2.3 J/(gK) to 2.8 J/(gK)
at 250C.
Prior to and after melting, the resulting
thermal conductivity shows an increase
from 0.14 W/(mK) to 0.2 W/(mK)
(250C).
types can be stiff and hard. The use of
glass fiber and other reinforcements
such as Al
2
O
3
can improve the
mechanical properties (modulus,
strength). These fillers also influence
the thermophysical properties (thermal
diffusivity/conductivity and specific
heat).
The influence of fillers in the thermo-
physical properties can be tested with
the LFA systems. Tests can be carried
out in the thru-plane and the in-
plane directions. For the in-plane tests,
a special sample holder for laminates is
available.
In the case of nylons, only PA46 has a
very low thermal conductivity. With an
increasing filler content (here Al
2
O
3
),
the specific heat decreases while
the thermal diffusivity and thermal
conductivity increase.
21
Tension Test on a Shrink Film of PC
At the glass transition, many physical
properties of an amorphous plastic
or of the amorphous domains of
semicrystalline thermoplastics undergo
stepwise changes. The same applies
to their coefficient of linear thermal
expansion (CTE).
Orientation effects, stretch condition
and shrinkage are measured under
load for films with the TMA 402 F1
Hyperion

. In these examples, the

expansion and contraction of a
40-m thick film of polycarbonate (PC)
were tested under tensile load. The
results vary significantly depending on
the applied load. Under low amounts
of force (5 mN), the film contracts
at higher temperatures; however, it
expands if a higher force (50 mN) is
applied.
Orientation effects of a PC shrink lm measured with the TMA 402 F1 Hyperion

;
sample thickness 40 m; length 5 mm; heating rate 5 K/min
22 22
Thermoplastics Thermoplastic Elastomers
Expanded Polystyrene (EPS)
EPS has many useful properties. It can
be used as an insulator against heat or
cold. It is excellent at absorbing shocks
and protecting fragile items.
The tests shown here were of the typical
quality control purpose types conducted
on ten EPS samples (thickness 50 mm)
from the same batch at 10C and 24C,
to determine the thermal conductivity in
accordance with DIN EN12667.
It can be seen that the thermal conduc-
tivity does not vary significantly from
sample to sample. The values measured
are around 0.04 W/(mK), which is
exactly the value specified for this
insulating material.

Quality control of 10 EPS samples from the same batch between 10C and 24C;
HFM 436 Lambda measurements, NIST 1450c callibration standard
The high test speed of the HFM 436
allows for a large throughput to be
tested. This becomes important if an
insulating foam needs to be analyzed in
accordance with DIN EN13163. In that
procedure, the number of sample tests
influences the 90/90 value which is
determined from the test results.
23
Viscoelastic Properties of a TPE
Thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs)
possess the qualities both of rubber-
like mechanical response and of
ease of application in thermoplastic
manufacturing. Dynamic mechanical
analysis (DMA) is a valuable tool for
determining the viscoelastic properties
of TPE materials.
The plot exhibits a DMA measurement
on Santoprene

. This TPE is a blend of

EPDM rubber and the semi-crystalline
polypropylene (PP) thermoplastic. The
DMA measurement was carried out
between -80C and 80C at a frequency
of 1 Hz. Depicted in the plot are the
storage modulus (E), loss modulus
(E) and loss factor (tan). The glass
transition of the EPDM component can
be observed in E' at -63C (E, onset),
Phase Transitions of a TPE Blend
Styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene block
copolymer (SEBS) belongs to the group
of thermoplastic elastomers exhibiting
a better high-temperature strength
DMA measurement of the thermoplastic elastomer EPDM+PP
DSC measurement of the thermoplastic elastomer SEBS+PP
again in E" at -56C (peak) and finally
in tan at -51C (peak). Subsequently,
the glass transition of the PP component
can be also observed in E' at -19C
(onset), again in E" at -5C (also onset),
and finally in tan at 2C (peak).
Melting of the PP component is not
measured by DMA but can easily be
evaluated at approx. 160C by the DSC
method.
retention and resistance to solvents
than SBS. In addition, it is paintable,
recyclable and can be upgraded with
stabilizers for a higher UV resistance and
improved aging behavior as required
in automotive interior and exterior
applications.
This DSC measurement was carried out
on an SEBS+PP sample at a heating
rate of 10 K/min. The SEBS component
shows the glass transition temperature
of the soft segments at -67C. Melting
of the hard segments occurs at -16C.
These effects are followed by melting of
the PP component at 155C.
The glass transition temperature
correlates with the brittleness point
(DIN EN ISO 11357). This is a material
property that is required by the
automotive industry.
24
DSC measurements on NBR with different plasticizer contents;
sample masses 10 mg; heating rate 20 K/min
Plasticizer Inuence on the Glass
Transition of Rubber
Plasticizers or dispersants are additives
which increase the plasticity or fluidity
of a material. When cooled below the
glass transition temperature, the quasi-
fluid chain segments "freeze" into fixed
geometries and the rubber abruptly
loses its elastic properties, although
the process is reversible. The DSC
method offers fast and reliable tests
for investigating the influence of the
plasticizer content in rubbers.
These measurements were carried
out on three NBR samples differing
in their plasticizer content. It can be
observed that modification of the NBR
plasticizer content yields different glass
transition temperatures. Pure NBR
has its glass transition temperature at
-6.8C (midpoint). With an increasing
plasticizer content of 5.5% from 11%,
the glass transition temperature shifts
to -10C and -14C, respectively. The
cold flexibility can thus be improved by
increasing the plasticizer content.
Elastomers
25
Comprehensive Rubber Analysis
Clear separation and precise
identification of rubber compounds
can be achieved by using the vacuum
capability of the TG 209 F1 Libra

.
Under vacuum, the boiling point of
the volatiles is reduced, which leads
to their release at lower temperatures
while the decomposition of the rubber
components is shifted by an insignificant
amount.
In the first segment of this TGA
measurement under vacuum, the
plasticizer release (152C, DTG peak) is
clearly separated from the decomposition
of the two rubber components
at 342C and 429C (DTG peak
temperatures). After decomposition of
the rubber components at 600C, the
Classification of the Gases Evolved
During Rubber Decomposition:
Plasticizer and PAHs
Thermal analysis (TA) is typically used for
the study of the temperature stability
and decomposition of rubber. One
important question to answer would
be how much plasticizer of which type
TGA measurement on a rubber mixture under vacuum and back-filling with
nitrogen followed by combustion of carbon black in oxygen; sample mass
10.05 mg; heating rate 10 K/min; Al
2
O
3
crucible
STA-MS measurement detects evolved gases during decomposition of a tire
sample
TGA system is refilled with nitrogen
under isothermal conditions. In the
following step, the atmosphere is
changed to oxygen, which leads to the
immediate combustion of carbon black
(9%) under increasing temperatures.
The ash content amounts to 28% and
remains in the crucible.
is realeased at which temperature.
Coupling of TA methods to gas
analyzers such as mass spectrometers
allows for the chemical identification
of the evolved gases. An example of a
question here would be whether the
rubber releases potentially carcinogeric
polycyclic highly aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs).
By means of simultaneous TGA and
mass spectroscopy (MS), the pyrolytic
decomposition of a rubber sample was
investigated in this example. During
heating of the sample to 800C, two
mass-loss steps of 42.5% and 24.7%
were observed. From the MS signals
(only a few exemplary mass numbers
are shown), conclusions can be drawn
as to which organic molecules evolved
at which temperature. For example, at
350C, mass number 67 (most probably
due to C
5
H
7
) indicates the release of the
plasticizer. No PAHs were detected.
26
DMA measurement of the viscoelastic properties of an SBR rubber mixture: storage modulus (E, green),
loss modulus (E, blue) and damping factor (tan, red) as a function of frequency; heating rate 2 K/min
Inuence of the Frequency on the
Glass Transition Temperatures of an
SBR Rubber Mixture
The modulus and damping factor
are the main viscoelastic properties
of polymers measured by DMA. The
storage modulus, E, is a measure of the
stiffness and is temperature-dependent.
The mechanical damping (tan, internal
friction) of filled rubbers is highly
relevant for such functions as the
wet grip behavior of a tire or the seal
behavior of an O-ring.
This example of an SBR (styrene
butadiene rubber) mixture shows that
at low temperatures (-70C to -45C),
the tan values are also very low,
because there is so little free volume in
the polymer that polymer segments are
not able to move at all. This results in a
low energy dissipation and the polymer
transitions into the glassy state with a
high storage modulus (high elasticity
and high stiffness). As temperature
increases, the polymer segments also
exhibit increased movement, thus
yielding high values for loss modulus
Elastomers
(E) and tan with a maximum at the
glass transition. Increasing frequencies
shift these peak temperatures for the
glass transition higher. Additionally,
higher E values are obtained with
increasing frequencies.

27
Influence of Carbon Black on
Thermal Diffusivity in a Rubber
Compound
The flash method also offers a fast
solution for determination of the effect
of the filler content on the thermal
conductivity of a polymer.
This example shows the linear
correlation of the thermal diffusivity,
measured at room temperature, and
the carbon black content of a rubber
mixture.
With an increasing carbon black
content, the thermal diffusivity rises.
Thermophysical Properties of an NR/
NBR Rubber at Lowest Temperatures
The determination of the thermo-
physical properties (TPP) of rubber
mixtures even at temperatures below
the glass transition is possible with
the LFA system.
In this example, a thin filled NR/NBR
rubber material (thickness of 1.512 mm,
width of 12.7 mm) was measured in
the temperature range between -125C
and 80C. Increasing temperature leads
to increasing thermal conductivity while
the specific heat is rapidly increasing
and the thermal diffusivity is decreasing.
These drastic changes in specific heat
and thermal diffusivity occur around
the glass transition of the two
LFA measurement: thermophysical properties of an NR/NBR rubber mixture
before, during and after the glass transitions; sample 12.7 mm; sample
thickness 1.512 mm
LFA measurement: thermal diffusivity of rubber mixtures filled with different
quantities of carbon black at room temperature
components at temperatures between
-70C and -45C. This decrease in
thermal diffusivity and increase in
specific heat cancel each other out so
that no significant change in thermal
conductivity occurs.
28
Identication of the gases evolving during decomposition of a rubber mixture;
sample mass 5.28 mg; heating rate 20 K/min; 1min injection intervals
TM-DSC measurement of a polyurethane resin
TGA-GC-MS Measurement of an
NR/SBR Rubber
The very high-sensitivity TGA-GC-MS
coupling yields information on the
composition (mass numbers of
elements and molecules) of evolved
gases. Separation of the volatiles
is made possible by use of the GC
column. This allows for a significantly
improved interpretation of organic
vapors.
This example shows the TGA-GC-MS
run on an NR/SBR rubber. The GC-MS
was operated with a fixed column
temperature (250C) and short
injection intervals of 1 min. The TGA
and DTG curves indicate an overlapping
decomposition of the individual rubber
components. However, the evolved
Glass Transition and Curing of a PUR
Resin
Temperature Modulated Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (TM-DSC*) is a
DSC technique in which the sample is
subjected to a superposition of a linear
and a periodic temperature program.
With TM-DSC, it is possible to separate
overlapping DSC signals by calculating
the reversing and the non-reversing
part. Glass transitions can therefore be
well separated from other effects such
as relaxation, curing, decomposition,
evaporation or cold-crystallization
gases can be identified in good
temperature and time correlation with
the TGA and DTG results. The first DTG
peak at 394C is due to the release of
isoprene (1,3-butadiene, 2-methyl, m/z
68) which is typical for NR. The second
DTA peak at 454C corresponds to
the release of C
11
H
12
(1-cyclopentene-
1-1yl-benzene, m/z 144) which is
representative of the SBR component.
processes. This TM-DSC measurement
shows the glass transition, relaxation
and curing of a polyurethane (PUR)
sample. The overlapping relaxation
in the total DSC curve can be clearly
separated from the endothermic glass
transition (reversing) and exothermic
curing (non-reversing) in a single
TM-DSC test.
Elastomers Thermosets
29
Ionenvisc. /Ohm cm
Time / min
10 20 30 40 50 60
140
120
100
80
60
40
Temperature / C
Ionvisc. (1,000 Hz)
Temperature
End: 150.9C, 15.7E+0.9 Ohm cm
Peak: 150.7C, 3.88E+0.9 Ohm cm
151.3C, 18.9E+0.9 Ohm cm
3
2
10
10
9
8
7
6
4
3
5
.
.
.
.
Ion visc. /Ohm

cm
Time / min
10 20 30 40 50 60
End: 128.5 s, 4659E+06 Ohm
.
cm
17.0 s, 1.2E+06 Ohm
.
cm
10
8
10
9
10
10
10
7
10
6
10
5
.
Fast UV Curing of an Epoxy Resin
In addition to exhibiting excellent
adhesion, special UV curing sealants
with a high water barrier effect are
developed to guarantee a long lifetime.
The epoxy adhesive here investigated
(DELO Katiobond LP655) stands out
for its low water vapor permeation and
short curing time.
The fast curing can be observed with
the DEA 288 Epsilon by using an
IDEX sensor and applying a frequency
of 1000 Hz. The UV light exposure
(intensity 55 mW/cm
2
to 60 mW/cm
2
)
was applied for 60 s on the sample
layer, which was approx. 200 m thick,
at room temperature.
After 17 s of light exposure, curing
began. This was evidenced by the
increase in ion viscosity. The adhesive
was completely cured after approx. 350 s.
Cure Monitoring of EVA
The EVA copolymer (ethylene vinyl
acetate copolymer) is one of the most
commonly used encapsulant materials.
As the polymerization reaction is
irreversible, the thermal treatment is
crucial in the encapsulation process.
The quality and lifetime of encapsulated
materials are determined by this
production process.
The multi-frequency test in this sample
was carried out at frequencies between
1 Hz and 10000 Hz while monitoring
the ion viscosity (cm). Presented here
is the behavior of the ion viscosity at
1 Hz. The cross-linking reaction from
using peroxide was observed under
isothermal conditions at 150C. The
DEA test results of EVA curing at 150C at 1 Hz
UV curing of a cationic epoxy resin at room temperature with the DEA at
1000 Hz
increase in ion viscosity correlates with
the increase in the degree of cure. After
60 min, the ion viscosity remains nearly
constant, which indicates that the cross
linking-reaction has practically
terminated.
30
Low-temperature GHP measurement of a PUR foam and comparison of an
HFM test result at 25C; sample thickness 25 mm
Thermal Conductivity of PUR Foam
Polyurethane (PUR) foams constitute the
largest category of cellular polymeric
materials. They are produced, for the
most part, either in flexible or in rigid
form. Within these major groups,
the density and other properties
vary depending on the end use. PUR
foams offer an attractive balance of
performance characteristics (aging
properties, mechanical strength,
elastic properties, chemical resistance,
insulating properties) versus costs.
Presented here is a comparison of an
HFM test at room temperature and a
GHP test down to -160C. The two sets
Thermosets Composites
of results are in perfect agreement.
Additionally, the GHP results show
the impact of cell-gas condensation
between -125C and -50C.
High-Pressure DSC Measurements on
Phenolic Resins
Phenolic resins are found in many
industrial products. Phenolic laminates
are made by impregnating one or more
layers of a base material such as paper,
DSC 204 HP: exothermal curing behavior of two phenolic resins under high
pressure; sample mass 10.5 mg; heating rate 10 K/min; pressure 9 MPa;
atmosphere inert
fiberglass or cotton with phenolic resin,
and then laminating the resin-saturated
base material under heat and pressure.
The resin fully cures during this process.
The curing reaction of phenolic
resins is caused by polycondensation.
The endothermal release of the
polycondensation products overlaps the
exothermal curing. In such cases, the
curing can only be investigated with
standard DSC measurements using
autoclaves, or with high-pressure DSC
measurements.
This test example shows two phenolic
resins measured with the DSC 204 HP
Phoenix

under a practical pressure of

9 MPa (90 bar). The differences
between these resins can be seen in
the fact that curing begins at 141C
and 151C (extrapolated onsets),
respectively, as well as in the different
results of the partial area evaluation.
31
This example depicts the storage
modulus E (green), loss modulus E
(red) and loss factor tan (blue) of a
carbon-fiber-reinforced epoxy resin.
The lamellar sample was measured in
the bending mode at a frequency of
10 Hz and a heating rate of 3 K/min
using the DMA. Prior to reaching 120C,
the material is even stiffer than titanium,
at a value of 140,000 MPa.
At 158C (extrapolated onset
temperature of E), the modulus drops
due to the glass transition of the epoxy
matrix. The corresponding peaks for
E and tan are at 180C and 188C,
respectively.
Characterization of High-Modulus
Composites
Todays research trends especially
in the automotive industry focus on
lighter materials, but without sacrificing
the required stiffness over a broad
temperature range. The key to reducing
vehicular weight has been found in the
use of fiber-reinforced polymers.
These high-modulus composites
have already proven their performance
in the aircraft and aerospace industries.
However, cycle times for the production
of car parts are much shorter and the
thermosetting resin must therefore cure
in only a few minutes, not a few hours.
DMA measurement on a high-modulus carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy resin
32
Composites Thermokinetics
Cure Monitoring of a CF-Reinforced
Epoxy Resin
After what amount of time or at what
temperature does a curing reaction
start? Is the thermosetting resin already
fully cured? Such or similar questions
are those that resin producers and
thermoset processors would like to
answer comprehensively.
Thermal analysis (TA) methods are
capable of providing such answers.
However, conventional TA can only be
used in a restricted way since curing and
Dielectric analysis (DEA) with different IDEX sensor positions
solvent release might be overlapped
or the curing reaction takes places
faster than mixing and weighing of the
sample, etc.
Such problems can be solved, however,
by using dielectric analysis (DEA). This
method can even be applied in-situ, i.e.,
during the actual process in the plant.
The plot depicts the curing of a carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy resin during Resin
Transfer Molding (RTM) for aircraft
applications. During a two-step
temperature curing program, the ion
viscosity initially decreased due to the
temperature increase. It then increased
during the first isothermal segment, due
to the start of curing. While heating
to 180C, the temperature increase
counteracted with the curing so that
the ion viscosity first decreased before
curing began to dominate. Thereafter,
the ion viscosity was recorded with a
rising degree of cure; it increased by
approx. three orders of magnitude. As
soon as the curing was completed, the
ion viscosity reached a constant value
(here evaluated as extrapolated onset at
1.3 x 10
9
cm).
With a multi-channel DEA, the progress
of curing can be monitored at different
locations in the mold. Here, three IDEX
sensors were placed between different
carbon fiber layers comprising the part
thickness. The ion viscosity curve for the
middle layer position (red) provided the
fastest curing (highest reactivity) in the
shortest curing time.
33
Thermokinetics: Evaluation of the
Curing Behavior of an Epoxy Resin
Kinetic analysis allows a set of kinetic
parameters to be found e.g.,
the number of reaction steps, the
contribution of each step to the total
effect of the process, the reaction type,
the activation energy, or the reaction
order for each step. This information is
Prediction of the curing behavior at different isothermal temperatures
Curing of an epoxy resin at different heating rates
In this example, an uncured epoxy resin
was heated at rates of 3, 5 and
10 K/min with the DSC 204 F1
Phoenix

. In the Thermokinetics
software program, exothermal curing
was simulated. The almost perfect fit
was achieved as a formal n
th
-order
4-step reaction. The start of the actual
curing was described well by a first-
order reaction with autocatalysis.
In this plot, the curing behavior is
predicted based on the simulations
shown above. For different isothermal
temperatures, the conversion rate is
plotted against time. For example, at
100C, the material investigated here
was totally cured after 65 min (degree
of curing of 100%).
then used to solve prediction problems
for new temperature/time programs or
to optimize behavior for a given system.
Epoxy resins are a group of polymer
materials that are widely used in
industrial applications. Questions about
the duration of curing, or the conditions
under which a defined level of cure is
achieved, are issues for which kinetics
provides answers. Model-free analysis
cannot be used in such cases because
there are strong limitations to this
method, caused by issues at its core.
34
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the manufacture of machinery and instrumentation with worldwide production,
sales, and service branches.

The three Business Units Analyzing & Testing, Grinding & Dispersing and
Pumps & Systems provide tailored solutions for highest-level needs. Over
3,000 employees at 163 sales and production centers in 28 countries across
the globe guarantee that expert service is never far from our customers.
www.netzsch.com/n16569