Introduction to Attitude

Dynamics and Control

Chris Hall
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
[email protected]
Chris Hall
Aerospace and Ocean Engineering
[email protected]
What is spacecraft attitude?
And why should we care about it?
Most spacecraft have instruments or antennas that
must be pointed in specific directions
Hubble must point its main telescope
Communications satellites must point their antennas
The orientation of the spacecraft in space is called its
attitude
To control the attitude, the spacecraft operators
(which could be the spacecrafts computer in the case
of an autonomous ADCS) must have the ability to
Determine the current attitude
Determine the error between the current and desired
attitudes
Apply torques to remove the error
Most spacecraft have instruments or antennas that
must be pointed in specific directions
Hubble must point its main telescope
Communications satellites must point their antennas
The orientation of the spacecraft in space is called its
attitude
To control the attitude, the spacecraft operators
(which could be the spacecrafts computer in the case
of an autonomous ADCS) must have the ability to
Determine the current attitude
Determine the error between the current and desired
attitudes
Apply torques to remove the error
Spacecraft Attitude Determination
and Control
So, the spacecraft needs an Attitude
Determination and Control System (ADCS)
To do the determination function requires
knowledge of kinematics
Attitude is determined using sensors
To do the control function requires
knowledge of kinetics and kinematics
(dynamics)
Attitude is controlled using actuators
So, the spacecraft needs an Attitude
Determination and Control System (ADCS)
To do the determination function requires
knowledge of kinematics
Attitude is determined using sensors
To do the control function requires
knowledge of kinetics and kinematics
(dynamics)
Attitude is controlled using actuators
Attitude Determination
Determine the attitude, or orientation, or
pointing direction of a reference frame fixed in
the body, with respect to a known reference
frame, usually an inertial frame. That is, where
is the spacecraft pointing?
Generally involves finding a rotation matrix,
or its equivalent
Requires two or more attitude sensors
Sun sensor, Earth horizon sensor, Moon sensor, star
tracker, magnetometer
Requires an algorithm
Determine the attitude, or orientation, or
pointing direction of a reference frame fixed in
the body, with respect to a known reference
frame, usually an inertial frame. That is, where
is the spacecraft pointing?
Generally involves finding a rotation matrix,
or its equivalent
Requires two or more attitude sensors
Sun sensor, Earth horizon sensor, Moon sensor, star
tracker, magnetometer
Requires an algorithm
The The The The Differential Equation
Every good dynamics course must begin with a differential
equation
For attitude dynamics and control, the equation of choice is
This is the rotational equivalent of
Other notation used in other books and papers:
Why doesnt everybody get together and agree on a specific
notation?
Every good dynamics course must begin with a differential
equation
For attitude dynamics and control, the equation of choice is
This is the rotational equivalent of
Other notation used in other books and papers:
Why doesnt everybody get together and agree on a specific
notation?
g h
!
"
!
=
f r f a
!
" "
!
!
!
= = m or m
N L
!
"
!
=
M H
!
"
!
=
Euler (1707-1783)
Newton (1643-1727)
Eulers Eulers Eulers Eulers Equations
Eulers vector differential equation
Becomes a matrix differential equation when
expressed in a body-fixed reference frame
And when expressed in a principal reference frame, it
becomes
Eulers vector differential equation
Becomes a matrix differential equation when
expressed in a body-fixed reference frame
And when expressed in a principal reference frame, it
becomes
g h
!
"
!
=
g I! ! ! I + =

"
3
3
3
2 1
2
2
2
1 3
1
1
1
3 2
2 1 3
3 1 2
3 2 1
I
g
I
I I
I
g
I
I I
I
g
I
I I
+ =
+ =
+ =

"
"
"
h is is is is angular momentum angular momentum angular momentum angular momentum
g is is is is torque torque torque torque
I is is is is inertia matrix inertia matrix inertia matrix inertia matrix
is is is is angular velocity angular velocity angular velocity angular velocity
Rigid Body Spin Stability
X
Y
Z
I
xx
> I
yy
> I
zz
Major axis Major axis Major axis Major axis spin is stable stable stable stable
Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis spin is stable stable stable stable
Intermediate axis Intermediate axis Intermediate axis Intermediate axis spin is
unstable unstable unstable unstable
Energy dissipation Energy dissipation Energy dissipation Energy dissipation changes
these results
Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis spin becomes
unstable unstable unstable unstable
This is called the Major This is called the Major This is called the Major This is called the Major- -- -Axis Axis Axis Axis
Rule Rule Rule Rule
I
xx
> I
yy
> I
zz
Major axis Major axis Major axis Major axis spin is stable stable stable stable
Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis spin is stable stable stable stable
Intermediate axis Intermediate axis Intermediate axis Intermediate axis spin is
unstable unstable unstable unstable
Energy dissipation Energy dissipation Energy dissipation Energy dissipation changes
these results
Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis Minor axis spin becomes
unstable unstable unstable unstable
This is called the Major This is called the Major This is called the Major This is called the Major- -- -Axis Axis Axis Axis
Rule Rule Rule Rule
MAJOR
I
N
T
E
R
M
E
D
I
A
T
E
MINOR
Sputnik & Explorer I
Sputnik was launched in 1957
Professor Ronald Bracewell, a radio
astronomer at Stanford, deduced that Sputnik
was spinning about a symmetry axis, and that
it must be the major axis
He called JPL to make sure that the Explorer I
design was taking this into account, but security
prevented him from getting through
Explorer I was designed as a minor axis
spinner, launched in 1958
Sputnik was launched in 1957
Professor Ronald Bracewell, a radio
astronomer at Stanford, deduced that Sputnik
was spinning about a symmetry axis, and that
it must be the major axis
He called JPL to make sure that the Explorer I
design was taking this into account, but security
prevented him from getting through
Explorer I was designed as a minor axis
spinner, launched in 1958
Spin-Stabilized Satellites
Explorer I (1958) was supposed to be
spin-stabilized about its minor axis.
It went into a flat spin due to
energy dissipation.
Telstar I (1962) was spin-stabilized
about its major axis, spinning at
about 200 RPM.
Gravity-Gradient Stabilization
Gravitational attraction:
f = m/r
2
Top: f
1
> f
2
! torque is out
of the page
Bottom: f
1
> f
2
! torque is
into the page
In both cases, the torque is a
restoring torque, tending to
make the satellite swing like
a pendulum
Gravitational attraction:
f = m/r
2
Top: f
1
> f
2
! torque is out
of the page
Bottom: f
1
> f
2
! torque is
into the page
In both cases, the torque is a
restoring torque, tending to
make the satellite swing like
a pendulum
f
1
f
2
f
1
f
2
Gravity-Gradient Stabilization
In the 60s was viewed as free
attitude control
In general, G
2
is not accurate
enough, spacecraft can even flip over
Not really free, because of boom mass
However, OrbComm and TechSat 21
use gravity gradient with flexible solar
panels on an extensible wrapper
around the boom
The Moon is gravity-gradient
stabilized; Lagrange (1736-1813)
showed this
In the 60s was viewed as free
attitude control
In general, G
2
is not accurate
enough, spacecraft can even flip over
Not really free, because of boom mass
However, OrbComm and TechSat 21
use gravity gradient with flexible solar
panels on an extensible wrapper
around the boom
The Moon is gravity-gradient
stabilized; Lagrange (1736-1813)
showed this
TechSat 21
TechSat 21
Augmented G
2
Stabilization
Problem: with G
2
there is practically no yaw
stability
Solution: Add a small momentum wheel
spinning about the pitch axis
In effect, the wheel is a spin-stabilized s/c,
with its angular momentum vector aligned
with the orbital angular momentum vector
Called pitch wheel or yaw wheel
Can still flip over! (Polar Bear)
Problem: with G
2
there is practically no yaw
stability
Solution: Add a small momentum wheel
spinning about the pitch axis
In effect, the wheel is a spin-stabilized s/c,
with its angular momentum vector aligned
with the orbital angular momentum vector
Called pitch wheel or yaw wheel
Can still flip over! (Polar Bear)
Roll, Pitch & Yaw
Same as for aircraft
(usually)
Roll Roll Roll Roll is rotation about
the velocity vector
Pitch Pitch Pitch Pitch is rotation about
the orbit normal vector
Yaw Yaw Yaw Yaw is rotation about
the nadir vector
Keep these color codes
in mind
Same as for aircraft
(usually)
Roll Roll Roll Roll is rotation about
the velocity vector
Pitch Pitch Pitch Pitch is rotation about
the orbit normal vector
Yaw Yaw Yaw Yaw is rotation about
the nadir vector
Keep these color codes
in mind
v
!
r
!

w
!

o
2

o
3

o
Effect of Rotor on Spin Stability
X
Y
Z
A spinning rotor can
stabilize the intermediate
axis, destabilize others
Stability condition
I
R

R
> (I
xx
-I
yy
)
y
As with rigid body, energy
dissipation changes
stability results
some stable spins
become unstable
A spinning rotor can
stabilize the intermediate
axis, destabilize others
Stability condition
I
R

R
> (I
xx
-I
yy
)
y
As with rigid body, energy
dissipation changes
stability results
some stable spins
become unstable

R
R
Platform
Two Spacecraft With Rotors
Defense Support Program Global Positioning System
One large rotor
(120 RPM)
Four momentum wheels
(several thousand RPM)
Dual-Spin Stabilization
Spin-stabilized satellites must be major axis spinners:
short and fat
Spin axis must in orbit normal direction (well, usually)
Two problems:
launch vehicles are tall and skinny
antennas need to point at earth
In mid-60s, two engineers invented a solution
Vernon Landon at RCA
Tony Iorillo at Hughes
Make the spacecraft with two parts: one spins
relatively fast, the other spins slowly or not at all
The major axis rule generalizes to make it possible to
spin stably about the minor axis
Solves both problems: fits in launch vehicle, points
the despun platform at the Earth
Spin-stabilized satellites must be major axis spinners:
short and fat
Spin axis must in orbit normal direction (well, usually)
Two problems:
launch vehicles are tall and skinny
antennas need to point at earth
In mid-60s, two engineers invented a solution
Vernon Landon at RCA
Tony Iorillo at Hughes
Make the spacecraft with two parts: one spins
relatively fast, the other spins slowly or not at all
The major axis rule generalizes to make it possible to
spin stably about the minor axis
Solves both problems: fits in launch vehicle, points
the despun platform at the Earth
Dual-Spin-Stabilized
Satellites
TACSAT I (1969) was the first
satellite to successfully spin
about its minor axis.
The antenna is the platform, and
is intended to point
continuously at the Earth,
spinning at one revolution per
orbit.
The cylindrical body is the rotor,
providing gyric stability through
its 60 RPM spin.
TACSAT I (1969) was the first
satellite to successfully spin
about its minor axis.
The antenna is the platform, and
is intended to point
continuously at the Earth,
spinning at one revolution per
orbit.
The cylindrical body is the rotor,
providing gyric stability through
its 60 RPM spin.
Gimbaled Momentum Wheels
Gimbal axis is fixed in
the body frame
Spin axis is controlled by
gimbal motor
Spin rate is controlled
by wheel motor
Fixed gimbal angle gives
momentum wheel
(MW) or reaction wheel
(RW)
Fixed wheel speed gives
control moment gyro
(CMG)
Gimbal axis is fixed in
the body frame
Spin axis is controlled by
gimbal motor
Spin rate is controlled
by wheel motor
Fixed gimbal angle gives
momentum wheel
(MW) or reaction wheel
(RW)
Fixed wheel speed gives
control moment gyro
(CMG)
a
s
a
g
a
t
Gimbal
motor
Wheel
motor
Gimbal
axis
Transverse
axis
Spin
axis
Three-Axis Stabilization
Instead of keeping the spin axis pointing in a specific direction,
keep all 3 axes pointed in specified directions
Can be done with thrusters, reaction wheels, momentum wheels,
control moment gyros, or combination
Instead of keeping the spin axis pointing in a specific direction,
keep all 3 axes pointed in specified directions
Can be done with thrusters, reaction wheels, momentum wheels,
control moment gyros, or combination
Magnetic Stabilization
Spacecraft is moving through Earths magnetic field B
Passing a current through a conductor creates a magnetic
moment m, which in turn causes a torque g = m B
Companies make magnetic torquer rods and coils specifically for
this ACS application
Theres a simple controller called the B-dot controller that can
spin up or despin a satellite using this torque
Spacecraft is moving through Earths magnetic field B
Passing a current through a conductor creates a magnetic
moment m, which in turn causes a torque g = m B
Companies make magnetic torquer rods and coils specifically for
this ACS application
Theres a simple controller called the B-dot controller that can
spin up or despin a satellite using this torque
Rotational Maneuvers
Many systems require reorienting the
spacecraft from one attitude to another
Similar to three-axis stabilization, but with
additional capability
Uses thrusters, momentum wheels, reaction
wheels, or control moment gyros
Example: Hubble Space Telescope uses
momentum wheels, and turns at about the
same speed as a minute hand on a clock
Many systems require reorienting the
spacecraft from one attitude to another
Similar to three-axis stabilization, but with
additional capability
Uses thrusters, momentum wheels, reaction
wheels, or control moment gyros
Example: Hubble Space Telescope uses
momentum wheels, and turns at about the
same speed as a minute hand on a clock
Hubble Pointing
Hubble is the most precisely pointed machine ever devised for
astronomy.
Requirement: The telescope must be able to maintain lock on
a target for 24 hours without deviating more than 7/1,000ths
(0.007) of an arc second (2 millionths of a degree) which is
about the width of a human hair seen at a distance of a mile.
A laser with the stability and precision of the Hubble, mounted
on top of the United States Capitol could hold a steady beam
on a dime suspended above New York City, over 200 miles
distant. This level of stability and precision is comparable to
sinking a hole-in-one on a Los Angeles golf course from a tee in
Washington, DC, over 2,000 miles away, in 19 out of 20
attempts.
Hubble is the most precisely pointed machine ever devised for
astronomy.
Requirement: The telescope must be able to maintain lock on
a target for 24 hours without deviating more than 7/1,000ths
(0.007) of an arc second (2 millionths of a degree) which is
about the width of a human hair seen at a distance of a mile.
A laser with the stability and precision of the Hubble, mounted
on top of the United States Capitol could hold a steady beam
on a dime suspended above New York City, over 200 miles
distant. This level of stability and precision is comparable to
sinking a hole-in-one on a Los Angeles golf course from a tee in
Washington, DC, over 2,000 miles away, in 19 out of 20
attempts.
Course Overview
Some Mission Analysis concepts
Kinematics: Vectors, Rotation matrices, Euler
angles, Euler parameters (aka quaternions)
Attitude determination
Rigid body dynamics (Eulers equations)
Satellite dynamics applications
Attitude control
Some Mission Analysis concepts
Kinematics: Vectors, Rotation matrices, Euler
angles, Euler parameters (aka quaternions)
Attitude determination
Rigid body dynamics (Eulers equations)
Satellite dynamics applications
Attitude control