Solar Radiation Measurements for Solar Energy Applications

Precision Monitoring of Solar Radiation for Photovoltaic and Thermal Concentrating Solar Energy Systems
technology research quality control optimise locations select system type inform investment decisions maximise operating eciency schedule maintenance monitor performance output forecasting

Why is Accurate Solar Radiation Measurement Critical for Solar Energy?

Good quality, reliable radiation data is extremely important for all activities in the solar energy sector. Photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) thermal systems may have slightly diering requirements, but they need accurate solar radiation information for the same reasons. Technology research Improvements in PV technologies are often incremental, each step is small, but the total gain can be large. For example, two dierent solutions may show eciencies of 20 % and 22 % (10 % improvement) under ideal laboratory simulation. However, this needs to be veried in the real world under varying weather and sky conditions compared to reference quality solar radiation measurements. Quality control If a manufacturer or a supplier wishes to ensure that the performance of their PV cells or panels does not vary by more than (for example) 5 %, they need to measure the solar radiation signicantly more accurately than this. To verify specications the manufacturer, or independent test laboratory, needs reference quality measurements. Optimise locations Solar energy resource maps are widely available and a map for Europe is shown. Such maps are often used to derive the potential for solar electricity generation in a particular region. However, they are generated from satellite data, ground-based meteorological observations (often widely spaced and not very accurate) and interpolation. The map data is usually not of good enough quality, and the scale is too large, to provide a reliable basis on which to make technology and investment decisions. Due to micro-climate and topographical dierences, changes in location of a few hundred kilometers can result in a change of hundreds of annual sunshine hours.
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figure 1: energy resource map for Europe showing the annual amount of global solar radiation available
Yearly sum of global irradiation incident on optimally-inclined south-oriented photovoltaic modules [kWh/m] <600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200>

Yearly sum of solar electricity generated by 1 kWp system with optimally-inclined modules and performance ratio 0.75 [kWh/kWp] <450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650>

ri M., Huld T.A., Dunlop E.D. Ossenbrink H.A., 2007. Solar Energy, 81, 1295-1305, http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis

Having selected potential sites based on resource maps and other criteria (access, distance to grid, climate, etc.), these locations need to be evaluated by making high quality on-site measurements of the solar radiation (energy) over at least a full year. The temporal resolution must be sucient to understand real-time variations on a daily basis (for example, a particular location may have a lot of sun, but if there is too much pollution or dust at certain times, the site may still be unsuitable). Select system type The on-site measurements need to be independent of the power generation technology so that the most appropriate type for the location can be assessed. Inform investment decisions and improve bankability Investors want the lowest uncertainty in the on-site solar resource data, equipment performance and reliability before making decisions on the locations for solar energy plants and on the most eective solar energy system types to use. Errors in the solar radiation measurements can signicantly impact upon the return on investment. High quality solar radiation data is critical to the bankability of projects.

Maximise operating eciency Reference solar monitoring instruments at a plant provide the data to the control room to assess the eciency of the energy generation chain. Schedule maintenance Good quality solar radiation inputs to each inverter allow the eciency to be continuously checked. Rapid changes may mean that a panel needs to be replaced, short-term decline usually means that cleaning is needed; longer term drift is probably due to ageing. Clearly, this requires solar radiation measurements dierent from, and better than, the panels. Monitor performance Using high quality solar radiation measurements at the plant, a database of performance can be built up, allowing more accurate forecasting of the future energy yield and nancial returns. Output forecasting Current solar radiation and meteorological measurements, and a historical database, can be used in conjunction with satellite data and weather forecasts as inputs to now-casting/forecasting models for the output of the plant. This is of particular interest to grid operators, as other power generation sources cannot be switched in instantly when clouds pass over the solar energy plant.

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Introduction to Solar Radiation

The sun provides 99.98 % of the energy for our planet (the rest is geothermal) and it is responsible, directly or indirectly, for the existence of life on Earth. The sun is a star that consists of 71 % Hydrogen, 27 % Helium and 2 % solid matter. Near the suns core the temperature is approximately 16 million degrees and at its outer layer (the Photosphere) it is about 5,770 Kelvin. The energy emitted by the sun is approximately 63 MW for every m of its surface, about 3.72 x 10 MW in total. The SI unit for the measure of irradiance (radiative ux) is Watts per square metre (W/m). At the mean distance between Earth and sun of 150 million kilometres, the ux of the solar radiation reaching the Earths atmosphere is 1,367 W/m (World Meteorological Organisation, 1982). This quantity is named the Solar Constant. There are various processes inside the sun and at its surface, such as the sun spot cycle and solar ares, that cause uctuations in the emitted radiation, but these are not more than 0.1 %. The Earths distance from the sun varies due to its elliptical orbit, so the extra-terrestrial radiation at the top of the atmosphere is 6.6 % higher on January 4th (Perihelion, closest approach) than it is on July 4th (Aphelion). These dates are not the same as the Winter and Summer Solstices (shortest and longest days in the Northern Hemisphere) because the earths axis of rotation is tilted by 23.5 relative to the orbital plane of the Earth around the sun (the ecliptic plane). Due to the large distance between the sun and the Earth, the beam of radiation reaching the top of the atmosphere is almost parallel. This radiation ranges from high energy ultraviolet (UV) radiation through the visible part of the spectrum, to the near infrared (NIR). The maximum intensities are found in the visible part of the spectrum, with wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm. The intensities in the UV and NIR regions of the spectrum are much lower. The sun does not emit far infrared radiation (FIR). However, when the Earth is heated by solar radiation, it does emit IR and FIR radiation, which is absorbed and re-radiated by gases, particles and clouds in the atmosphere.

When passing through the atmosphere some solar radiation reaches the Earths surface undisturbed and some is scattered or absorbed by air molecules, aerosol particles, water droplets or ice crystals in clouds and ice in aircraft contrails. Gaseous molecules and aerosols

cause most of the absorption. Scattering of solar radiation by water droplets and ice crystals takes place over the whole spectral range, whereas molecules predominantly scatter short wavelengths and aerosol particles mainly scatter longer wavelengths.

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figure 2: the wavelength bands of radiation, where blue is UVB radiation, yellow is UVA, white is visible light, cream is near infrared (NIR), and pink is far infrared (FIR). The blue line represents the solar radiation at the Earths surface, the black curve represents the sensitivity of the human eye, the green curve is the spectral sensitivity of a typical photovoltaic cell, the red curve represents the sensitivity of a thermopile pyranometer with glass domes, and the pink curve shows the sensitivity of a thermopile pyrgeometer. All are normalised to an arbitrary maximum of 1.0 unit for comparison purposes.

Passion for Precision

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On a day with a clear sky the irradiance reaching the Earths surface is typically in the range from 700 to 1,300 W/m at local solar noon; depending on the latitude, altitude and time of year. For observations of radiation at the Earths surface, two wavelength regions are dened; short-wave radiation, of wavelengths from 300 nm to 4,000 nm, and long-wave radiation from 4,500 nm (4.5 m) to more than 40 m. The short-wave radiation includes the ultraviolet, visible and near infrared wavelength bands. The solar radiation reaching the Earths surface is partly reected and partly absorbed, depending on the reectivity (albedo) of the surface. Snow and ice are good reectors (high albedo), dark and/or rough surfaces in general reect less eciently (except

51% absorbed by land and oceans

Earths Energy Budget

figure 3: schematic representation of the Earths energy budget (or energy balance) for specular reections). A part of the radiation that is absorbed by the Earths surface is radiated back into the atmosphere in the FIR wavelength range. Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Water Vapour (H2O) in the atmosphere can absorb this radiation, which in turn heats up the Earths atmosphere. This is the wellknown greenhouse eect. In general there is an equilibrium, the Earth system receives as much solar radiation as it emits back into space, meaning that the Earth as a whole does not heat up or cool down.

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Some of these processes are easily observed. Short wavelengths are scattered much more strongly by molecules in the atmosphere (Rayleigh scattering) than longer wavelengths, so when the sun is high the diuse sky appears blue. However, when the sun is near the horizon so much blue is scattered by the thick atmosphere that the skies in the morning and evening appear red.

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These processes signicantly aect the spectrum of radiation that reaches the Earths surface. When the sun is directly overhead the atmospheric depth/thickness is at a minimum, and is dened as having a Relative Air Mass of 1.0 for that location. As the sun moves down towards the horizon, the air mass increases to approximately 11 times larger and the eects of absorption and scattering are correspondingly greater.

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How is Solar Radiation Measured?

High quality ground-based measurements of solar radiation are always made using radiometers with a at spectral response over a wide spectral bandwidth. This is usually achieved using a thermopile detector with a black coating that absorbs the incoming radiation, heats up, and converts the temperature rise into a small electrical signal. The global horizontal irradiance (GHI) falling on to the Earths surface consists of the diuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) from the sky and the direct normal irradiance (DNI) from the sun. This is all short-wave radiation (UV, visible and near infrared). When the direct beam from the sun is falling obliquely onto the Earths surface it is spread out over a larger area than when it is directly overhead, so the energy per unit area is lower and this must be corrected by a cosine function. The relationship of the components of solar radiation is: GHI = DHI + DNI*cos() where is the solar zenith angle (vertically above the location is 0 , horizontal is 90 ). GHI is measured by a horizontally installed pyranometer. The thermopile detector is protected by one or two glass domes, which also determine the spectral response as shown by the red line in gure 2. Such instruments have been used for a long time in meteorological and climatology networks and in the solar energy research community. DNI is measured using a pyrheliometer. This is a thermopile type radiometer with a 5 eld of view and a at window. It follows that, in order to keep the radiometer pointed continuously at the centre of the sun, the instrument must be mounted on a high accuracy automatic sun tracker. The pyranometer for GHI may be conveniently mounted on top of the tracker. DHI can be measured by tting a second pyranometer on top of the sun tracker and a shading assembly that moves with the tracker to always block the direct beam radiation from reaching the pyranometer The types of pyranometers and pyrheliometers, performance specications, calibration methods, etc., have been dened by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the International Standards Organisation (ISO). Instruments that comply with WMO and ISO classications, provide accurate measurements of the solar radiation under all weather conditions. Since the meteorological world and the scientic community are using the same types of instruments, the data can be compared with measurements from weather and climate station networks and satellites, across various locations, and independent of the type of solar energy system.

This combination of instruments, for GHI, DNI and DHI makes a solar monitoring station, to which a horizontally mounted pyrgeometer may be added to measure the FIR long-wave radiation to WMO specications. A pyrgeometer is similar in principle to a pyranometer but the spectral response, shown by the pink line in gure 2, is determined by a silicon window (or dome) that transmits far infrared radiation and has a special internal coating to block the short-wave radiation.

The low level millivolt analogue outputs from the radiometers are normally connected to a data logger that records and stores the readings. Data may be forwarded in real-time via telemetry or a wired connection or periodically downloaded for processing and analysis. The unique new generation of Smart radiometers from Kipp & Zonen can be interfaced directly to digital data acquisition systems.

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What Instruments are Needed for Research or Prospecting?

As previously described, measurements from WMO/ISO type pyranometers and WMO compliant pyrgeometers can be compared directly across sites anywhere in the world, with data from meteorological networks, with satellite information, and with solar radiation prediction algorithms. They are technology independent and can be used for any type of solar thermal energy or PV system and are therefore the ideal solution for solar energy research and site prospecting. The basic requirement is always a horizontally mounted pyranometer to measure global horizontal irradiance (GHI) as a site reference. For research and site prospecting purposes high accuracy (low uncertainty) and reliable data is critical. This means pyranometers that meet, or exceed, ISO Secondary Standard classication. Kipp & Zonen CMP 11, CMP 21, CMP 22 and their corresponding Smart models are capable of measuring the daily total of solar irradiance with a very low uncertainty of 1 to 2 %. PV panels have a wide eld of view and must be positioned in such a way as to receive the maximum amount of solar radiation. Depending on the location and cost/benet decisions these panels may be installed in a xed position at a xed angle. In this case the only other instrument required is a second pyranometer. This is normally installed at the ideal angle for that location, to measure the tilted global irradiance with the same view as a xed panel. To maximise use of the available solar energy PV panels are often installed on mountings that move to follow the sun during the day. Concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) systems require the lenses or reectors to be pointed at the sun with a high accuracy.

For these technologies it is necessary to measure the direct normal irradiance (DNI) with a pyrheliometer and an automatic sun tracker. The pyrheliometer should be ISO First Class, such as the Kipp & Zonen CHP 1 and Smart SHP1, which can measure daily totals of solar irradiance with an uncertainty of 1 %. The sun tracker should have a pointing accuracy of 0.1 , as with the Kipp & Zonen SOLYS 2 and 2AP models. Usually a pyranometer is installed on top of the Sun tracker to measure GHI. A second pyranometer with a shading assembly can be added to measure the diuse horizontal irradiance (DHI). A third pyranometer can be mounted on the side of the sun tracker, pointing at the sun, to give the same moving tilted global view as seen by a 2-axis PV panel.

Traditional photovoltaic (PV) semi-conductor materials are mainly sensitive in the visible and near-infrared parts of the spectrum, from approximately 400 to 1100 nm with a peak just beyond the visible radiation, as shown by the green line in gure 2. However, depending upon the sky conditions, there can be signicant energy available from the ultraviolet radiation below 400 nm and also from near infrared radiation beyond 1100 nm. Therefore, materials development is pushing to make use of this resource. Increasingly, in PV research, a Kipp & Zonen CUV 5 total UV radiometer is being included to monitor the irradiance from 280 to 400 nm. Concentrating solar power (CSP) systems typically use trough reectors or tracking mirrors (heliostats) to focus the solar radiation onto a collector tube or tower, in which a liquid or gas is heated to very high temperatures (400 to 1,000 C). The hot medium is usually used to generate steam that drives conventional turbines to generate electricity. Because of their reective design, it is easy to understand that there is much less wavelength dependence for CSPs than for PV installations. They can focus all the available DNI UV, visible and NIR short-wave radiation from the sun and, on a cloudy day, the long-wave radiation from the atmosphere and clouds in the view of the reectors and mirrors. For these systems a CGR 3 or CGR 4 pyrgeometer may be added to measure the long-wave radiation. For solar site prospecting a simple automatic weather station is often added. This provides additional information to help with location decisions. PV cell eciency is temperature dependent

and high wind speeds may require very rugged panel mountings or be likely to cause damage. The sites are often remote and the prospecting system may need to operate from solar panels and batteries. Kipp & Zonen can supply solutions from a single pyranometer, to complete solar monitoring stations, including meteorological parameters, data acquisition and storage, telemetry solutions, and data visualisation. Maintenance of Kipp & Zonen radiometers is simple; keep the domes and windows clean and periodically replace the desiccant that keeps the radiometers dry inside. Cleaning frequency can be reduced, and the uptime of good quality data increased, by using a ventilation unit such as the Kipp & Zonen CVF 3 that blows clean air over the pyranometer dome to help keep o dust and to remove raindrops and dew. The air ow can be heated to melt snow and frost.

Apart from the maintenance described, regular calibration is required to ensure that the radiometers operate within their specications. Kipp & Zonen recommends recalibration of its radiometers at least every two years. All Kipp & Zonen calibration certicates are supplied with full uncertainty calculations and traceability to the standards at the World Radiation Centre in Davos, Switzerland.

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What Instruments are Needed for Particular Solar Energy Plants?

Several types of solar radiation measurement instruments may be required within a single plant, depending upon the power generation technology in use and the purpose of the measurement within the plant operation and process ow. One requirement is for reference instruments that are used to quantify the solar energy available at the location. These are high quality, high accuracy instruments that can provide the data for comparison with other sites and other measurement sources, such as satellite data, and to build-up a historical, current, and trending data base for the site.
Photo: TV Rheinland - Germany

There is often a high quality automatic weather station that provides local historical and trending information that can be used with the solar radiation data as inputs to now-casting and forecasting models for the output of the plant. A large site may have two or more weather stations at the perimeter. The radiometers for various solar power generation types are the same as those discussed in the previous section for research and site prospecting. In general, commercial power plants will have a complete solar monitoring station for GHI, DNI and DHI. Because these instruments are part of an industrial process there will usually be at least two systems, for redundancy and to provide backup when one set or radiometers is o-site being calibrated. The other requirement is for pyranometers to check the eciency of panels and arrays in PV plants. These could be xed or tracking installations. Normally, each inverter has an input for a reference pyranometer that is used to calculate the eciency of the panels connected to that inverter. The pyranometer is usually mounted on one of the panel supports so that it has the same view as the PV panels. There may be a large number of these pyranometers on a plant, so instead of the ISO Secondary Standard Kipp & Zonen CMP 11, CMP 21, CMP 22 and Smart SMP11 models, the ISO Second Class CMP 3 or Smart SMP3 are used. Pyranometers, such as the CMP 3 and SMP3, have largely replaced the reference cells that were often used for the inverter inputs to calculate system eciencies. There are several reasons for this.

PV modules are characterised under Standard Test Conditions using solar simulators that can seriously overestimate the module performance under operational conditions with varying temperatures, dirt accumulation, linearity eects, etc. A reference cell of the same type will have the same problems, get dirty at the same rate and age at the same rate, therefore the eciency will often show 100 %, which is unrealistic. There are now many types of PV panels and reference cells, so it is dicult to compare one type with another, particularly when they have dierent (limited) spectral responses. This spectral mismatch can easily be 10 % and lead to calculated eciencies of over 100 %! In fact reference cells and PV panels are themselves often calibrated against a Kipp & Zonen pyranometer at the test facility. Because thermopile pyranometers have a broad and at spectral response they measure all the solar irradiance available to the PV panel and it is easy to see how eciently any panel of any type is using that energy, and meaningful comparisons can be made. The at PV panels get dirty much more quickly than pyranometers with their dome construction. This means that it is possible to see when the panel eciency is reducing in the short-term due to dirt, in the long-term due to ageing, or sudden changes that may be caused by panel or inverter failure. Some International Standards, such as IEC 61724 Photovoltaic system performance monitoring - Guidelines for measurement, data exchange and analysis, specify that pyranometers must be used for the eciency calculations.

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Kipp & Zonen for all your Solar Radiation Measurements

The latest generation is the unique new range of Smart radiometers that have integrated analogue-to-digital converters and micro-processors with digital signal processing. They provide polynomial temperature correction, faster response times and full two-way communication by RS-485 and Modbus protocol to industrial digital data acquisition and control systems (SCADA, PLC, etc.). The radiometers are individually addressable so that many units can be linked together on a single multi-drop cable, saving on installation costs. The Smart radiometers also have built in digital-to-analogue converters to provide the enhanced performance as 0 to 1 V or 4 to 20 mA outputs. Both digital and analogue outputs have standardised ranges for simple installation and easy exchange during calibration. Kipp & Zonen has a world-wide reputation for quality, reliability, expertise and support and all our products are provided with a two year warranty as standard. Extended warranties up to an additional 3 years are also available. Please visit our website www.kippzonen.com for more information.

Kipp & Zonen has been designing and manufacturing solar radiation measurement equipment since 1924 and has supplied its instruments for many decades to most of the leading meteorological, climatological and atmospheric science organisations, research institutes and energy companies around the globe. In addition to radiometers and sun trackers, Kipp & Zonen provides a wide range of accessories, data loggers and interfacing solutions. Our instrument calibrations are fully traceable to the World Radiometric Reference at the World Radiation Centre in Davos, Switzerland, and to relevant international standards.

A Selection of Key Customers

Brazil SONDA Sistema de Organizao Nacional de Dados Ambientai Chile Mainstream Renewable Power Ponticia Universidad Catlica de Chile France Akuo Energy Bertn Technologies CNR Compagnie Nationale du Rhne CSTB Centre Scientique et Technique du Btiment EDF Energies Nouvelles Eole-Res INES Institut National de lEnergie Solaire LE2P Universit de la Runion Universit de Corse Veolia Environnement Recherche & Innovation Germany Alfred-Wegener-Institute CSP Services GmbH Deutscher Wetterdienst DLR Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt Forschungszentrum Jlich GE:NET GmbH IBC Solar ISE Fraunhofer Institut fr Solare Energiesysteme Meteocontrol GmbH Skytron Energy GmbH Berlin Soitec Solar GmbH TV Rheinland University Potsdam and others in Germany ZSW Zentrum fr Sonnenenergie- und Wassersto-Forschung Italy Albarubens Korea KIER Korea Institute of Energy Research Netherlands KNMI Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute Singapore Precicon D&C Pte. Ltd South Africa Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies Stellenbosch University, Faculty of Engineering Spain Abengoa Bioenerga ACCIONA Energy CENER Centro Nacional de Energas Renovables Endesa Enho Iberdrola Medioambientales y Tecnolgicas PSA-CIEMAT Plataforma Solar de Almera-Centro de Investigaciones Energticas Renovables SAMCA Solucar Switzerland EPFL cole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne ETH Zrich Eidgenssische Technische Hochschule Zrich Interstaatliche Hochschule Buchs Meteolabor AG MeteoSwiss Oerlikon Solar University Basel United Kingdom Lightsource Renewable Energy Ltd USA Campbell Scientic GroundWork juwi solar inc. Surya Design

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System congurations
Basic Solar Monitoring
For xed (tilted) panels 1 horizontal pyranometer for global radiation 1 tilted pyranometer for tilted global radiation Recommended instruments: CMP 3 | SMP3 | CMP 6 | CMP 11 | SMP11

Relevant IEC standards for PV panel testing

IEC 60904 (part1/10) Photovoltaic devices, measurements and requirements IEC 61215 Design qualication and type approval, crystalline silicon IEC 61646 Design qualication and type approval, thin lm IEC 61724 Photovoltaic system performance monitoring Guidelines for measurement, data exchange and analysis IEC 61853 Module performance testing IEC 62108 Design qualication and type approval, concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) modules and assemblies

Advanced Solar Monitoring

For concentrating and / or tracking systems 1 horizontal pyranometer for global radiation 1 pyrheliometer with sun tracker for direct radiation 1 tilted pyranometer tted to sun tracker 1 horizontal pyrgeometer for infrared radiation (thermal systems) Recommended instruments: CMP 11 | SMP11 | CHP 1 | SHP1 | SOLYS 2 | CGR 4

Relevant EN standard for thermal solar panels

EN 12975 Thermal solar system testing

Relevant ISO standards for pyranometers

ISO 9060 Specications and classications of instruments ISO 9847 Calibration of eld pyranometers

Complete Solar Monitoring System

Includes global, direct, diuse and global tilted measurement 1 horizontal pyranometer for global radiation 1 pyrheliometer with sun tracker for direct radiation 1 tilted pyranometer tted to sun tracker 1 shaded pyranometer for diuse radiation (shading assembly on sun tracker) 1 horizontal pyrgeometer for infrared radiation (thermal systems) Recommended instruments: CMP 11 | SMP11 | CMP 21 | CHP 1 | SHP1 | SOLYS 2 | CGR 4

Traceability
All Kipp & Zonen solar radiation instruments are fully traceable to the World Radiometric Reference (WRR) in Davos, Switzerland, where Kipp & Zonen instruments form part of the World Standard Groups.

Kipp & Zonen B.V. Delftechpark 36, 2628 XH Delft P.O. Box 507, 2600 AM Delft The Netherlands

T: +31 (0) 15 2755 210 F: +31 (0) 15 2620 351 [email protected] www.kippzonen.com

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