Cleaner Production Manual for the Queensland Foundry Industry November 1999

OVERVIEW OF FOUNDRY PROCESSES

Contents
1. Overview of Casting Processes...................................................................... 3

2. Casting Processes.......................................................................................... 6

2.1 Sand Casting ............................................................................................ 6

2.1.1 Pattern Making ................................................................................... 7

2.1.2 Mould Making ..................................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Melting and Pouring ........................................................................... 8
2.1.4 Cooling and Shakeout ........................................................................ 9
2.1.5 Sand Reclamation .............................................................................. 9
2.1.6 Fettling, Cleaning and Finishing....................................................... 10
2.1.7 Advantages of Sand Casting ............................................................ 10
2.1.8 Limitations ........................................................................................ 10
2.1.9 By-products Generated .................................................................... 10
2.2 Shell Moulding ........................................................................................ 13

2.2.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 14
2.2.3 By-products Generated .................................................................... 14
2.3 Investment Casting ................................................................................. 15

2.3.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 16
2.3.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 16
2.3.3 By-products Generated .................................................................... 17
2.4 Lost Foam Casting .................................................................................. 18

2.4.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 19
2.4.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 19
2.4.3 By-products Generated .................................................................... 20
2.5 Die Casting ............................................................................................. 21

2.5.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 21
2.5.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 22
2.5.3 By-products Generated .................................................................... 22
2.6 Special and Innovative Moulding and Casting Processes ...................... 23

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2.7 The Hitchiner Process............................................................................. 23

2.7.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 23
2.7.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 23
2.8 The Shaw Process .................................................................................. 24

2.8.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 24
2.8.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 24
2.9 Replicast®............................................................................................... 24

2.9.1 Advantages....................................................................................... 24
2.9.2 Limitations ........................................................................................ 25
2.10 Vacuum (‘V‘) Process............................................................................ 25

2.10.1 Advantages..................................................................................... 25
2.10.2 Limitations ...................................................................................... 26
2.11 Centrifugal Casting ............................................................................... 26

2.11.1 Advantages..................................................................................... 26
2.11.2 Limitations ...................................................................................... 26
2.12 Cosworth Process ................................................................................. 26

2.12.1 Advantages..................................................................................... 27
2.12.2 Limitations ...................................................................................... 28
2.13 Semi-Solid Metal Casting Process........................................................ 28

2.13.1 Advantages..................................................................................... 28
2.13.2 Limitations ...................................................................................... 28
3. Melting Technology ...................................................................................... 29

3.1 Cupola Furnaces..................................................................................... 29

3.2 Electric Induction Furnaces..................................................................... 32

3.3 Electric Arc Furnaces.............................................................................. 34

3.4 Rotating Furnaces................................................................................... 35

3.5 Crucible Furnaces................................................................................... 36

3.6 Environmental Issues.............................................................................. 36

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1. Overview of Casting Processes

This section provides a brief description of the major casting processes, for the
benefit of readers who are unfamiliar with the industry. Metal casting involves
pouring molten metal into a mould containing a cavity of the desired shape to
produce a metal product. The casting is then removed from the mould and
excess metal is removed, often using shot blasting, grinding or welding
processes. The product may then undergo a range of processes such as heat
treatment, polishing and surface coating or finishing.
The casting techniques described in this section are variations of the process
described in the previous paragraph. The different techniques have been
designed to overcome specific casting problems or to optimise the process for
specific metals, product designs and scales or other operational considerations
such as automation.
All casing processes use a mould, either permanent or temporary, which is a
‘negative’ of the desired shape. Once the metal is poured and has solidified it
forms the ‘positive’ shape of the desired product. Processes differ in the
number of stages that are required to produce the final casting. Die casting is
the simplest technique in terms of the number of stages used. The process
uses a permanent mould (-ve) to produce the final casting (+ve). Processes,
such as sand moulding and shell casting, use a temporary mould (-ve) which is
typically produced using a permanent pattern or die (+ve). Investment casting
and lost foam casting techniques use a temporary mould (-ve) that is build
around a temporary pattern (+ve). For repetitive work, patterns are often
produced using a permanent mould or die (-ve). Table 1 summarises the
patterns and moulds typically used for these five common casting techniques.

Table 1: Types of Patterns and Moulds Used in the

Major Casting Techniques

Die casting Sand casting Shell casting Investment

casting and lost
foam casting
Permanent die Permanent pattern Permanent pattern Permanent die
(optional)
-ve shape +ve shape +ve shape
-ve shape

Temporary pattern
+ve shape

Temporary mould Temporary mould Temporary mould

-ve shape -ve shape -ve shape

Final casting Final casting Final casting Final casting

+ve shape +ve shape +ve shape +ve shape

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For die casting, the die is typically made of a high-strength metal or graphite
material and is expensive to produce. This process, therefore, is most suited to
repetitive and high-value casting (Luther, 1999). Sand casting is the most
common technique used in Australia and around the world. The process
combines good casting quality with flexibility in metal type and casting size.
This process is most suited to jobbing foundries that produce a wide variety of
products, and for large castings. Permanent patterns are typically made out of
wood so are less expensive than die moulds. This pattern is used to make a
temporary or destroyable mould out of sand. Metal is poured into the mould,
which collapses once the casting has hardened.
The shell casting process was developed to achieve high levels of throughput
for repetitive casting operations. The sand:metal ratio is greatly reduced and
the dimensional accuracy of the castings is typically higher than for sand
moulding, reducing the work involved in cleaning and machining the product.
This process is good for routine work but lacks the flexibility of sand moulding,
and the size of castings is restricted.
In investment casting and lost foam casting, temporary patterns are made from
wax or foam. These patterns can be produced manually using traditional
carving tools, carved mechanically using automated tooling, or, for high-volume
castings, they can be produced using permanent moulds or dies. These
processes are more expensive and limited in terms of casting size but achieve
the highest casting quality. Investment casting can be very cost effective for
producing complex geometries that would be difficult or impossible to machine.
Lost foam also achieves high dimensional accuracy and has many
environmental and operation benefits over traditional sand casting.
No casting process is inherently the best. Therefore companies need to select
the most appropriate technique or techniques that suit the type of castings
produced and the operational constraints. The major casting methods and their
more common variants are discussed in the sections that follow. A general
comparison of the four main methods is provided in Table 2.

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Table 2: Comparison of Several Casting Methods

Sand Die casting Sand–shell Investment

casting casting
Tool costs Low High Average Average

Unit costs Average Low Average High

Maximum over 1 tonne 30 kg 100 kg 45 kg

casting weight

Thinnest 2.5 0.8 2.5 1.6

section
castable (mm)

Typical 0.3 0.25 0.25 0.25

dimensional
tolerance (mm)

Relative Fair to good Best Good Very good

surface finish

Relative Good Very good Good Fair

mechanical
properties

Relative ease Fair to good Good Good Best

of casting
complex
designs

Relative ease Best Poorest Fair Fair

of changing
design in
production

Metal options Most Low Average High

Note: Actual casting characteristics vary depending upon the metal uses,
casting geometry and other factors.
Sources: USEPA (1998) and Hitchener (1999)

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2. Casting Processes

2.1 Sand Casting

Sand casting is the most common technique used in Australia, as it is around
the world. A generalised process flow diagram of a typical sand casting process
is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: A Typical Sand Casting Process

Ingots and New sand
alloys
Sand
Metal Pour
Mould
Binder
Fuel
Cooling
Cores
Additives
Furnace
Flux/additives Sand mixer
Shakeout

Sand reclamation

Castings

Scrap Fettling

Off-site
Cleaning
scrap Heat treatment
(optional)

Inspection

Finishing

Finished casting

Source: Environment Canada (1997)

Sand moulding systems use sand as a refractory material and a binder that
maintains the shape of the mould during pouring. A wide range of sand/binder

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systems are used. Green (wet) sand systems, the most common sand system,
use bentonite clay as the binder, which typically makes up between 4%
and10% of the sand mixture. Water, which makes up around 2–4% of the sand
mixture, activates the binder. Carbonaceous material such as charcoal (2–10%
of total volume) is also added to the mixture to provide a reducing environment.
This stops the metal from oxidising during the pouring process. Sand typically
comprises the remaining 85–95% of the total mixture (Environment Canada,
1997).
Other sand moulding processes utilise a range of chemical binders. Oil binders
are combinations of vegetable or animal oils and petrochemicals. Typical
synthetic resin binders include phenolics, phenolformaldehyde, urea-
formaldehyde, urea-formaldehyde/furfuryl alcohol, phenolic isocyanate, and
alkyl isocyanate. Chemical resin binders are frequently used for foundry cores
and less extensively for foundry moulds (Environment Canada, 1997).

2.1.1 Pattern Making

Pattern making is the first stage for developing a new casting. The pattern, or
replica of the finished piece, is typically constructed from wood but may also be
made of metal, plastic, plaster or other suitable materials. These patterns are
permanent so can be used to form a number of moulds. Pattern making is a
highly skilled and precise process that is critical to the quality of the final
product. Many modern pattern shops make use of computer-aided design
(CAD) to design patterns. These systems can also be integrated with
automated cutting tools that are controlled with computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM) tools (USEPA, 1998). Cores are produced in conjunction with the
pattern to form the interior surfaces of the casting. These are produced in a
core box, which is essentially a permanent mould that is developed (USEPA,
1998).

2.1.2 Mould Making

The mould is formed in a mould box (flask), which is typically constructed in two
halves to assist in removing the pattern. Sand moulds are temporary so a new
mould must be formed for each individual casting. A cross-section of a typical
two-part sand mould is shown in Figure 2.
The bottom half of the mould (the drag) is formed on a moulding board. Cores
require greater strength to hold their form during pouring. Dimensional
precision also needs to be greater because interior surfaces are more difficult
to machine, making errors costly to fix. Cores are formed using one of the
chemical binding systems (Environment Canada, 1997). Once the core is
inserted, the top half of the mould (the cope) is placed on top. The interface
between the two mould halves is called a parting line. Weights may be placed
on the cope to help secure the two halves together, particularly for metals that
expand during cooling (USEPA, 1998).

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Figure 2: Cross-section of a typical two-part

sand mould
Mould
Pouring Cup box (flask)

COPE
Sprue

Riser Core

Parting Gating Mould

line system cavity
DRAG

Source: Adapted from Hurst (1996)

Mould designs include a gating system which is designed to carry molten metal
smoothly to all parts of the mould. The gating system typically includes a sprue,
gates, runners and risers. The sprue is where the metal is poured. Gates allow
the metal to enter the running system. Runners carry the molten metal towards
the casting cavity. Risers may have several functions including vents to allow
gases to be released, reservoirs prior to the casting cavity to aid progressive
solidification, and waste cavities to allow metal to rise from the casting cavity to
ensure it is filled and to remove the first poured metal from the casting cavity,
thus avoiding solidification problems (Hurst, 1996).

2.1.3 Melting and Pouring

Many foundries, particularly ferrous foundries, use a high proportion of scrap
metal to make up a charge. As such, foundries play an important role in the
metal recycling industry. Internally generated scrap from runners and risers, as
well as reject product, is also recycled. The charge is weighed and introduced
to the furnace. Alloys and other materials are added to the charge to produce
the desired melt. In some operations the charge may be preheated, often using
waste heat. The furnaces commonly used in the industry are described below.
In traditional processes metal is superheated in the furnace. Molten metal is
transferred from the furnace to a ladle and held until it reaches the desired
pouring temperature. The molten metal is poured into the mould and allowed to
solidify (USEPA, 1998).

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2.1.4 Cooling and Shakeout

Once the metal has been poured, the mould is transported to a cooling area.
The casting needs to cool, often overnight for ambient cooling, before it can be
removed from the mould. Castings may be removed manually or using vibratory
tables that shake the refractory material away from the casting.
Quenching baths are also used in some foundries to achieve rapid cooling of
castings. This speeds up the process and also helps achieve certain
metallurgical properties. The quench bath may contain chemical additives to
prevent oxidation (USEPA, 1998).

2.1.5 Sand Reclamation

Most sand foundries recover a significant proportion of the waste sand for
internal reuse. This significantly reduces the quantity of sand that must be
purchased and disposed of. In Queensland, most sand is reclaimed
mechanically; cores and large metal lumps are removed by vibrating screens
and the binders are removed by attrition (i.e. by the sand particles rubbing
together). Fine sand and binders are removed by extraction and collected in a
baghouse. In some systems metals are removed using magnets or other
separation techniques. For operations using mechanical reclamation, the
recycle rate is often limited to around 70%. This is due to the need to maintain
a minimum sand quality. For large iron foundries, where sand quality
requirements are less stringent, over 90% reclamation can be achieved by
mechanical means . For many processes, mechanically reclaimed sand is not
of sufficiently high quality to be used for core production.
Thermal reclamation is becoming more widely used in Queensland. This
process heats the sand to the point where organic materials, including the
binders, are driven off. This process can return the sand to an ‘as new’ state,
allowing it to be used for core making. Thermal reclamation is more expensive
than mechanical systems.
Sand can also be reclaimed using wet washing and scrubbing techniques.
These methods produce sand of a high quality but are not commonly used
because they generate a significant liquid waste stream and require additional
energy input for sand drying.
The amount of internal reuse depends on the type of technology used and the
quality requirements of the casting process. Reclamation processes,
particularly mechanical ones, break down the sand particles and this can affect
the quality of some metals. Also, for mechanical reclamation techniques,
impurities may build up in the sand over time, requiring a proportion of the
material to be wasted. Large iron foundries do not require a high sand quality
so typically achieve the highest rate of reuse in the industry. Often sand cycles
through the operation until it is ground down to a fine dust and removed by
baghouses.

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2.1.6 Fettling, Cleaning and Finishing

After the casting has cooled, the gating system is removed, often using
bandsaws, abrasive cut-off wheels or electrical cut-off devices. A ‘parting line
flash’ is typically formed on the casting and must be removed by grinding or
with chipping hammers. Castings may also need to be repaired by welding,
brazing or soldering to eliminate defects (Environment Canada, 1997).
Shot blasting — propelling abrasive material at high velocity onto the casting
surface — is often used to remove any remaining metal flash, refractory
material or oxides. Depending on the type and strength of the metal cast, the
grade of shot may vary from steel ball bearings to a fine grit (Environment
Canada, 1997).
The casting may undergo additional grinding and polishing to achieve the
desired surface quality. The casting may then be coated using either a paint or
a metal finishing operation such as galvanising, powder coating or
electroplating.

2.1.7 Advantages of Sand Casting

• Use is widespread; technology well developed.
• Materials are inexpensive, capable of holding detail and resist deformation
when heated.
• Process is suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous metal castings.
• Handles a more diverse range of products than any other casting method.
• Produces both small precision castings and large castings of up to 1 tonne.
• Can achieve very close tolerances if uniform compaction is achieved.
• Mould preparation time is relatively short in comparison to many other
processes.
• The relative simplicity of the process makes it ideally suited to
mechanisation.
• High levels of sand reuse are achievable (USEPA, 1998).

2.1.8 Limitations
• Typically limited to one or a small number of moulds per box..
• Sand:metal ratio is relatively high.
• High level of waste is typically generated, particularly sand, baghouse dust
and spent shot.

2.1.9 By-products Generated

Foundries are often perceived as being dirty and environmentally unfriendly.
However, most modern foundries are relatively environmentally benign in

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comparison to other industrial activities in the metal sector (e.g. smelting and
surface finishing), and most of the by-products generated by the industry have
relatively low impacts. The major issues facing the industry are the large
volumes of by-products that are currently being sent to landfill, nuisance
odours, and the need to maximise health and safety in the industry.
Sand is the largest by-product generated by volume in this process. Even in
operations that undertake a high level of reclamation, some new sand is
required to maintain the quality of the sand in the system. As a result some
sand is lost from the system. This may be sent to landfill, reclaimed off-site or
put to beneficial reuse.
Foundry sands from ferrous foundries are not usually considered to be
hazardous, typically passing TCLP (toxic characteristic leaching procedure)
tests, and can be sent to unlined landfill. Some non-ferrous sands contain high
quantities of heavy metal, which requires them to be sent to secured landfill
sites. Most of the chemical binder used in core and mould making is burnt off
during the pouring process. Binders in waste sand can become an important
issue if large volumes of resin-coated sands are wasted before the pouring
stage. Binders and salts can build up to unacceptable levels over many
reclamation cycles, so careful monitoring and testing is important.
Baghouse dust from the mould and core shops and from the shotblasting
operations is typically the second largest by-product generated by volume in
sand casting processes. Sand grains are broken down into fines and dust,
particularly after multiple reuse, and this can affect casting quality and also
create occupational health and safety issues (e.g. silicosis). Many foundries
have invested in baghouses to capture sand dusts and other particulate matter
from the working environment and from reclamation processes.
Slag is another significant by-product stream by volume. Flux is a material
added to the furnace charge or to the molten metal to remove impurities. Flux
unites with impurities to form dross or slag This rises to the surface of the
molten metal, from where it is removed before pouring. When cooled this forms
a relatively inert complex glass-like structure which can usually be disposed of
in unlined landfill or put to beneficial reuse.
Other solid wastes generated in sand casting operations include:
• refractories (furnace and ladle lining);
• drums;
• spent shot;
• metal swarf and shavings;
• timber pallets and timber from the pattern room;
• general foundry waste including packaging and consumables (e.g. rags,
gloves, grinding wheels etc).;
• general office and lunchroom wastes.

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These materials typically make up a minor proportion of the total waste stream
by volume, but can be significant in terms of cost. Timber pallets are a
significant issue at a number of Queensland foundries.
Foundries also produce small quantities of liquid by-product streams. The
major sources are cutting fluids, hydraulic and other oils, solvents, waste paints
and paint sludges, uncured and cured binders and waste catalysts (acids and
bases). Water streams are also generated from quenching baths, cooling
systems and other minor sources.
Air emissions from the process typically include carbon monoxide, organic
compounds, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide, benzene, phenols,
and other hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). The actual emissions depend on a
number of factors including the type of metal poured, the cleanliness of the
charge, the types of binders used and the melting and pouring practices
employed. A portion of the metal (around 3%) volatilises during the melting and
pouring process. The major environmental issues related to these fugitive
emissions are usually those of occupational health within the foundry and
nuisance odours outside the foundry (USEPA, 1998).

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2.2 Shell Moulding

Pattern heating Shell moulding is a process well suited to rapid,
Heat automated, repetitive and high-volume production.
Pattern The most common method for producing shell
Plate moulds is to use a dump box as shown in the
diagram. The dump box is rotated through 3600 so
Heat that the sand contacts the heated surface. An
Coating organic thermosetting resin such as phenol
Dump box
formaldehyde or furane is typically used (2.5–4.5%
of sand volume) in conjunction with a catalyst (11–
Sand
14% of resin volume). Catalysts include weak
aqueous acids such as ammonium chloride or
hexamine, a white powder (Brown (1994) and
Curing UNEP (1997).
Heat
The thickness of the shell, typically around 10 mm,
is determined by the contact time between the
sand and pattern (Clegg, 1991). The mould is
Heat heated again to cure the sand, causing it to
harden. The mould is released from the pattern
Ejection using ejector pins. The entire cycle can be
completed in a matter seconds, making it suitable
for rapid production.
Cores are added to the mould and the two halves
of the mould are glued and clamped together
Ejectors before the metal is poured.
Moulds are relatively robust and can therefore be
Joining stored for reasonably long periods of time (Luther,
1999). Depending on the cores used, spent sand
Pin Core can be reclaimed successfully using thermal
Clamps
reclamation (Brown, 1994).

2.2.1 Advantages
Glue
• Good casting detail and dimensional accuracy
Pouring and knockout are possible.
• Moulds are lightweight and may be stored for
extended periods of time.
• Gives superior surface finish and higher
dimensional accuracy, and incurs lower fettling
costs than conventional sand castings.
• Has better flexibility in design than die-casting.
Source: Adapted from • Is less expensive than investment casting.
Clegg (1991)
• Capital plant costs are lower than for

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mechanised green sand moulding.

• Metal yields are relatively high.
• Sand:metal ratios are relatively low (Luther (1999) and Clegg (1991)).

2.2.2 Limitations
• The weight of castings is limited to 100 kg.
• Because the process requires heat to cure the mould, pattern costs and
pattern wear can be higher than for conventional sand moulding.
• Energy costs also tend to be higher.
• Sand inputs need to be of higher quality than traditional sand casting.
• Emissions from the process are noxious, so effective extraction systems are
required.
• Material costs tend to be higher than those for conventional sand moulding
(Luther (1999) and Clegg (1991)).

2.2.3 By-products Generated

Significantly less sand is required to make a shell mould than to make a
conventional sand mould, so volumes of spent sand are typically smaller.
Quantities of binder per tonne of metal are also smaller. Most of the binder is
burnt off in the pouring process, so only minor amounts remain in the sand.
Broken cores and sand that has set up prematurely or inadequately may have
higher levels of resin (UNEP, 1997).
The burnt-off resins create nuisance odour issues for staff and neighbours.
Dust emissions are also created in the moulding, handling and sand
reclamation processes. If the moulds are water cooled, wastewater may contain
traces of metals, phenols, furans and other contaminants, depending on the
binder system used (UNEP (1997) and Brown (1994)).

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2.3 Investment Casting

Pattern making Investment casting produces very high surface
quality and dimensional accuracy. It is commonly
used for precision equipment such as surgical
equipment, for complex geometries and for
precious metals. This process is commonly used
by artisans to produce highly detailed artwork.
Gating The first step is to produce a pattern or replica of
the finished mould. Wax is most commonly used to
form the pattern, although plastic is also used.
Patterns are typically mass-produced by injecting
liquid or semi-liquid wax into a permanent die
(USEPA, 1998). Prototypes, small production runs
Shell pattern formation and specialty projects can also be undertaken by
carving wax models. Cores are typically
unnecessary but can be used for complex internal
structures. Rapid prototyping techniques have
been developed to produce expendable patterns.
Several replicas are often attached to a gating
system constructed of the same material to form a
tree assembly. In this way multiple castings can be
produced in a single pouring (Jain, 1986).
Wax removal
The next stage is to create a one-piece
destroyable mould around the pattern (USEPA,
1998). This mould is built up around the wax
pattern in stages by alternately coating the
assembly with a specially formulated heat-resistant
refractory slurry mixture and then applying a
granulated refractory ‘stucco’ shell (Jain, 1986).
Pouring The initial coats use a fine powder, which creates a
very smooth and dimensionally accurate negative
of the pattern. Subsequent coats use a coarser
refractory material to build up sufficient thickness.
This material hardens around the assembly at
room temperature. This investment shell casting
method is the more common process. An
alternative process is to use an investment flask,
Knockout where sand is packed around the mould. This can
be desirable where additional mould strength is
required and also allows the casting size to be
increased.
In both shell and flask casting, the pattern is
Source: Adapted from removed from the mould prior to the pouring stage.
Jain (1986) The mould is inverted and heated to melt and
remove the wax (Jain, 1986). In some operations

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the melted wax is recovered and reused to make new patterns (USEPA, 1998).
After multiple reuses the material needs to be reconditioned to maintain its
purity, or disposed of.
The mould is then heated in an oven to remove any residual wax and to further
cure and harden the mould. The temperature is raised to 980oC prior to
pouring. This is a time- and energy-consuming process: total heating time, from
wax removal to pouring, can take up to 15 hours (Jain, 1986).
Molten metal is then poured into the central cavity and flows into the individual
moulds (USEPA, 1998). After the metal has cooled, the mould material is
removed.
Because of its very high dimensional accuracy the process can achieve a net-
shape cast requiring little or no machining. Great care is taken in the pattern-
making stage to remove any mould lines because it is more cost effective to
remove unwanted material from the wax model than from the final cast.

2.3.1 Advantages
• There is very high dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
• Process is suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous precision pieces.
• Allows flexibility of design.
• The process can be adapted for mass production.
• Cores are typically eliminated.
• Can virtually eliminate the need for machining.
• Very high metal yields.
• Can produce castings that are impossible or difficult to produce with other
casting methods and machining processes.
• Can be cost effective for repetitive casting and specialist jobbing
applications (Luther (1999); Jain (1986); and USEPA (1998)).

2.3.2 Limitations
• The size of castings is limited (up to around 5 kg).
• Capital and operating costs are high in comparison with other casting
methods.
• Costs of pattern die-making are high, requiring special tooling and
equipment.
• There are numerous steps in the process, making automation somewhat
more difficult and more expensive than for other casting methods.
• Casting costs make it important to take full advantage of the process to
eliminate all machining operations (Luther (1999); Jain (1986); and USEPA
(1998)).

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2.3.3 By-products Generated

The volume of by-product material produced from the investment casting
process are small in comparison to sand casting techniques but larger than for
die casting. Waste refractory mould material and waxes (or plastic) represent
the largest volume of by-products generated. Investment casting refractory
material can be used only once and can be disposed of in unsecured landfill
unless it contains high levels of heavy metals. Wax can be reused a number of
times before it has to be reconditioned, thus minimising waste. Small losses of
wax occur when the moulds are cured and this creates some odours. Odours
from the process are relatively low, however, and air emissions comprise
mostly particulate matter. Dusts generated from the process contain metal
which, in sufficiently high quantities, can be reclaimed economically (USEPA,
1998).

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2.4 Lost Foam Casting

The lost foam or expendable pattern-casting process is
a relatively new process in commercial terms, but is
gaining increased attention due to the environmental
and technical benefits that are achievable for some
types of casts. In this process, an expendable pattern
Pattern making is formed out of polystyrene foam. Patterns can be
made manually, using automated systems or by
moulding them using a permanent die.
Manual pattern making typically involves carving
blocks and gluing sections together to build up the
desired shape. The finished pattern is a single piece
(i.e. no cores) incorporating all necessary gating
Mould making systems. This carving process can be automated using
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) system sand can
incorporate rapid prototyping techniques.
For repetitive castings, patterns can be moulded using
a permanent aluminium die. Polystyrene beads are
pre-expanded using a vacuum, steam or hot air
processes. This helps to minimised the density of the
foam as much as possible, to minimise the amount of
Pouring
vapour that is produced during the pouring process.
The expanded material is then blown into the
aluminium mould. Steam is used to cause the material
to expand further, bond together and fill the mould
cavity. The mould and pattern are allowed to cool, and
the pattern ejected (USEPA, 1998).
As for investment casting, when the casting is small,
multiple castings can be joined, often to a central tree,
to increase pouring efficiency.
Cleaning
The pattern is coated with a specially formulated gas-
permeable refractory slurry (USEPA, 1998). When the
refractory slurry has hardened, the assembly is
positioned in a flask, and unbonded sand is poured
around the mould and compacted into any internal
cavities. The refractory coating must be sufficiently
strong to prevent the loose sand from collapsing into
Source: Adapted from the cavity as the pattern vaporises, but also permeable
USEPA (1998) to allow styrene vapour to escape from the mould
cavity (USEPA, 1998). A vacuum system can also be
used to increase sand compaction.
Molten metal is then poured into the polystyrene
pattern, which vaporises and is replaced by the metal.
This is different from the lost wax process in which the

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wax is removed before the pouring stage. Vents in the side of the flask allow
vapour to escape. If vapour is produced more rapidly than it can be vented, the
casting may become deformed. When the metal has solidified, the flask is
emptied onto a steel grate for shakeout. The loose sand falls through the grate
and can be reused without treatment. The refractory material is broken away
from the casting in the usual manner (USEPA, 1998).

2.4.1 Advantages
• Can be used for precision castings of ferrous and non-ferrous metals of any
size.
• Fewer steps are involved in lost foam casting compared to sand casting.
• Coremaking is eliminated.
• Binders or other additives and related mixing processes are eliminated.
• High dimensional accuracy can be achieved and thin sections can be cast
(i.e. 3 mm).
• There is lower capital investment.
• The flasks used are less expensive and easier to use because they are in
one piece.
• The need for skilled labour is reduced.
• Multiple castings can be combined in one mould to increase pouring
efficiency.
• Lower operating costs can be achieved for appropriate castings. Complex
castings, particularly internal sections, which require high dimensional
accuracy and have thin sections, can be produced very cost effectively in
comparison with to conventional sand moulding processes.
• Fettling and machining is minimised due to high dimensional accuracy and
the absence of parting lines or core fins.
• The shakeout process is simplified and does not require the heavy
machinery required for bonded sand systems.
• High levels of sand reuse are possible. As little as 1–2% of the sand is lost
as a result of spills. Periodically a portion of sand may need to be removed
or reclaimed to avoid the build-up of styrene (Luther, 1999).

2.4.2 Limitations
• The pattern coating process is time-consuming, and pattern handling
requires great care.
• Very thin sections can be flimsy, making dimensional accuracy difficult to
maintain during sand compaction.
• Good process control is required as a scrapped casting means replacement
not only of the mould but of the pattern as well.

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• For simple casings and for jobbing processes, the process is typically not
competitive against conventional sand moulding.
• With the exception of aluminium and grey and ductile iron, experience with
other metals is limited.
• There are some limitations in using the technique to cast low-carbon alloys
(Luther (1999) and USEPA (1998)).

2.4.3 By-products Generated

Lost foam is considered to be a cleaner process than many other casting
processes due to the elimination of binders. The large quantities of polystyrene
vapours produced during lost foam casting, however, can be flammable and
may contain hazardous air pollutants. Large volumes of waste foam can be
generated from carving operations. This can be a significant cost, particularly
for companies that pay by volume and not by weight. Other possible air
emissions are of particulate matter related to the use of sand. Waste sand and
refractory materials containing styrene may also be generated (USEPA, 1998).

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2.5 Die Casting

Die casting is a precision casting technique that uses a
permanent metal mould, or die, into which molten metal
is poured directly. Metal is typically forced into the
mould under pressure but gravity-feed systems are
Die making also used. Tooling costs and other capital costs are
high due to the cost of designing dies. Operational
costs, however, are relatively low, due to the high level
of automation and the small number of production
steps (i.e. direct pouring into a permanent mould rather
than preparing destroyable patterns and/or moulds).
The process, therefore, is best suited to mass
production.
Casting assembly
Moving
Die casting is most suitable for non-ferrous metals with
Fixed plate relatively low melting points (i.e. around 870oC) such
plate
as lead, zinc, aluminium, magnesium and some copper
alloys (Luther, 1999). Casing metals with high melting
points, including iron, steel and other ferrous metals,
reduces die life (Clegg, 1991).
Dies are usually made from two blocks of steel, each
Metal injection and containing part of the cavity, which are locked together
pressing while the casting is being made. Retractable and
removable cores are used to form internal surfaces.
Molten metal is injected into the die and held under
pressure until it cools and solidifies. The die halves are
then opened and the casting is removed, usually by
means of an automatic ejection system.
The die is cleaned between each casting cycle,
preheated and lubricated to reduce wear on the die, to
improve surface quality and to aid ejection. Mould
Release coating material can also be used to protect the molten
metal from the relatively cool and conductive surface of
the mould. Cooling systems are often used to maintain
the desired operating temperature (USEPA, 1998).

2.5.1 Advantages
• Once capital is in place, operating costs are low
relative to most other casting processes. This is
Source: Adapted from
due to the reduced number of process steps, the
Clegg (1991)
elimination of temporary moulds and patterns from
the process, and the lower volume of materials that
need to be handled.
• Dies can sustain very high production rates (i.e.
over 400 shots per hour). Total cost of castings can

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be relatively low at high levels of production.

• High design flexibility and complexity allows products to be manufactured
from a single casting instead of from an assembly of cast components.
• Good accuracy, consistency and surface finish are possible, with high metal
yields.
• Cleaning, machining, finishing and fabrication costs are low.
• There are low levels of waste due to elimination of refractory material
,leading to a cleaner work environment.

2.5.2 Limitations
• Capital costs for equipment and dies are high.
• Pressure dies are very expensive to design and produce.
• Die casting is not applicable to steel and high-melting-point alloys.
• Casting size is limited to a maximum of about 35 kg (Luther (1999) and
USEPA (1998)).

2.5.3 By-products Generated

This process generates the smallest volumes of waste of all foundry processes
because the use of refractory sands and binders for moulds is eliminated.
Fettling is minimised, so only small volumes of swarf and consumables are
generated in the grinding and cleaning process.
Some air emissions are released during the melting and casting process. Metal
oxide fumes are released as some of the metal vaporises and condenses. The
lubricants used also vaporise on contact with the molten metal (USEPA, 1998).

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2.6 Special and Innovative Moulding and Casting

Processes
The basic techniques described above have all been adapted in various ways
to optimise them for specific metals and operational considerations. This
section describes some of the major innovations that have been developed
from the basic processes.

2.7 The Hitchiner Process

The Hitchiner casting process is a variation of chemically bonded sand
moulding processes. It uses a counter-gravity (vacuum) system to fill the mould
cavity with molten metal. The flask is partially submerged in a metal bath. Small
diameter feeders in the drag (bottom) half of the flask are used to draw metal
under vacuum into the mould cavity (Luther, 1999).

Filling moulds by gravity (i.e. by pouring into a sprue) can introduce air into the
mould cavity and result in defects. Introduced air can constitute up to 30% of
the total volume of metal poured (MCTC, 1995). The Hitchener process
achieves better filling consistency and virtually eliminates air ingress and the
resulting inclusions and porosity defects. This has been shown to reduce
casting repair costs by 50–65% (MCTC, 1995). Such cost savings can
compensate for the higher up-front costs.

2.7.1 Advantages
• Produces light section castings in a variety of alloys normally not castable
by other processes.
• Gives higher casting definition than conventional sand moulding and similar
definition to investment casting.
• Requires less metal cleaning.
• Higher metal yields are achieved than by conventional sand moulding due
to smaller gating systems and greater precision.
• Decomposition gases are removed by the vacuum, making emission control
easier, reducing emissions and reducing gas inclusions (Luther, 1999).

2.7.2 Limitations
• The process is more expensive than conventional sand casting.
• Production volumes are limited to low to medium throughput.
• The size of the casting is limited to a maximum of 45 kg (Luther, 1999).

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2.8 The Shaw Process

The Shaw Process is one of more common variations on the investment casting
process. It is designed to eliminate the use of expendable patterns — one of
the most costly and time-consuming steps in the casting process. A refractory
slurry containing ethyl silicate is used, which initially cures to a flexible gel but
can be removed from the pattern in two halves. The flexible mould halves can
then be further cured at high temperatures until a hard mould is formed ready
for assembly and pouring (USEPA, 1998).
This process is used in Australia by Shaw Process Castings Pty Ltd. in
Mortdale, New South Wales.

2.8.1 Advantages
• The process eliminates the need for expendable patterns.

2.8.2 Limitations
• It is more expensive than the conventional investment process.

2.9 Replicast®
Replicast® is a novel precision moulding and casting process that combines
many of the advantages of investment casting and lost foam casting
techniques. An expanded polystyrene pattern is produced and coated with an
inert, fired ceramic mould. The polystyrene is fully burnt out of the mould before
casting. This allows a wider range of alloys to be cast in the mould. Because
the foam is 92% carbon by weight, the lost foam process is unsuitable for the
majority of steel alloys. By removing the foam before casting, the Replicast®
system can be used for even ultra-low-carbon stainless steel. This process also
offers a higher weight range than is available from investment casting.

2.9.1 Advantages
• Allows larger castings than are possible with investment techniques.
• Full combustion of the polystyrene before casting gives an inert mould
suitable for a wider range of alloys than lost foam, including low-carbon
steels.
• Air emissions are easier to control than with lost foam.
• The application of a vacuum during casting allows improved fill-out of the
mould.
• The support provided by the ceramic shell during casting allows large, thin
shells to be easily poured.
• Sand inclusions and other sand mould-related defects can be virtually
eliminated.

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• As with investment and lost foam casting, there are no cores or parting
lines, high dimensional accuracy, and excellent surface finish.
• Ceramic shell does not have to be as thick as for shell casting.

2.9.2 Limitations
• Is not as suitable for thin sections as the lost wax process.
• It is more expensive than the lost foam process.

2.10 Vacuum (‘V‘) Process

The V-Process was invented in Japan in 1971 as an improvement on
conventional sand casting. In this process, a thin preheated sheet of plastic film
material is placed over a pattern and a vacuum is applied to draw the sheet to
the pattern contours. The flask containing the mould is then filled with dry
unbonded silica sand which is compacted by vibration. A second plastic sheet
is placed at the back of the flask and the mould is further compacted under
vacuum. With the vacuum maintained, the pattern is then removed and the two
halves of the mould are joined and secured for pouring. After the metal has
solidified, the vacuum is removed and the casting is released (Luther (1999)
and Foundry Online (1999)).
The original inventors of this proprietary process have established working
agreements on a worldwide basis so that today individually licensed foundries
using the V-process are producing castings of all sizes and shapes. These
range from thin-sectioned curtain walls in aluminium to cast iron pressure pipe
fittings, stainless steel valve bodies and massive 8-tonne ship anchors. Other
components being routinely cast include bathtubs, railroad bolsters and side
frames, machine tools, engine parts and agricultural castings. Any metal (grey,
ductile, malleable iron, various grades of steel, or aluminium and copper-base
alloys) may be poured in a V-process mould, with the possible exception of
magnesium (Luther, 1999).

2.10.1 Advantages
• Gives good dimensional accuracy and surface finish with generally twice
the accuracy of sand castings.
• Eliminates gas hole defects.
• Pattern life is longer because there is no contact between the sand and the
pattern.
• Eliminates the use of binders and minimises sand waste.
• Is suitable for a wide range of casting sizes from grams to tonnes.
• The process can be used for complex geometries and can be automated to
achieve greater consistency and productivity.

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• It can be highly cost competitive with other casting processes (Luther (1999)
and Foundry Online (1999)).

2.10.2 Limitations
• Requires plated pattern equipment.
• Close synchronisation of mould and metal readiness is essential in foundry
practice.
• Is not typically suitable for high rates of production.
• Is not suitable for some casting geometries due to flexibility limitations of the
plastic (Luther (1999) and Foundry Online (1999)).

2.11 Centrifugal Casting

For centrifugal casting, molten metal is introduced into a mould that is rotated
during solidification. The centrifugal force improves the feed and filling
consistency achieving surface detail. This method has been specifically
adapted to the production of cylindrical parts and eliminates the need for gates,
risers and cores. The process is typically unsuitable for geometries that do not
allow a linear flow-through of metal (Luther, 1999).

2.11.1 Advantages
• Centrifugal casting improves homogeneity and accuracy in special
circumstances.
• Eliminates the need for gating systems (Luther, 1999).

2.11.2 Limitations
• The process imposes limitations on the shape of castings, and is normally
restricted to the production of cylindrical geometric shapes (Luther, 1999).

2.12 Cosworth Process

The Cosworth process is a precision sand casting process, which was
developed in 1978 for non-ferrous casting, initially aluminium alloys, to
engineer the Cosworth engine. The mould and core-making stages are similar
to conventional sand casting, although zircon sand is used instead of silicon,
due to its greater expansion predictability. The main feature of this process is
that the metal is pumped into the mould through the base using pressure-
assisted feeding through a simplified gating system. This is shown in Figure 3
(Aalborg University, 1998).

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Figure 3: The Cosworth moulding

system

Source: Aalborg University (1998)

The absence of conventional gating and feeding systems results in castings

free of porosity (due to hydrogen) and inclusions (due to alumina). These are
common in sand and gravity die casting and impair the metallurgical integrity
and mechanical properties of the casting (Clegg, 1991).
The process also eliminates a number of minor problems associated with
conventional techniques including: blowholes from chills, cores and adhesives;
inaccurately located cores and mould halves; and metallurgical inadequacies
(particularly poor hardness or strength). It also reduces fettling time. The
process was more recently extended to a number of commercial castings with
the opening of a new foundry in 1984. In 1993 the Ford Motor company
selected the Cosworth process for its Windsor, Ontario, Plant (Clegg, 1991).
The American Foundrymen’s Society has identified the Cosworth process as
being a key emerging process, needing further investigation to develop
commercial opportunities (CMC,1998).

2.12.1 Advantages
• Can cast thinner sections, allowing the design of lighter, more robust
components and resulting in considerable weight saving.
• Produces exceptionally high strength and ductility due to improved
metallurgical consistency during solidification.
• Gives high dimensional accuracy, resulting in minimum fettling and
machining.

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• Castings are pressure-tight due to the absence of porosity and inclusions.

• Tooling is comparatively inexpensive.
• Is suitable for medium- to high-volume production.
• Gives high metal yields and high sand reclamation (Clegg, 1991).

2.12.2 Limitations
• Is not suitable for a wide range of metals and casting sizes.

2.13 Semi-Solid Metal Casting Process

Semi-solid casting is a modification of the die-casting process which achieves
metallurgical benefits similar to forging. Metal billets are heated to a semi-solid
state and pressed under pressure into the die. Prior to moulding, the heated
material can be picked up and will hold its shape unsupported. Under pressure
it flows like a liquid to take the form of the die accurately, as in die casting
(WPI, 1997). This lower-energy-intensive process creates a fine and uniform
structure that is virtually free of porosity (THRUST, 1997).
In a related process called rheocasting the metal is melted and, during
solidification to a semi-solid state, its morphology is altered using mechanical,
electromagnetic or other forces to a create a fine microstructure (WPI, 1997).

2.13.1 Advantages
• Gives high dimensional accuracy and metallurgical integrity.
• Extends mould life and part tolerances compared with traditional die
casting, due to lower injection temperatures.
• Gives higher structural integrity, quality and soundness compared with cast
parts.
• Castings can be heat-treated to obtain characteristics similar to those of
permanent mould castings.
• Can achieve lower costs than forging and die-moulding processes for
certain parts (WPI (1997) and THRUST (1997)).

2.13.2 Limitations
• As for traditional die casting, size is generally limited (WPI (1997) and
THRUST (1997)).

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3. Melting Technology
This section provides a general overview of furnace technology most commonly
used in the foundry industry.
Energy is a major cost in all foundries. The majority of energy used is in the
melting and metal holding processes. Five types of furnaces are commonly
used to melt metal in foundries: cupola, electric arc, reverberatory, induction
and crucible. Some foundries operate more than one type of furnace and may
even transfer molten metal between furnace types in order to make use of the
best features of each (USEPA, 1998).
The choice of which furnace or furnaces to use, or the decision to change from
one type of furnace to another, is not simple but depends on a number of
factors. These include: the scale of the operation, the type of process (e.g.
repetition or jobbing), the types of metals required, the raw materials available,
the relative cost of fuels (e.g. coal, natural gas, electricity), capital,
maintenance and operational costs, and environmental requirements and
costs.

3.1 Cupola Furnaces

The use of cupola furnaces is one of the oldest processes for making cast iron
and is still among the dominant technologies in the world. In Queensland, most
of the larger foundries have replaced their cupola furnaces with more efficient
electric furnaces. Some of these foundries still maintain a cupola furnace for
specific melts or for reserve capacity.
A typical cupola furnace (see Figure 4) consists of a water-cooled vertical
cylinder which is lined with refractory material. The process is as follows:
• The charge, consisting of metal, alloying ingredients, limestone, and coal
coke for fuel and carbonisation (8–16% of the metal charge), is fed in
alternating layers through an opening in the cylinder.
• Air enters the bottom through tuyeres extending a short distance into the
interior of the cylinder. The air inflow often contains enhanced oxygen
levels.
• Coke is consumed. The hot exhaust gases rise up through the charge,
preheating it. This increases the energy efficiency of the furnace. The
charge drops and is melted.
• Although air is fed into the furnace, the environment is a reducing one.
Burning of coke under reducing conditions raises the carbon content of the
metal charge to the casting specifications.
• As the material is consumed, additional charges can be added to the
furnace.
• A continuous flow of iron emerges from the bottom of the furnace.
Depending on the size of the furnace, the flow rate can be as high as 100
tonnes per hour. At the metal melts it is refined to some extent, which

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removes contaminants. This makes this process more suitable than electric
furnaces for dirty charges.
• A hole higher than the tap allows slag to be drawn off.
• The exhaust gases emerge from the top of the cupola. Emission control
technology is used to treat the emissions to meet environmental standards.
• Hinged doors at the bottom allow the furnace to be emptied when not in use
(Larsen et al. (1997); USEPA (1998); and Environment Canada (1997)).

Figure 4: A Typical Cupola Furnace

Spark arrester

Roof hood

Charging opening
Top of charging
floor
Blast pipe connection
Wind box
Tap hole and spout Tuyere box
Slag spout
Bottom plate

Concrete foundation

Source: Abdelrahman (1999)

The cupola furnace has received a lot of negative publicity in recent years.
However, the system does have a number of inherent advantages over electric
furnaces:
• It is simple and economical to operate.
• A cupola is capable of accepting a wide range of materials without reducing
melt quality. Dirty, oily scrap can be melted as well as a wide range of steel
and iron. They therefore play an important role in the metal recycling
industry
• Cupolas can refine the metal charge, removing impurities out of the slag.
• From a life-cycle perspective, cupolas are more efficient and less harmful to
the environment than electric furnaces. This is because they derive energy
directly from coke rather than from electricity that first has to be generated.

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• The continuous rather than batch process suits the demands of a repetition
foundry.
• Cupolas can be used to reuse foundry by-products and to destroy other
pollutants such as VOC from the core-making area (Taft (1995); Jain
(1986); and FTJ (1996b)).
The use of elevated oxygen in cupola furnaces has been demonstrated to
increase the efficiency of the system and the quality of the melt. This use of
oxygen enrichment has progressed from simple enrichment of the blast air, to
tuyere injection, to supersonic tuyere injection. Each improvement has been
found to increase productivity by between 10% and 15% over the previous
system (FTJ, 1999a). The main benefits of elevated oxygen include:
• reduced coke rate;
• elevated temperature;
• increased melting rate;
• more consistent metal composition;
• reduced waste gas emissions;
• longer refractory life (FTJ, 1999a).
The migration from cupola furnaces to electric induction furnaces has resulted
from a number of factors including:
• greater control over melt temperature and characteristics;
• higher on-site emissions from cupolas than for electric furnaces, requiring
more expensive emission control technology;
• a typically dirtier operating environment for cupolas;
• less flexibility in terms of the range of alloys that can be used in cupolas;
• additional environmental, storage and space issues created by on-site
storage of coke and fluxes (Abdelrahman, 1999).
Cokeless cupola furnaces have been developed more recently — over the past
20 years. These improved designs, which can be retrofitted onto existing
furnaces, achieve a number of efficiency, metallurgical and environmental
benefits over traditional cupola furnaces. First, the use of coke is eliminated. A
range of fuels including natural gas, propane, diesel oil and powdered coal can
be used. Sulfur pick-up in the melting process can be minimised (below
0.01%). Emissions, particularly of particulate material, from the system are
greatly reduced; if high-quality scrap is used emissions can be very low, thus
reducing the need for complex emission control systems. Tapped metal is
cleaner and better quality, wear of the refractory lining is reduced and less slag
is typically generated (Taft (1995) and Jain (1986)).
Cokeless cupolas can be used in conjunction with electric furnaces to maximise
overall process efficiency. Cupolas are recognised as being highly efficient at
melting metal. As the taping temperature is increased, however, the efficiency
of the cupola decreases significantly (Brown, 1994). Electric furnaces are the

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most efficient at superheating the metal. In duplexing systems, cupolas are

used to melt the charge and electric furnaces are then used to superheat and
to hold the molten metal (Taft, 1995).
The development of cokeless furnaces may reduce the migration to electric
furnaces. Another area of research that may improve the performance of these
systems is the development of automated controls. At present, cupola furnaces
are operated manually. Operator experience is relied upon to achieve the
desired melt rate, metal composition and metal temperature. The efficiency of
the cupola furnace can be improved significantly by using appropriate sensors
and controls. However, the high temperature environment of the cupola, as well
as the complex interactions between inputs, outputs and control variables
currently makes developing intelligent control technology difficult (Larsen et al.,
1997).
A cupola furnace is usually equipped with an emission control system. The two
most common types of emission collection are the high-energy wet scrubber
and the dry baghouse. Use of the baghouse requires prior cooling of the flue
gases, usually by heat exchange with ambient air (Environment Canada, 1997).

3.2 Electric Induction Furnaces

Induction furnaces have become the most widely used furnaces for melting iron
and, increasingly, for non-ferrous alloys. These furnaces have excellent
metallurgical control and are relatively pollution free (in comparison to cupola
furnaces) (Environment Canada, 1997). The two most common induction
furnaces are the coreless furnace and the channel furnace.
The basic principle of induction furnaces is that a high voltage in the primary
coil induces a low-voltage, high current across the metal charge which acts as
a secondary coil. Because of electrical resistance in the metal this electrical
energy is converted into heat which melts the charge (Metal Asia, 1999c). Once
the metal is in its molten state the magnetic field produces a stirring motion.
The power and frequency applied determine the stirring rate. This is controlled
to ensure complete melting of the charge and adequate mixing of alloy and
fluxing materials, and to minimise temperature gradients in the charge.
Excessive stirring, on the other hand, can increase lining damage, increase
oxidation of the alloys, generate excess slag and increase inclusions and gas
pick-up (Metal Asia, 1998a).
In a coreless furnace (see Figure 5), the refractory-lined crucible is completely
surrounded by a water-cooled copper coil. This prevents the primary coil from
overheating. In channel furnaces, the coil surrounds an inductor. Induction
furnaces are available in capacities from a few kilograms to 75 tonnes.
Coreless induction furnaces are more typically in the range of 5 tonnes to 10
tonnes. Some large channel units have a capacity of over 200 tonnes. Channel
induction furnaces are also commonly used as holding furnaces (Environment
Canada, 1997).

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Figure 5: An Electric Induction Furnace (Coreless)

Spout Metal charge

Cooling coil

Refractory Induction coil

lining

Source: Metal Asia (1998a)

Induction furnaces are very efficient and are made in many sizes. They are
able to melt a wide range of metals but little refining of the metal is possible.
Induction furnaces require much cleaner scrap than cupola furnaces and
somewhat cleaner scrap than electric arc furnaces (USEPA, 1998). The capital
costs are higher than those of electric arc furnaces but the operating costs are
lower due to reduced refractory wear (Jain, 1986). Other advantages of
induction furnaces are that they are relatively simple, very small quantities of
any metal composition can be melted and the melting time is relatively short —
around 1 hour — allowing metal to be delivered at small, regular intervals (Jain,
1986).
Approximately 60% of the energy supplied to the furnace is transferred to the
charge. Around 30% of the energy is lost to the cooling water, an additional 7%
lost from radiation and convection losses, and the remainder is lost in the
furnace’s electrical system (UNEP, 1997).
Energy consumption can be as low as 550 kW.h/tonne but these figures are
achieved only with high utilisation factors and for higher-frequency furnaces
(Taft, 1995). Figures of around 650–750 kW.h/tonne are more typical (Jain,
1986). In comparing the overall efficiency of these systems with that of fuel-
based furnaces, it should be remembered that the electricity has to be
generated and even modern power stations do not reach a 40% efficiency,
which means the overall fuel consumption is well over 2000 kW.h/ tonne
(Powell, 1992)

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3.3 Electric Arc Furnaces

Electric arc furnaces are used for melting high-melting-point alloys such as
steels. The furnace consists of a saucer-shaped hearth of refractory material
for collecting the molten metal, with refractory material lining the sides and top
of the furnace. The roof can normally swing away to facilitate charging of the
furnace. Two or three carbon electrodes penetrate the furnace from the roof or
the sides. Doors in the side of the furnace allow removal of alloys, removal of
slag and oxygen lancing.
The scrap metal charge is placed on the hearth and melted by the heat from an
electric arc formed between the electrodes. In a direct-arc furnace, the electric
arc comes into contact with the metal; in an indirect-arc furnace the electric arc
does not actually touch the metal . Molten metal is typically drawn off through a
spout by tipping the furnace.

Figure 6: A Direct Arc Furnace

Electricity supply

Carbon electrodes

Spout

Door

Rammed Metal
hearth

Source: Metal Asia (1999c)

As the refractories deteriorate, slag is generated. Fluxes such as calcium

fluoride may be added to make the slag more fluid and easier to remove from
the melt. Refractory life can also be extended by forming protective slag layers
in the furnace, by intentional addition of silica and lime. The slag protects the
molten metal from the air and extracts certain impurities (Environment Canada,
1997).
Electric arc furnaces are more tolerant of dirty scrap that induction furnaces
and can be used to refine metals, allowing steel to be refined from an iron

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charge (USEPA, 1998). Direct arc furnaces have a very high thermal efficiency
— around 70% — and can function at as little as 450–550 kW.h/tonne of metal
melted. Indirect electric arc furnaces typically achieve closer to 700–1000
kW.h/tonne of steel (Jain, 1986).

3.4 Rotating Furnaces

Rotating furnaces consist of a refractory-lined cylinder that rotates slowly
around a horizontal axis. The charge is heated directly from an open flame,
typically fed by either gas or oil. Exhaust gases are extracted from the opposite
end of the chamber. Rotating the furnace helps to mix the charge and utilises
heat from the whole refractory surface.
Immediately after melting, the melt is covered with a layer of salt. This reduces
slag formation by protecting the melt from oxidisation. Rotating furnaces are
relatively inefficient, at around 990–1080 kW.h/tonne of metal melted, but the
lower cost of fuel offsets this disadvantage to some extent (UNEP, 1997).

Figure 7: A Rotating Furnace

Refractory lined drum
Extraction
filter

Flame

Metal

Rotating
armature

Source: UNEP (1997)

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3.5 Crucible Furnaces

Crucible furnaces are among the oldest and simplest furnaces used in the
foundry industry. They are primarily used to melt smaller amounts of non-
ferrous metals but can also be used for ferrous metals (Metal Asia, 1999c).
They are mostly used by smaller foundries or for specialty alloy lines. The
crucible or refractory container is heated in a furnace, typically fired with
natural gas or liquid propane, although coke, oil or electricity have been used
(USEPA, 1998). There are three common crucible furnaces: bale-out furnaces,
where molten metal is ladled from the crucible; tilting furnaces, where the metal
is poured directly from the furnace; and lift-out furnaces, where the crucible can
be removed from the furnace and used as a ladle (Metal Asia, 1999c).

Figure 8: A Crucible Furnace

Spout

Crucible

Tilting
mechanism
Metal

Refractory
lining

Burner
Source: UNEP (1997)

3.6 Environmental Issues

Cupola, reverberatory and electric arc furnaces may emit particulate matter,
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, small
quantities of chloride and fluoride compounds, and metallic fumes from the
condensation of volatilised metal and metal oxides. Induction furnaces and
crucible furnaces emit relatively small amounts of particulate matter,
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide (USEPA (1998) and Environment Canada
(1997)).

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As shown in Table 3, cupola furnaces generate the largest quantity of

emissions per tonne of charge. This is largely due the fact that the charge
material typically includes greater levels of contamination, but is also due to the
use of coke. Cokeless cupola furnaces achieve significantly lower emission
rates. Emissions from electric melting furnaces are relatively low. They typically
include gases and dust, which originate from contamination in the charge such
as oil, dirt and rust. Most emissions occur during a short period after charging.
The emissions also include fine metal and oxide particles. Generally, higher-
frequency induction furnaces will generate less of this material because lower
stirring rates result in less contact between the metal and air (UNEP, 1997).
Electric induction furnaces achieve the lowest emissions, particularly for steel
foundries where emissions can be virtually eliminated.

Slag is also generated during metal melting operations. Hazardous slag can be
generated if the charge materials contain enough toxic metals, such as lead
and chromium, or if calcium carbide is used in the metal to remove sulfur
compounds (USEPA, 1998).

Table 3: Emission Factors for Uncontrolled Furnaces

Process Grey iron foundries Steel foundries
(kg/tonne) (kg/tonne)
Cupola 8.5
Electric arc 5 6.5
Electric induction 0.75 0.05
Reverberatory 1

Note: Emissions are expressed as weight of pollutant per weight of metal

melted.
Source: Environment Canada (1997)

These emission factors, for fugitive particulate matter from grey iron foundries
using an electric arc furnace, are broken down by process in Table 4.

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Table 4: Emission Factors for Fugitive Particulates

from Grey Iron Foundries (Electric Arc
Furnace)
Process Emissions Emitted to work Emitted to
environment atmosphere
(kg/tonne)
(kg/tonne) (kg/tonne)
Scrap and charge 0.3 0.25 0.1
handling, heating
Magnesium treatment 2.5 2.5 0.5
Sand handling and 20 13 1.5
preparation
Core making, baking 0.6 0.6 0.6
Pouring 2.5 2.5 1
Cooling 5 4.5 0.5
Shakeout 16 6.5 0.5
Cleaning, finishing 8.5 0.15 0.05

Note: Emissions are expressed as weight of pollutant per weight of metal

melted.
Source: Environment Canada (1997)

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