Generation of computer

The history of computer development is often referredto in

reference to the different generations ofcomputing devices
A generation refers to the state ofimprovement in the
development of a product. Thisterm is also used in the
different advancements ofcomputer technology. With each
new generation, thecircuitry has gotten smaller and more
advanced thanthe previous generation before it. As a
result of theminiaturization, speed, power, and memory of
computershas proportionally increased. New discoveries
areconstantly being developed that affect the way welive,
work and play.
Each generation of computer is characterized by amajor technological development
that fundamentallychanged the way computers operate, resulting inincreasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and moreefficient and reliable devices. Read about
eachgeneration and the developments that led to thecurrent devices that we use
today.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitryand magnetic drums for
memory, and were oftenenormous, taking up entire rooms. A magnetic drum,also
referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coatedwith magnetic iron-oxide material on
which data andprograms can be stored. Magnetic drums were once usedas a
primary storage device but have since beenimplemented as auxiliary storage
devices.

The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channelslocated around the

circumference of the drum, formingadjacent circular bands that wind around the
drum. Asingle drum can have up to 200 tracks. As the drumrotates at a speed of up
to 3,000 rpm, the device'sread/write heads deposit magnetized spots on the
drumduring the write operation and sense these spotsduring a read operation. This
action is similar tothat of a magnetic tape or disk drive.

They were very expensive to operate and in additionto using a great deal of
electricity, generated a lotof heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.First
generation computers relied on machine languageto perform operations, and they
could only solve oneproblem at a time. Machine languages are the onlylanguages
understood by computers. While easilyunderstood by computers, machine
languages are almostimpossible for humans to use because they consistentirely of
numbers. Programmers, therefore, useeither a high-level programming language or
anassembly language. An assembly language contains thesame instructions as a
machine language, but theinstructions and variables have names instead of
beingjust numbers.

Programs written in high-level languages aretranslated into assembly language or

machine languageby a compiler. Assembly language programs aretranslated into
machine language by a program calledan assembler.

Every CPU has its own unique machine language.Programs must be rewritten or
recompiled, therefore,to run on different types of computers. Input wasbased on
punched cards and paper tape, and output wasdisplayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples offirst-generation computing

devices. The UNIVAC was thefirst commercial computer delivered to a
businessclient, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator AndComputer, the world's first

operational electronicdigital computer, developed by Army Ordnance tocompute
World War II ballistic firing tables. TheENIAC, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts
ofelectric power and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes,1,500 relays, and hundreds
of thousands of resistors,capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945.
Inaddition to ballistics, the ENIAC's field ofapplication included weather prediction,
atomic-energycalculations, cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition,random-number
studies, wind-tunnel design, and otherscientific uses. The ENIAC soon became
obsolete as theneed arose for faster computing speeds.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in thesecond generation of

computers. Transistor is a devicecomposed of semiconductor material that amplifies
asignal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947at Bell Labs, transistors have
become the keyingredient of all digital circuits, includingcomputers. Today's
microprocessors contains tens ofmillions of microscopic transistors.

Prior to the invention of transistors, digitalcircuits were composed of vacuum tubes,

which had manydisadvantages. They were much larger, required moreenergy,
dissipated more heat, and were more prone tofailures. It's safe to say that without
the inventionof transistors, computing as we know it today wouldnot be possible.

The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not seewidespread use in computers
until the late 50s. Thetransistor was far superior to the vacuum tube,allowing
computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper,more energy-efficient and more
reliable than theirfirst-generation predecessors. Though the transistorstill generated
a great deal of heat that subjectedthe computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement overthe vacuum tube. Second-generation computers stillrelied on
punched cards for input and printouts foroutput.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binarymachine language to

symbolic, or assembly, languages,which allowed programmers to specify
instructions inwords. High-level programming languages were alsobeing developed
at this time, such as early versionsof COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the
firstcomputers that stored their instructions in theirmemory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magneticcore technology.

The first computers of this generation were developedfor the atomic energy
industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was thehallmark of the third generation of
computers.Transistors were miniaturized and placed on siliconchips, called
semiconductors, which drasticallyincreased the speed and efficiency of computers.

A nonmetallic chemical element in the carbon family ofelements. Silicon - atomic

symbol "Si" - is the secondmost abundant element in the earth's crust,
surpassedonly by oxygen. Silicon does not occur uncombined innature. Sand and
almost all rocks contain siliconcombined with oxygen, forming silica. When
siliconcombines with other elements, such as iron, aluminumor potassium, a silicate
is formed. Compounds ofsilicon also occur in the atmosphere, natural waters,many
plants and in the bodies of some animals.

Silicon is the basic material used to make computerchips, transistors, silicon diodes
and otherelectronic circuits and switching devices because itsatomic structure
makes the element an idealsemiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or
mixed,with other elements, such as boron, phosphorous andarsenic, to alter its
conductive properties.

A chip is a small piece of semiconducting material(usually silicon) on which an

integrated circuit isembedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inchesand can
contain millions of electronic components(transistors). Computers consist of many
chips placedon electronic boards called printed circuit boards. There are different
types of chips. For example, CPUchips (also called microprocessors) contain an
entireprocessing unit, whereas memory chips contain blankmemory.

Semiconductor is a material that is neither a goodconductor of electricity (like

copper) nor a goodinsulator (like rubber). The most common
semiconductormaterials are silicon and germanium. These materialsare then doped
to create an excess or lack ofelectrons.
Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composedof semiconductor
materials. Semiconductors make itpossible to miniaturize electronic components,
such astransistors. Not only does miniaturization mean thatthe components take up
less space, it also means thatthey are faster and require less energy.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, usersinteracted with third generation

computers throughkeyboards and monitors and interfaced with anoperating system,
which allowed the device to run manydifferent applications at one time with a
centralprogram that monitored the memory. Computers for thefirst time became
accessible to a mass audiencebecause they were smaller and cheaper than
theirpredecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation ofcomputers, as thousands of

integrated circuits werebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip thatcontains a
CPU. In the world of personal computers,the terms microprocessor and CPU are
usedinterchangeably. At the heart of all personalcomputers and most workstations
sits a microprocessor.Microprocessors also control the logic of almost alldigital
devices, from clock radios to fuel-injectionsystems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiatemicroprocessors:

• Instruction Set: The set of instructions that themicroprocessor can execute.

• Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a singleinstruction.

• Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clockspeed determines how

many instructions per second theprocessor can execute.

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerfulthe CPU. For example, a 32-
bit microprocessor thatruns at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor
that runs at 25MHz.

What in the first generation filled an entire roomcould now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components ofthe
computer - from the central processing unit andmemory to input/output controls -
on a single chip.

Abbreviation of central processing unit, andpronounced as separate letters. The CPU

is the brainsof the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as theprocessor or
central processor, the CPU is where mostcalculations take place. In terms of
computing power,the CPU is the most important element of a computersystem.
On large machines, CPUs require one or more printedcircuit boards. On personal
computers and smallworkstations, the CPU is housed in a single chipcalled a
microprocessor.

Two typical components of a CPU are:

• The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performsarithmetic and logical

operations.

• The control unit, which extracts instructions frommemory and decodes and
executes them, calling on theALU when necessary.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the homeuser, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh.Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of
desktopcomputers and into many areas of life as more and moreeveryday products
began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, theycould be linked together to

form networks, whicheventually led to the development of the Internet.Fourth
generation computers also saw the developmentof GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: ArtificialIntelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based onartificial intelligence, are still in

development,though there are some applications, such as voicerecognition, that are
being used today.

Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computerscience concerned with making

computers behave likehumans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthyat
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Artificial intelligence includes:

• Games Playing: programming computers to play gamessuch as chess and

checkers

• Expert Systems: programming computers to makedecisions in real-life

situations (for example, someexpert systems help doctors diagnose diseases
based onsymptoms)

• Natural Language: programming computers to understandnatural human

languages
 • Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligenceby attempting to
reproduce the types of physicalconnections that occur in animal brains

• Robotics: programming computers to see and hear andreact to other

sensory stimuli

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificialintelligence (that is, are able to simulate
humanbehavior). The greatest advances have occurred in thefield of games playing.
The best computer chessprograms are now capable of beating humans. In
May,1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeatedworld chess champion
Gary Kasparov in a chess match.

In the area of robotics, computers are now widely usedin assembly plants, but they
are capable only of verylimited tasks. Robots have great difficultyidentifying objects
based on appearance or feel, andthey still move and handle objects clumsily.

Natural-language processing offers the greatestpotential rewards because it would

allow people tointeract with computers without needing anyspecialized knowledge.
You could simply walk up to acomputer and talk to it. Unfortunately,
programmingcomputers to understand natural languages has provedto be more
difficult than originally thought. Somerudimentary translation systems that translate
fromone human language to another are in existence, butthey are not nearly as
good as human translators.

There are also voice recognition systems that canconvert spoken sounds into
written words, but they donot understand what they are writing; they simply
takedictation. Even these systems are quite limited -- youmust speak slowly and
distinctly.

In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed torepresent the future of artificial
intelligence and ofcomputers in general. To date, however, they have notlived up to
expectations. Many expert systems helphuman experts in such fields as medicine
andengineering, but they are very expensive to produceand are helpful only in
special situations.

Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence isneural networks, which are proving
successful in anumber of disciplines such as voice recognition andnatural-language
processing.

There are several programming languages that are knownas AI languages because
they are used almostexclusively for AI applications. The two most commonare LISP
and Prolog.
Voice Recognition

The field of computer science that deals withdesigning computer systems that can
recognize spokenwords. Note that voice recognition implies only thatthe computer
can take dictation, not that itunderstands what is being said. Comprehending
humanlanguages falls under a different field of computerscience called natural
language processing. A number of voice recognition systems are available onthe
market. The most powerful can recognize thousandsof words. However, they
generally require an extendedtraining session during which the computer
systembecomes accustomed to a particular voice and accent.Such systems are said
to be speaker dependent.

Many systems also require that the speaker speakslowly and distinctly and separate
each word with ashort pause. These systems are called discrete speechsystems.
Recently, great strides have been made incontinuous speech systems -- voice
recognition systemsthat allow you to speak naturally. There are nowseveral
continuous-speech systems available forpersonal computers.

Because of their limitations and high cost, voicerecognition systems have

traditionally been used onlyin a few specialized situations. For example,
suchsystems are useful in instances when the user isunable to use a keyboard to
enter data because his orher hands are occupied or disabled. Instead of
typingcommands, the user can simply speak into a headset.Increasingly, however,
as the cost decreases andperformance improves, speech recognition systems
areentering the mainstream and are being used as analternative to keyboards.

The use of parallel processing and superconductors ishelping to make artificial

intelligence a reality. Parallel processing is the simultaneous use of morethan one
CPU to execute a program. Ideally, parallelprocessing makes a program run faster
because thereare more engines (CPUs) running it. In practice, it isoften difficult to
divide a program in such a way thatseparate CPUs can execute different portions
withoutinterfering with each other.

Most computers have just one CPU, but some models haveseveral. There are even
computers with thousands ofCPUs. With single-CPU computers, it is possible
toperform parallel processing by connecting thecomputers in a network. However,
this type of parallelprocessing requires very sophisticated software calleddistributed
processing software.

Note that parallel processing differs frommultitasking, in which a single CPU

executes severalprograms at once.

Parallel processing is also called parallel computing.

Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnologywill radically change the

face of computers in yearsto come. First proposed in the 1970s, quantumcomputing
relies on quantum physics by takingadvantage of certain quantum physics
properties ofatoms or nuclei that allow them to work together asquantum bits, or
qubits, to be the computer'sprocessor and memory. By interacting with each
otherwhile being isolated from the external environment,qubits can perform certain
calculations exponentiallyfaster than conventional computers.

Qubits do not rely on the traditional binary nature ofcomputing. While traditional
computers encodeinformation into bits using binary numbers, either a 0or 1, and
can only do calculations on one set ofnumbers at once, quantum computers encode
informationas a series of quantum-mechanical states such as spindirections of
electrons or polarization orientationsof a photon that might represent a 1 or a 0,
mightrepresent a combination of the two or might representa number expressing
that the state of the qubit issomewhere between 1 and 0, or a superposition of
manydifferent numbers at once. A quantum computer can doan arbitrary reversible
classical computation on allthe numbers simultaneously, which a binary
systemcannot do, and also has some ability to produceinterference between various
different numbers. Bydoing a computation on many different numbers at once,then
interfering the results to get a single answer, aquantum computer has the potential
to be much morepowerful than a classical computer of the same size.In using only a
single processing unit, a quantumcomputer can naturally perform myriad operations
inparallel.

Quantum computing is not well suited for tasks such asword processing and email,
but it is ideal for taskssuch as cryptography and modeling and indexing verylarge
databases.

Nanotechnology is a field of science whose goal is tocontrol individual atoms and

molecules to createcomputer chips and other devices that are thousands oftimes
smaller than current technologies permit.Current manufacturing processes use
lithography toimprint circuits on semiconductor materials. Whilelithography has
improved dramatically over the lasttwo decades -- to the point where some
manufacturingplants can produce circuits smaller than one micron(1,000
nanometers) -- it still deals with aggregatesof millions of atoms. It is widely believed
thatlithography is quickly approaching its physicallimits. To continue reducing the
size ofsemiconductors, new technologies that juggleindividual atoms will be
necessary. This is the realmof nanotechnology.

Although research in this field dates back to RichardP. Feynman's classic talk in
1959, the termnanotechnology was first coined by K. Eric Drexler in1986 in the book
Engines of Creation.

In the popular press, the term nanotechnology issometimes used to refer to any
sub-micron process,including lithography. Because of this, manyscientists are
beginning to use the term molecularnanotechnology when talking about true
nanotechnologyat the molecular level.
The goal of fifth-generation computing is to developdevices that respond to natural
language input and arecapable of learning and self-organization.

Here natural language means a human language. Forexample, English, French, and
Chinese are naturallanguages. Computer languages, such as FORTRAN and C,are
not.

Probably the single most challenging problem incomputer science is to develop

computers that canunderstand natural languages. So far, the completesolution to
this problem has proved elusive, althougha great deal of progress has been
made.Fourth-generation languages are the programminglanguages closest to
natural languages.

The Five Generations of Computers

Last updated: August 28, 2009
The history of computer development is
often referred to in reference to the
different generations of computing
devices. Each generation of computer is
characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally
changed the way computers operate,
resulting in increasingly smaller,
cheaper, more powerful and more
efficient and reliable devices.

Read about each generation and the

developments that led to the current
devices that we use today.

First Generation (1940-1956)

Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes
for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory, and were often enormous,
taking up entire rooms. They were very
expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often
the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on

machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by
computers, to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards
and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are

examples of first-generation computing
devices. The UNIVAC was the first
commercial computer delivered to a
business client, the U.S. Census Bureau
in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread
use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the
vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more
energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the
computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and
printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine

language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers
to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were
also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and
FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions
in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic
energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third

generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with
an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the
memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in
the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of
the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984
Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the
realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked

together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs,
the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still
in development, though there are some applications, such as voice
recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum
computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the
face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing
is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.

DID YOU KNOW...

An integrated circuit (IC) is a
small electronic device made
out of a semiconductor
material. The first integrated
circuit was developed in the
1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments and Robert Noyce
of Fairchild Semiconductor.