Oilon Data Guide

for Professional Sales

OILON OY
P.O.Box 5
FIN-15801 LAHTI FINLAND


Fax
E-mail

+358-3-85 761
+358-3-857 6239
[email protected]
www.oilon.com

This Oilon - booklet includes helpful and necessary information about

oil and gas heating.
This booklet does not give detailed information, so the reader should
check the reliability of data given in this booklet and compare it to his
knowledge.
Responsibility
The Oilon cannot be made responsible for any misprints.

Compiled by:
Kari Palo, Leif Ekholm, Jouko Peltohaka, Matti Kyt

September 2001

Table of Contents
1.

Conversions and Formulas............................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Conversion Tables............................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1. Conversions of Force Units .................................................................................... 1
1.1.2. Conversions of Mass Units..................................................................................... 1
1.1.3. Conversions of Pressure Units ............................................................................... 1
1.1.4. Conversions of Power Units ................................................................................... 1
1.1.5. Conversions of Work and Energy Units ................................................................. 2
1.1.6. Anglo-American Units ............................................................................................. 2
1.2. General Conversions Formulas........................................................................................... 3
1.2.1. Conversion of Temperature Scales from Fahrenheit (F) to Celsius (C) and
Vice Versa .............................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2. Conversion of Calorific Values ............................................................................... 5
1.3. Prefixes and Alphabets........................................................................................................ 5
1.3.1. Prefix for Multiple Numbers of Ten......................................................................... 5
1.3.2. Greek Alphabets ..................................................................................................... 5
1.4. Air Pressure and Density at Altitude.................................................................................... 6
1.4.1. Normal Atmosphere at Altitude............................................................................... 6
1.4.2. Air Temperature / Density (1013 mbar) .................................................................. 6

2.

Boiler Houses ................................................................................................................................ 7

2.1. Boiler Construction Types ................................................................................................... 7
2.2. Steam and Water Enthalpy Values ................................................................................... 11
2.3. Boiler Efficiency Calculation .............................................................................................. 14
2.4. Boiler Output Calculation................................................................................................... 14
2.5. Required Combustion Air .................................................................................................. 15
2.6. Flame Dimensions............................................................................................................. 18
2.7. Recommendation for Minimum Flue Gas Temperature, when Using Fuel Oil.................. 22
2.8. Power Requirement for Oil Preheating.............................................................................. 23
2.9. Economical Flow Velocity in Pipe Lines ............................................................................ 24

3.

Properties of Fuels, Combustion Calculations............................................................................. 25

3.1. Viscosity Tables................................................................................................................. 25
3.2. Heating Values of Liquid Fuels.......................................................................................... 27
3.3. Heating Values of Gaseous Fuels ..................................................................................... 27
3.4. Combustion Air Required, Calculations............................................................................. 28
3.5. Properties of Natural Gas .................................................................................................. 28
3.5.1. Properties of Natural Gas in Finland .................................................................... 28
3.5.2. Properties of Natural Gas ..................................................................................... 28
3.5.3. Properties of Propane, C3H8 ................................................................................. 29
3.5.4. Properties of Butane, C4H10 .................................................................................. 29
3.5.5. Properties of Town Gas........................................................................................ 29
3.5.6. Properties of Hydrogen......................................................................................... 29
3.5.7. Properties of Coke Oven Gas............................................................................... 29
3.5.8. Properties of Lignite Gen. Gas ............................................................................. 30
3.6. Properties of Fuel Oil......................................................................................................... 30
3.6.1. Properties of Light Fuel Oil ................................................................................... 30
3.6.2. Properties of Heavy Fuel Oil................................................................................. 30
3.6.3. Properties of Kerosene......................................................................................... 30
3.6.4. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 20 ....................................................... 30
3.6.5. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 60 ....................................................... 31
3.6.6. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 100 ..................................................... 31
3.6.7. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 200 ..................................................... 31
3.6.8. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 250 ..................................................... 31

4.

Emissions .................................................................................................................................... 32
4.1. Basic Information about Different Emissions .................................................................... 32
4.1.1. NOx....................................................................................................................... 32
4.1.2. SOx....................................................................................................................... 33
4.1.3. Solid Particles and Soot........................................................................................ 34
4.1.4. CO ........................................................................................................................ 36
4.1.5. Noise..................................................................................................................... 36

4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.

Different Oil and Gas Burner Types and their Typical Emissions ..................................... 36
4.2.1. Pressure Jet Oil Burners and with Gas ................................................................ 36
4.2.2. Steam Atomising Power Plant and Process Burners and with Gas ..................... 37
Conversion of Gaseous Emissions ................................................................................... 38
4.3.1. Conversion of Gaseous Emissions to Different Units........................................... 38
4.3.2. Conversion of Gaseous Emissions to Reference Levels ..................................... 39
Saturation Temperatures of Some Fuels .......................................................................... 40
Typical Flue Gas Content .................................................................................................. 40

5.

Electrical Engineering .................................................................................................................. 41

5.1. Alternating-Current (AC) and Direct-Current (DC) ............................................................ 41
5.1.1. General ................................................................................................................. 41
5.1.2. Alternating-Current: Voltage, Power, Y-Connection, D-Connection ..................... 41
5.2. Resistance......................................................................................................................... 42
5.3. Short Circuit Protection and Overload Protection.............................................................. 42
5.3.1. Fuses .................................................................................................................... 42
5.3.2. Thermal Relays..................................................................................................... 42
5.4. Cables ............................................................................................................................... 43
5.4.1. Types .................................................................................................................... 43
5.4.2. Load Capacity....................................................................................................... 43
5.5. Shielding from Contact, Enclosure Class (IP), EX-Class .................................................. 44
5.5.1. Protection Against Direct Contact......................................................................... 44
5.5.2. Protection Against Indirect Contact ...................................................................... 44
5.5.3. Enclosure Class.................................................................................................... 44
5.5.4. EX-Class............................................................................................................... 44
5.6. Burner Control Units .......................................................................................................... 45
5.6.1. Control Unit LAL 1.25 ........................................................................................... 45
5.6.2. Control Unit LFL1.322........................................................................................... 47
5.7. Air Damper Actuators SQN............................................................................................ 50
5.8. Ignition Units...................................................................................................................... 51
5.9. Flame Detectors ................................................................................................................ 51
5.10. Temperature Sensors........................................................................................................ 52
5.11. Pressure Sensors .............................................................................................................. 53
5.12. Directives and Standards .................................................................................................. 53

6.

Notes ........................................................................................................................................... 54

1.

Conversions and Formulas

1.1.

Conversion Tables

1.1.1. Conversions of Force Units

Mp
Mp
kp
N
p
lbf

kp

1
-3
10
-3
0,102x10
-6
10
-3
0,45x10

p
3

10
1
0,102
-3
10
0,452

lbf

9,81x10
9,81
1
-3
9,81x10
4,448

10
1000
3
0,102x10
1
452,5

2,21x10
2,21
0,2248
-3
2,21x10
1

1.1.2. Conversions of Mass Units

2

kps /m

t
t
2
kps /m
kg
g
mg

1
-3
9,81x10
-3
10
-6
10
-9
10

102
1
0,102
-3
0,102x10
-6
0,102x10

kg

mg

1000
9,81
1
-3
10
-6
10

10
9810
1000
1
-3
10

10
6
9,81x10
6
10
1000
1

1.1.3. Conversions of Pressure Units

bar
bar
2

kp/cm =At

kp/cm

PSI
2
(lbf/in )

Torr
mmHg

mmWC,
2
kp/m

1,01972

14,504

750

1,02x10

0,980665

14,223

735,6

10000

0,0703

51,71

0,019

PSI (lbf/in ) 0,068948

-3

-3

2088,55

9,81x10

0,0981

2048,34

703,1

6895

68,9x10

13,6

133,3

1,33x10

9,81

9,807x10
10

0,0209

2,09x10

0,102x10

1,45x10

75x10

0,102

MPa

10

10,1972

144,9

7500

101972

10

PSF
2
(lbf/ft )

47,88x10

0,359

4,889

47,88

-5

-4

14,22x10
-4

-5

-5

48,82x10

-4

-4

69,44x10

0,07356 1
-3

kW
kcal/h
kpm/s
HP
Watt =J/s
2 2
=kgm /s
Btu/h

kcal/h

1
-3
1,16x10
0,00981
0,735
-3
10
-3

0,293*10

kpm/s

HP

102
0,118
1
75
0,102

1,36
0,00157
0,0133
1
0,00136

0,2520

0,0299

0,398x10

-3

144,01

-4

2,786

-6

Btu/h

1000
1,16
9,81
736
1

3,4128x10
3,9684
33,480
3
2,51x10
3,4128

0,293

0,205

47,88x10

Watt =J/s
2 2
=kgm /s

860
1
8,45
632
0,86

-4

-6

1.1.4. Conversions of Power Units

kW

PSF
2
(lbf/ft )

0,1

10

-4

10

MPa

1,33x10

-4

10

Torr =
mmHg
mmWC,
2
kp/m
2
N/m

0,981x10

1,36x10

N/m

-6

2
1.1.5. Conversions of Work and Energy Units
kWh
kWh
kcal
kpm
HPh
J
Btu

kcal

1
-3
1,16x10
-6
2,72x10
0,736
-6
0,278x10
-3
0,293x10

860
1
-3
2,345x10
632
-3
0,239x10
0,2520

kpm

HPh
6

0,367x10
427
1
6
0,27x10
0,102
-5
0,287x10

1,36
0,00157
-6
3,7x10
1
-6
0,378x10
-12
3,99x10

Btu
5

3,6 x10
4186
9,81
6
2,65x10
1
1055,06

3412,12
3,9683
-3
9,27x10
2511
-4
9,48x10
1

1.1.6. Anglo-American Units

Definition of Boiler Horse Power
1 Boiler HP = 33.479 Btu/h = 8.435 kcal/h = evaporation of 15,65 kg of water/h from and
at 100 C.
British and US
Steam from Water at 100 C
Boiler HP
kg of steam/h
a 540 kcal/kg
1
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800

15,65
78
156
235
313
470
626
783
940
1096
1253
1566
2350
3130
3915
4700
5480
6260
7040
7830
7610
9390
10179
10962
11745
12528

Common Market
Steam from Water at 0 C
kg of steam/h
Power
a 640 kcal/kg
Mcal/h
13,2
66
132
198
264
396
528
660
792
924
1056
1320
1980
2640
3300
3960
4620
5280
5940
6600
7260
7920
8580
9240
9900
10560

8,45
42,25
84,50
126,75
169,00
253,5
338,0
422,5
507,0
591,5
676,0
845,0
1267,5
1690,0
2112,5
2535,0
2957,5
3380,0
3802,5
4225,0
4647,5
5070,0
5592,5
5915,0
6337,5
6760,0

3
Units of Heat
1 Btu
1 Btu
1 Btu/sec
1 Btu/lb
1 Btu/lb
1 Btu/cu ft
2
1 Btu/ft h
2
1 Btu/ft h F
2
1 Btu/h F
2
1 Btu in/ft hrF
1 Btu/lbF
1 Btucu ftF

Units of Mass
0,2520 kcal
107,7 kg/m
1,055 kW
0,5556 kcal/kg
0,002326 MJ/kg
3
8,900 kcal/m
3
2,71 kcal/m h
2
4,886 kcal/m hC
1,49 kcal/m hC
0,124 kcal/m hC
1,001 kcal/kgC
3
16,2 kcal m C

1 lb (pound)
1 U.S.A. apt. pound
1 oz (ounce)
1 U.S.A. apt. ounce
1 dram
1 gr (grain)
1 short ton U.S.A.
1 ton (Engl.)
1 long ton U.S.A.
1 stone (Engl.)
1 quarter (Engl.)
1 quarter (short, Engl.)
1 clove (Engl.)

0,45359237 kg
0,373242 kg
28,3495 g
31,10352 g
1,77185 g
64,79891 mg
907,185 kg
1016,05 kg
1016,05 kg
6,3503 kg
12,7006 kg
11,3398 kg
3,62874 kg

Units of Volume
3

1 in
3
1 ft
3
1 yd
3
100 ft
1 standard
1 barrel (USA liquid)
1 barrel (USA oil)
1 barrel (USA dry)
1 barrel (English, dry)
1 gallon (USA)
1 gallon (English)
1 quart (USA)
1 quart (English)
1 pint (USA)
1 pint (English)
1 bushel (USA)
1 bushel (English)

1.2.

16,3871 cm
3
28,3168 dm
3
0,764555 m
3
2,832 m
3
4,672 m
3
119,241 dm
3
158,762 dm
3
115,628 dm
3
163,659 dm
3
3,78543 dm
3
4,54609 dm
3
0,946358 m
3
1,136522 dm
3
0,473179 dm
3
0,568261 dm
3
35,2393 dm
3
36,3687 dm

General Conversions Formulas

1.2.1. Conversion of Temperature Scales from Fahrenheit (F) to Celsius (C) and Vice Versa

5
9

F 32

F 1,8 C 32

4
The number in the centre of the 3 columns can be converted from F into C by reading to the left
and from C into F by reading to the right.
C
-101,1
-98,3
-95,6
-92,8
-90,0
-87,2
-84,4
-81,7
-78,9
-76,1
-73,3
-70,6
-67,8
-65,0
-62,2
-59,4
-56,7
-53,9
-51,1
-48,3
-45,6
-45,0
-44,4
-43,9
-43,3
-42,8
-42,2
-41,7
-41,1
-40,6
-40,0
-39,4
-38,9
-38,3
-37,8
-37,2
-36,7
-36,1
-35,6
-35,0
-34,4
-33,9
-33,3
-32,8
-32,2
-31,7
-31,1
-30,6
-30,0
-29,4
-28,9
-28,3
-27,8
-27,2
-26,7
-26,1
-25,6

-150
-145
-140
-135
-130
-125
-120
-115
-110
-105
-100
-95
-90
-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-49
-48
-47
-46
-45
-44
-43
-42
-41
-40
-39
-38
-37
-36
-35
-34
-33
-32
-31
-30
-29
-28
-27
-26
-25
-24
-23
-22
-21
-20
-19
-18
-17
-16
-15
-14

F
-238,0
-229,0
-220,0
-211,0
-202,0
-193,0
-184,0
-175,0
-166,0
-157,0
-148,0
-139,0
-130,0
-121,0
-112,0
-103,0
-94,0
-85,0
-76,0
-67,0
-58,0
-56,2
-54,4
-52,6
-50,8
-49,0
-47,2
-45,4
-43,6
-41,8
-40,0
-38,2
-36,4
-34,6
-32,8
-31,0
-29,2
-27,4
-25,6
-23,8
-22,0
-20,2
-18,4
-16,6
-14,8
-13,0
-11,2
-9,4
-7,6
-5,8
-4,0
-2,2
-0,4
1,4
3,2
5,0
6,8

C
-25,0
-24,4
-23,9
-23,3
-22,8
-22,2
-21,7
-21,1
-20,6
-20,0
-19,4
-18,9
-18,3
-17,8
-17,2
-16,7
-16,1
-15,6
-15,0
-14,4
-13,9
-13,3
-12,8
-12,2
-11,7
-11,1
-10,6
-10,0
-9,4
-8,9
-8,3
-7,8
-7,2
-6,7
-6,1
-5,6
-5,0
-4,4
-3,9
-3,3
-2,8
-2,2
-1,7
-1,1
-0,6
0,0
0,6
1,1
1,7
2,2
2,8
3,3
3,9
4,4
5,0
5,6
6,1

-13
-12
-11
-10
-9
-8
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43

F
8,6
10,4
12,2
14,0
15,8
17,6
19,4
21,2
23,0
24,8
26,6
28,4
30,2
32,0
33,8
35,6
37,4
39,2
41,0
42,8
44,6
46,4
48,2
50,0
51,8
53,6
55,4
57,2
59,0
60,8
62,6
64,4
66,2
68,0
69,8
71,6
73,4
75,2
77,0
78,8
80,6
82,4
84,2
86,0
87,8
89,6
91,4
93,2
95,0
96,8
98,6
100,4
102,2
104,0
105,8
107,6
109,4

C
6,7
7,2
7,8
8,3
8,9
9,4
10,0
10,6
11,1
11,7
12,2
12,8
13,3
13,9
14,4
15,0
15,6
16,1
16,7
17,2
17,8
18,3
18,9
19,4
20,0
20,6
21,1
21,7
22,2
22,8
23,3
23,9
24,4
25,0
25,6
26,1
26,7
27,2
27,8
28,3
28,9
29,4
30,0
30,6
31,1
31,7
32,2
32,8
33,3
33,9
34,4
35,0
35,6
36,1
36,7
37,2
37,8

44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100

F
111,2
113,0
114,8
116,6
118,4
120,2
122,0
123,8
125,6
127,4
129,2
131,0
132,8
134,6
136,4
138,2
140,0
141,8
143,6
145,4
147,2
149,0
150,8
152,6
154,4
156,2
158,0
159,8
161,6
163,4
165,2
167,0
168,8
170,6
172,4
174,2
176,0
177,8
179,6
181,4
183,2
185,0
186,8
188,6
190,4
192,2
194,0
195,8
197,6
199,4
201,2
203,0
204,8
206,6
208,4
210,2
212,0

C
40,6
43,3
46,1
48,9
51,7
54,4
57,2
60,0
62,8
65,6
68,3
71,1
73,9
76,7
79,4
82,2
85,0
87,8
90,6
93,3
96,1
98,9
101,7
104,4
107,2
110,0
112,8
115,6
118,3
121,1
123,9
126,7
129,4
132,2
135,0
137,8
140,6
143,3
146,1
148,9
151,7
154,4
157,2
160,0
162,8
165,6
168,3
171,1
173,9
176,7

105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
205
210
215
220
225
230
235
240
245
250
255
260
265
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
310
315
320
325
330
335
340
345
350

F
221,0
230,0
239,0
248,0
257,0
266,0
275,0
284,0
293,0
302,0
311,0
320,0
329,0
338,0
347,0
356,0
365,0
374,0
383,0
392,0
401,0
410,0
419,0
428,0
437,0
446,0
455,0
464,0
473,0
482,0
491,0
500,0
509,0
518,0
527,0
536,0
545,0
554,0
563,0
572,0
581,0
590,0
599,0
608,0
617,0
626,0
635,0
644,0
653,0
662,0

5
1.2.2. Conversion of Calorific Values

1 kWh/kg = 3600 kJ/kg

1 kcal/kg = 4,187 kJ/kg
1 kcal/kg = 0,001163 kWh/kg

1.3.

Prefixes and Alphabets

1.3.1. Prefix for Multiple Numbers of Ten

Prefix

Power of ten
24

Yotta
Zetta
Eksa
Peta
Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo
Hecto
Deca
Deci
Centi
Milli
Micro
Nano
Pico
Femto
Atto
Zepto
Yotto

10
21
10
18
10
15
10
12
10
9
10
6
10
3
10
2
10
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-6
10
-9
10
-12
10
-15
10
-18
10
-21
10
-24
10

Abbreviation

Y
Z
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m

n
p
f
a
z
y

1.3.2. Greek Alphabets

Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu

Upper Lower
Case Case
A

Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Chi
Psi
Omega

Upper Lower
Case Case

1.4.

Air Pressure and Density at Altitude

1.4.1. Normal Atmosphere at Altitude

PRESSURE OF
NORMAL ATMOSPHERE AT ALTITUDE

AIR TEMPERATURE IN
NORMAL ATMOSPHERE AT ALTITUDE
15

105
100
95
kPa

10

90
85
80

75

1,3

kg/m3

1,2

1,1

1,0

0,9
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Height from Sea Level, m

1.4.2. Air Temperature / Density (1013 mbar)

3

Temp C

kg/m

-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30

1.5340
1.5160
1.4530
1.3950
1.3423
1.2930
1.2471
1.2045
1.1647

00

00

Height From Sea Level, m

AIR DENSITY AT ALTITUDE

30

00

00

25

20

15

Height from Sea Level, m

10

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

50

00

70

-5

Temp C

kg/m

40
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
140

1.1267
1.0924
1.0595
1.0287
0.9998
0.9719
0.9458
0.8980
0.8535

Temp C

kg/m

160
180
200
250
300
350
400
450
500

0.8150
0.7785
0.7457
0.6745
0.6157
0.5662
0.5242
0.4875
0.4568

2.

Boiler Houses

2.1.

Boiler Construction Types

Steel-plate boiler for domestic

heating
Output 20 kW

Steel-plate boiler with built-in tap water boiler

for domestic heating
Output 20 kW

Cast iron boiler for heating of houses

Output 250710 kW

Fire tube boilers

Hot water boiler

113 MW

Steam boiler
Output 1,620 t/h steam

Installation Example of Dual Fuel Burner to a Firetube Boiler

10

Modern Water Tube Boiler

Output 2040 MW

11

2.2.

Steam and Water Enthalpy Values

Enthalpy of water and superheated steam in kJ/kg
Pressure
bar

Temperature
C

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

2875

2975

3075

3176

3276

3382

3485

2856

2961

3065

3168

3272

3377

3482

10

2828

2943

3052

3158

3263

3368

3476

15

2793

2924

3038

3148

3256

3364

3472

20

853

2902

3025

3139

3249

3356

3465

25

853

2880

3010

3128

3241

3349

3459

30

853

2855

2995

3118

3232

3343

3454

35

853

2828

2979

3106

3224

3337

3449

40

853

1086

2962

3095

3216

3330

3444

45

854

1086

2944

3083

3207

3324

3438

50

854

1086

2926

3071

3198

3316

3432

60

854

1086

2885

3046

3180

3303

3421

70

855

1086

2839

3019

3161

3289

3409

80

855

1086

2787

2990

3141

3273

3397

90

856

1086

1344

2959

3119

3257

3384

100

856

1086

1343

2924

3097

3242

3372

120

857

1086

1341

2847

3052

3209

3347

140

858

1086

1339

2752

3003

3175

3321

160

859

1086

1337

2619

2949

3139

3295

180

860

1087

1335

1660

2888

3102

3267

200

860

1087

1334

1647

2818

3062

3239

250

863

1088

1331

1625

2580

2952

3163

300

865

1088

1328

1610

2162

2824

3085

350

868

1090

1327

1599

1993

2674

2997

400

870

1091

1325

1590

1934

2516

2906

500

876

1094

1324

1576

1878

2293

2723

600

881

1097

1323

1567

1847

2187

2570

12
Values for water and steam at saturation conditions as a function of temperature
Temperature

Pressure

Specific Volume

Density

Steam
v
3
m /kg

Steam

3
kg/m

Water
h
kJ/kg

Steam
h
kJ/kg

Evaporation
R
kJ/kg

12,05
9,579
7,679
6,202
5,046
4,134
3,409
2,829
2,361
1,982
1,673
1,419
1,210
1,036
0,8915
0,7702
0,6681
0,5818
0,5085
0,4460
0,3924
0,3068
0,2426
0,1938
0,1563
0,1272
0,1942
0,08604
0,07145
0,05965
0,05004
0,04213
0,03559
0,03013
0,02554
0,02165
0,01833
0,01548
0,01299
0,01078
0,00880
0,00317

0,0830
0,1044
0,1302
0,1612
0,1982
0,2419
0,2933
0,3535
0,4235
0,5045
0,5977
0,7046
0,8265
0,9650
1,122
1,298
1,497
1,719
1,967
2,242
2,548
3,260
4,123
5,160
6,397
7,864
9,593
11,62
14,00
16,76
19,99
23,73
28,10
33,19
39,16
46,19
54,54
64,60
76,99
92,76
113,6
315,5

209,26
230,17
251,09
272,02
292,97
313,94
334,92
355,92
376,94
397,99
419,06
440,17
461,32
482,50
503,72
524,99
546,31
567,68
589,10
610,60
632,15
675,47
719,12
763,12
807,52
852,37
897,74
943,67
990,26
1037,6
1085,8
1134,9
1185,2
1236,8
1290,0
1345,0
1402,4
1462,6
1526,5
1595,5
1671,9
2107,4

2592,2
2601,0
2609,7
2618,4
2626,9
2635,4
2643,8
2652,0
2660,1
2668,1
2676,0
2683,7
2691,3
2698,7
2706,0
2713,0
2719,9
2726,6
2733,1
2739,3
2745,4
2756,7
2767,1
2776,3
2784,3
2790,9
2796,2
2799,9
2802,0
2802,2
2800,4
2796,4
2789,9
2780,4
2767,6
2751,0
2730,0
2703,7
2670,2
2626,2
2567,7
2107,4

2382,9
2370,8
2358,6
2346,3
2334,0
2321,5
2308,8
2296,5
2283,2
2270,2
2256,9
2243,6
2230,0
2216,2
2202,2
2188,0
2173,6
2158,9
2144,0
2128,7
2113,2
2081,3
2047,9
2013,1
1976,7
1938,6
1898,5
1856,2
1811,7
1764,6
1714,6
1661,5
1604,6
1543,6
1477,6
1406,0
1327,6
1241,1
1143,6
1030,7
895,7
0,0

T
C

P
bar

Water
v
3
m /kg

50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
374,15

0,1234
0,1574
0,1992
0,2501
0,3116
0,3855
0,4736
0,5780
0,7011
0,8453
1,0133
1,2080
1,4327
1,6906
1,9854
2,3210
2,7013
3,131
3,614
4,155
4,760
6,181
7,920
10,027
12,551
15,549
19,977
23,198
27,976
33,478
39,776
46,943
55,058
64,202
74,461
85,927
98,700
112,89
128,63
146,05
165,35
221,20

0,0010121
0,0010145
0,0010171
0,0010199
0,0010228
0,0010259
0,0010292
0,0010326
0,0010361
0,0010399
0,0010437
0,0010477
0,0010519
0,0010562
0,0010606
0,0010652
0,0010700
0,0010750
0,0010801
0,0010853
0,0010908
0,0011022
0,0011145
0,0011275
0,0011415
0,0011565
0,0011726
0,0011900
0,0012087
0,0012291
0,0012513
0,0012756
0,0013025
0,0013324
0,0013659
0,0014041
0,0014480
0,0014995
0,0015615
0,0016387
0,0017411
0,00317

Specific Enthalpy

13
Values for water and steam at saturation conditions as a function of pressure

Pressure

Temperature

ts

Specific Volume

Density

Specific Enthalpy

Water

Steam

Steam

Water

Steam

Evaporation

kJ/kg

kJ/kg

kJ/kg

bar

m /kg

m /kg

3
kg/m

0,2

60,086

0,0010172

7,650

0,1307

251,45

2609,9

2358,4

0,5

81,345

0,0010301

3,240

0,3086

340,56

2646,0

2305,4

0,8

93,512

0,0010387

2,087

0,4792

391,72

2665,8

2274,0

1,0

99,632

0,0010434

1,694

0,5904

417,51

2675,4

2257,9

1,5

111,37

0,0010530

1,159

0,8628

467,15

2693,4

2226,2

120,23

0,0010608

0,8854

1,129

504,70

2706,3

2201,6

133,54

0,0010735

0,6056

1,651

561,43

2724,7

2163,2

143,62

0,001089

0,4622

2,163

604,67

2737,6

2133,0

151,84

0,0010928

0,3747

2,669

640,12

2747,5

2107,4

158,84

0,0011009

0,3155

3,170

670,42

2755,5

2085,0

164,96

0,0011082

0,2727

3,667

697,06

2762,0

2064,9

170,41

0,0011150

0,2403

4,162

720,94

2767,5

2046,5

175,36

0,0011213

0,2148

4,655

742,64

2772,1

2029,5

10

179,88

0,0011274

0,1943

5,147

762,61

2776,2

2013,6

11

184,07

0,0011331

0,1774

5,637

781,13

2779,7

1998,5

12

187,96

0,0011386

0,1632

6,127

798,43

2782,7

1984,3

14

195,04

0,0011489

0,1407

7,106

830,08

2787,8

1957,7

16

201,37

0,0011586

0,1237

8,085

858,56

2791,7

1933,2

18

207,11

0,0011678

0,1103

9,065

884,58

2794,8

1910,3

20

212,37

0,0011766

0,09954

10,05

908,59

2797,2

1888,6

22

217,24

0,0011850

0,09065

11,03

930,95

2799,1

1868,1

24

221,78

0,0011932

0,08320

12,02

951,93

2800,4

1848,5

26

226,04

0,0012011

0,07686

13,01

971,72

2801,4

1829,6

28

230,05

0,0012088

0,07139

14,01

990,48

2802,0

1811,5

30

233,84

0,0012163

0,06663

15,01

1008,4

2802,3

1793,9

35

242,54

0,0012345

0,05703

17,54

1049,8

2802,0

1752,2

40

250,33

0,0012521

0,04975

20,10

1087,4

2800,3

1712,9

50

263,91

0,0012858

0,03943

25,36

1154,5

2794,2

1639,7

60

275,55

0,0013187

0,03244

30,83

1213,7

2785,0

1571,3

70

285,79

0,0013513

0,02737

36,53

1267,4

2773,5

1506,0

80

294,97

0,0013842

0,02353

42,51

1317,1

2759,9

1422,8

90

303,31

0,0014179

0,02050

48,79

1363,7

2744,6

1380,9

100

310,96

0,0014526

0,01804

55,43

1408,0

2727,7

1319,7

14

2.3.

Boiler Efficiency Calculation

Efficiency calculation using exhaust gas measurement

B = 100% - XA% - 2%(max)

XA %

XA
Te
Tc
SF

Te - Tc

CO 2 , measured

SF

= exhaust gas losses in %

= exhaust gas temperature in C
= combustion air temperature in C
= Siegerts constant

SF = 0,6 with HFO

SF = 0,58 with LFO
SF = 0,47 with Natural Gas

2.4.

Boiler Output Calculation

1 t/h saturated steam ~ 0,65 MW boiler output *
* at a steam pressure of 12 bar and a feed water temperature of 102 C
1 kg of oil generates approximately 16 kg of steam
3

1 kg of oil or 1m of gas generates the following quantity of saturated steam in kg:

3

calorific value in kJ/kg or kJ/m x efficiency in %

235,000

To generate 1 ton of saturated steam, the following oil or gas quantity is required in kg or m :

2,34 10

8
3

calorific value in kJ/kg or kJ/m x efficiency in %

Boiler Output/Generated
Amount of Saturated Steam

Boiler
Efficiency

Firing Rate

HFO Quantity LFO Quantity

t/h

MW

MW

kg/h

kg/h

1
1
1
1

0,65
0,65
0,65
0,65

85
88
90
92

0,77
0,74
0,72
0,71

67,5
65,5
64
62,5

64,5
62,5
61,0
59,5

15

Required Combustion Air

Combustion Air Quantity acc. to Oil Consumption in kg

17

Air quantity, mn

16
15
14
13
12
11
10
1,0

1,1

1,2

1,3

1,4

1,5

Excess air number

LFO

HFO

Combustion Air Quantity acc. to Oil Consumption in kg

15

14

Air quantity, mn

2.5.

13

12

11

10
0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

O2 in fue gas

LFO

HFO

4,0

5,0

16

Combustion Air Quantity acc. to Gas Consumption in mn

15

Air quantity, mn

14

13

12

11

10

9
1,0

1,1

1,2

1,3

1,4

1,5

Excess air number

Natural Gas

Combustion Air Quantity acc. to Gas Consumption in mn

13

Air quantity, mn

12

11

10

9
0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

O2 in flue gas

Natural Gas

4,0

5,0

17
Recommended Flow Velocities for Combustion Air and for Flue Gases at Nominal Boiler Load,
m/s
Oil and Gas
Boilers

Peat and Coal

Boilers

815
121520

121520

152025
1015

151825
1015

Flue gases in the boiler

- furnace
- convection
- rotating air heater
- fire tubes

612
1825
1016
(8)2035

612
1216
812

Flue gas channels

- after boiler
small boilers
big boilers
- after gas turbine

815
131825
152030

101416

Air ducts
- cold air
small boilers
big boilers
- hot air, ~ 300 C
(aft. air heater)
air box

Chimney
- natural draft
brickwork
- steel pipes
small boilers
big boilers

35

820
1
2030

2030

Gas turbine plants

3040

lower values for industrial boilers, higher values for power plants

18

Flame Dimensions

Length

a) For Standard Pressure Jet Burners (for Guidance only)

Length

2.6.

The diagram shows the flame

dimensions of an Oilon burner in a
regular firetube boiler. The burner is
equipped with a standard nozzle and
with a standard burner head.

19

Length

a) .continues

The diagram shows the flame

dimensions of an Oilon burner in a
regular firetube boiler. The burner is
equipped with a standard nozzle and
with a standard burner head.

20

Length

b) For Power Plant and Process Industry Burners with Steam or Pressure Air Atomising (for
Guidance only)

Length

Fuel oil

Fuel oil

21

Length

b) .continues

Length

Natural gas

Natural gas

22

2.7.

Recommendation for Minimum Flue Gas Temperature, when Using Fuel Oil
The recommendation is to use at boiler minimum load 15 % higher flue gas temperature after
the boiler than the dew point temperature for sulphuric acid as in the diagram below.

The recommendation for lowest flue gas temperature when using fuel oil is based on the
excess air number and on the percentual sulphur content in the fuel oil
ACID DEWPOINT WHEN FIRING FUEL OILS
Dewpoint C

Excess air number

23

Power Requirement for Oil Preheating

P
moil
T2
T1
Cp

m oil
3600

Cp (T2 - T1 )

= power requirement in kW
= mass flow in kg/s
= outlet temperature K
= inlet temperature K
= specific heat in kJ/kg K

Specific Heat for HFO (Cp)

2,3
2,2
2,1
Specific heat /kJ/kgK

2.8.

2
1,9
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,5
0

50

100

Oil temperature, C

Specific Heat for HFO (Cp)

150

24

2.9.

Economical Flow Velocity in Pipe Lines

25

3.

Properties of Fuels, Combustion Calculations

3.1.

Viscosity Tables
A-423S

26

C
150

150

145

145

140

140

135

135

130

130

125

125

120

120

115

115

MAZUT200

110

110

105

105

MAZUT100

100

100

95

95

90

90

MAZUT40

85

85

80

80

75

75

12

70

70

65

65

60

60

55

55

50

50

45

45

40

40

35

35

30

30

25

25

20

20

15

15

10

10

5
1.4

1.5

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.5

3.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

40

70

100

260
200

4.5

10

15
14
13
12
11

20

25

30

10

50

100
90
80
70
60

40

150

200

20

300

600
500
400

1000
800

2000

cSt

1500

27

3.2.

Heating Values of Liquid Fuels

Fuel
MJ/l

3.3.

Lower Heating Value

MJ/kg kcal/kg
kWh/kg

Light fuel oil

35,9

42,7

10 200

11,9

Heavy fuel oil

38,6

40,6

9 701

11,2

Kerosene

34,7

42,8

10 227

11,9

Heating Values of Gaseous Fuels

Fuel
MJ/kg

MJ/m

Lower Heating Value

3
kcal/kg
kcal/m
kWh/kg

kWh/m

Natural gas L

32,0

7 654

8,9

Natural gas H

36,0

8 600

10,0

Propane

46,4

93,6

11 084

22 360

12,9

26,0

Butane

45,7

123,5

10 917

29 498

12,7

34,3

City gas

16,2

3 861

4,49

Hydrogen

10,3

2 460

2,86

28

3.4.

Combustion Air Required, Calculations

Excess Air
=

VL
VL, Stoi

CO 2, max
CO 2, meas.
21 %
21 % - O 2, meas.

VL
VL, Stoi
CO2, max
CO2, measured

3.5.

= excess air
= actual quantity of air
= stoichiometric quantity
= max. CO2 content with stoichiometric combustion in vol-%
= CO2 content in vol-%

Properties of Natural Gas

3.5.1. Properties of Natural Gas in Finland

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

35,84 MJ/mn
0,566
0,727 kg/m
47,6
9,7 mn/mn fuel
11,7 vol-%
10,7 mn/mn fuel
645 C
35 cm/s

3.5.2. Properties of Natural Gas

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

31,741,3 MJ/ mn
0,5660,643
0,730,83 kg/m
4048
8,49,9 mn/ mn fuel
11,712,0 vol-%
10,78,9 mn/mn fuel
645 C
3437 cm/s

29
3.5.3. Properties of Propane, C3H8

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

93,3 MJ/Nm
1,56
2,02 kg/m
75
23,9 mn/mn fuel
13,7 vol-%
25,9 mn/mn fuel
500 C
42 cm/s

3.5.4. Properties of Butane, C4H10

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

123,8 MJ/Nm
2,09
2,70 kg/m
85,6
31,9 mn/mn fuel
14,0 vol-%
33,5 mn/mn fuel
480 C
42 cm/s

3.5.5. Properties of Town Gas

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

15,917,6 MJ/Nm
0,47
0,58 kg/m
23
3,8 mn/mn fuel
13,8 vol-%
4,4 mn/mn fuel
510 C
68 cm/s

3.5.6. Properties of Hydrogen

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

10,3 MJ/Nm
0,07
0,09 kg/m
38,9
2,38 mn/mn fuel
2,83 mn/mn fuel
580 C
83 cm/s

3.5.7. Properties of Coke Oven Gas

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

17,619,3 MJ/Nm
0,39
0,48 kg/m
28
4,2 mn/mn fuel
10,1 vol-%
4,9 mn/mn fuel
540 C
78 cm/s

30
3.5.8. Properties of Lignite Gen. Gas

3.6.

heating value
relative density (RD)
density
Wobbe index
req. air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, moist
ignition temperature
flame ignition speed

5,86,2 MJ/Nm
0,87
1,12 kg/m
6,2
1,2 mn/mn fuel
20,1 vol-%
1,8 mn/mn fuel
740 C
35 cm/s

Properties of Fuel Oil

3.6.1. Properties of Light Fuel Oil

heating value
density at 15C
required air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, dry
ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney

42,7 MJ/kg
850 kg/m
11,3 mn/kg fuel
15,5 vol-%
10,3 mn/kg fuel
min 70 C
311 mm/s at 20 C
12 mm/s at 50 C
75110 C

3.6.2. Properties of Heavy Fuel Oil

heating value
density at 15C
required air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, dry
ignition temperature, min
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney

40,5 MJ/kg
960980 kg/m
10,6 mn/kg fuel
15,9 vol-%
11,7 mn/kg fuel
120 C
90650 mm/s at 50 C
1160 mm/s at 100 C
130160 C

3.6.3. Properties of Kerosene

heating value
density at 15C
required air quantity (=1)
CO2max
quantity of flue gas, dry
ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity

42,8 MJ/kg
775830 kg/m
11,3 mn/kg fuel
15,5 vol-%
10,3 mn/kg fuel
min 43 C
3,58,0 mm/s at 20 C
1,25 mm/s at 40 C

3.6.4. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 20

heating value
density at 15C
pour point
water content
sulphur content
ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney
atomising temp. at pressure jet burner

41 MJ/kg
940 kg/m
>15 C
<1,0 %
<1,0 %
min 80 C
200 mm/s at 50 C
5 E at 80 C
135155 C
110 C

31
3.6.5. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 60

heating value
density at 15C
pour point
water content
sulphur content
Ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney
atomising temp. at pressure jet burner

41 MJ/kg
940 kg/m
>20 C
<1,5 %
<1,5 %
min 100 C
460 mm/s at 50 C
11 E at 80 C
145155 C
125 C

3.6.6. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 100

heating value
density at 15C
pour point
water content
sulphur content
Ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney
atomising temp. at pressure jet burner

40,5 MJ/kg
940 kg/m
>25 C
<2,0 %
<2,0 %
min 120C
700 mm/s at 50 C
15,5 E at 80 C
145155 C
135 C

3.6.7. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 200

heating value
density at 15C
pour point
Wwater content
sulphur content
Ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney
atomising temp. at pressure jet burner

40,5 MJ/kg
940 kg/m
>36 C
<2,0 %
<3,0 %
min 130C
600-1400 mm/s at 50 C
5,59,5 E at 100 C
140155 C
130150 C

3.6.8. Properties of Chinese Heavy Fuel Oil No. 250

heating value
density at 15C
pour point
water content
sulphur content
ignition temperature
viscosity
viscosity
dew point in chimney
atomising temp. for steam atom. burner

40,5 MJ/kg
940 kg/m
>45 C
<2,0 %
1,0 %
min 200 C
18000 mm/s at 50 C
25 E at 100 C
150155 C
160 C

32

4.

Emissions

4.1.

Basic Information about Different Emissions

4.1.1. NOx

NOx is a general term of nitrogen oxides. NOx includes many components, but in most cases
practically all NOx is either NO or NO2. Other nitrogen components are N2O, N2O3, NO3, N2O4
etc. They all are invisible poisonous gases, which cause harm to living creatures and also to
structures after reactions in the atmosphere. In all practical combustion processes we oxide fuel
components with oxygen of air and at the same time we produce NO x emissions. About
95...99 % of NOx is NO and rest is NO2 in normal burner combustion cases. Most of the NO
molecules, however, react in the atmosphere to NO2.
Combustion air contains N2 and O2 molecules and when they meet each other in the hot flame
mixture they react so, that they mainly produce nitrogen oxides, most of it NO.
N2 + O

NO + N

(1)

NOx emissions, (mg/MJ)

The reaction (1) above needs much energy so that NOx formation reaction is possible only when
the temperature is high enough and fuel lean conditions exist. The level of this so called thermal
NOx increases rapidly in flame temperatures above 14501550 C. Also residence time in hot
zones affects to the formation rate. Thermal NOx is the main mechanism with several fuels like
gas and light oil which doesnt contain organically bonded nitrogen practically at all. That is not,
however, the only mechanism of formation of NOx. Also several fuels like heavy oils, peat and
coal contain nitrogen compounds and organic compounds including nitrogen. That nitrogen will
be released in the flame and very probably form fuel NOx with oxygen of air. That reaction is not
strongly dependent on temperature but is more sensitive to the partial pressure of oxygen.
Organically bonded nitrogen is very reactive and most of it will react and form either NOx or N2.
There are also other mechanisms, like Fenimore or Prompt NOx, which can produce NOx, but
they are not so important.

Max. furnace temperature, C

In this figure different NOx formation mechanisms are shown

during oil combustion and without any staging principles

33
We can affect and reduce NOx emission levels with several means. The most important
methods are:
-

low NOx burners

air staging in the combustion chamber, OFA
fuel staging in the combustion chamber
flue gas recirculation, FGR
reduction of air coefficient (excess air)
reduction of combustion air temperature
burner staging with different burner levels
3
reduction of heat releasing rate (kW/m ) in the combustion chamber
surfaces
larger boilers
using BFB or CFB technology
using secondary technics like SCR or SNCR

more cooling

Also fuel selection, process conditions, control equipment and furnace geometry affect to the
NOx emission levels. In typical boiler applications most useful primary means are: 1) low NOx
burners 2) flue gas recirculation 3) over fire air 4) reduction of excess air 5) reduction of
combustion air preheat temperature. Expensive secondary technics will be used only if the
primary means are not enough. It must be noticed, that main sources of man made NOx are
private cars and other processes than basic energy production.

4.1.2. SOx

SOx is the main product of sulphur oxidation in flames. Sulphur comes from the fuel and reacts
with oxygen in the furnace mainly into SO 2. The final product is SO3 but it can also be found in
small amounts in the flue gases. They both are invisible poisonous gases, which cause harm to
living creatures and also to structures after reactions in the atmosphere very likely, the same
way as NOx. SOx is one reason for instance to the acid rain, environmental based corrosion and
cracking of gypsum structures. The main source of SO x is power production, industry and diesel
cars.
It is difficult to affect with process conditions, control equipment and burner geometry to the SO x
emission levels. Secondary methods are quite expensive although they can reduce SOx
emission levels significantly. That is why the main way is to select a fuel with small content of
sulphur. Ash may bind small amounts of SOx from the flue gases, but in oil combustion that
effect is not significant. Following table gives some figures of different fuels:
Fuel

Sulphur Content
wt%

Sulphur Emission
mg(SO2)/MJ

Wood
Peat
Natural gas
Light oil
Heavy oil
Coal

~0
0,040,6
0
0,0050,2
0,34,0
0,25,0

< 100
40600
0
0200
1502000
1504000

Today in most modern coal power plants at least one secondary method is used. The most
important of them are wet and dry calcium processes.
Sulphur emission can be calculated roughly by using following correlation:
SO2 (mg/MJ) = 470 x sulphur content of the fuel (wt%)

(2)

More accurate correlation is:

SO2 (mg/MJ) = 20 000 x sulphur content of the fuel (wt%) / lower heating value MJ/kg

(3)

34
Example:
Measured
0,9
value 40,6 MJ/kg.

wt%

of

sulphur

content

from

HFO

having

lower

heating

Calculation of SO2 emissions:

20 000 0,9
40,6

443

mg
MJ

SO 2

SO3 can cause corrosion problems in the furnace and in the stack. If combustion takes place in
very high temperatures part of the SO2 can react into SO3. That will easily form sulphur acid with
water to the cold walls when the temperature goes down. Especially if the oxygen and vanadium
content are high, then formation of SO3 increases. In order to avoid corrosion problems in the
flue gas duct and in the boiler, oxygen level should be low enough and flue gas temperature high
enough. The minimum temperatures are presented in the chapter 4.4.

4.1.3. Solid Particles and Soot

Solid dust particles can be divided into three main groups:

1. Ash of the fuel
2. Unburned carbon of the fuel
3. Soot
Ash content of the fuel affects directly to the ash level in the flue gases. Typically most of the
ash is inorganic compounds, mineral matter, dust, sand and heavy metals like vanadium and
nickel. That amount cant be affected by combustion or burner adjustments etc. Ash particles
may solidify to the surfaces if the temperature in the furnace is first very high and then the
melted particle hits to the cold wall. That causes serious corrosion and heat transfer problem
and overheating of cooling surfaces. In the following figure solid dust emissions from ash alone
are presented.

Solid dust emissions from ash

Solid Dust Emissions from Ash in HFO Combustion (3% O 2)

95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

mg/m3n

mg/MJ

0 ,0 1

0,0 2

0 ,0 3

0 ,0 4

0 ,0 5

0 ,0 6

0,0 7

0 ,08

0 ,0 9

0 ,1

0 ,1 1

Ash content of the HFO (wt%)

Ash forms one part of the total emissions of solid compounds. Typically the share is 1550%
depending on the fuel analysis and other parameters.

35
Unburned carbon is mainly that part of carbon containing fuel, which has not been combusted
although it could have done it. The more we have unburned carbon in the flue the worse we
combust our fuel. Typically the level of solid emissions caused by unburned carbon is 5090%
of the total level. That amount can be affected by fuel quality, combustion and burner
adjustments etc. Usually hot flame, long residence times (low volumetric heat release rate in the
3
furnace kW/m ) and good mixing conditions minimise the amount of unburned carbon.
Different fuels contain different amounts on solid carbon or particles. Gases and light oil dont
cause unburned carbon emissions but all solid fuels and heavy oil do so. Particle or droplet size
should be small enough to reduce these emissions. The size of typical unburned carbon
particles is 10100 m, but they can be very porous and even larger. There is one simple basic
2
rule, so called d rule, which can roughly predict the time needed for an oil droplet to combust.
The combustion time equals to the square of droplet diameter. It simply means that large
particles must be avoided if good burnout is wanted.
Soot is actually a complex compound of carbon and/or hydrocarbons like C6H2. It will be formed
when hydrocarbons condense in substochiometric conditions. Soot particles are very small
(1 m) and that is why they behave differently than bigger particles in the flame. Good mixing in
hot furnace and sufficient amount of air decreases the soot emissions.
If there is no exact method to measure solid dust particle mass, following rough correlation can
be used. It is presented as a curve and shows the rule of thumb levels of particle emissions with
the help of soot number. Soot number can be measured usually quite easily by using some
standard method like Bacharach.

Solid dust emissions roughly mg/MJ

Solid Dust Emissions vs Soot Number in HFO Combustion

115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

0,5

1,5

2,5

3,5

4,5

5,5

6,5

7,5

Soot number Bach.

Solid particles and soot also cause an environmental problem to the surroundings, because they
cause the flue gas to look black and pollute clean surfaces. Naturally solid particles and soot
may hit to the walls of the furnace and heat exchange surfaces causing corrosion problems and
efficiency loss. If the flue gas temperature rises significantly the boiler may be dirty because of
bad combustion and soot layer on the surfaces. Usually the emissions will go down quite close
to the chimney although tall chimneys can spread the particles wider. With solid fuels particle
size for combustion should be small and residence time long. Water emulsion technology and oil
additives can be used in heavy oil combustion. The problem in that can be the reduced medium
particle size in the flue gases although the mass decreases. Especially very small particles
(PM10) can cause problems to people, because they are able to go with air into the lungs.
Doctors are quite sure that small particles can cause cancer.
Using the same means as with CO can reduce particle formation. The right choice of the fuel
quality is important. The burner type and furnace dimensioning strongly affect on the emission
levels. Also right process control of the combustion system including exact adjustment of oxygen
level must be in order. In HFO combustion asphaltene and conradson coke content should be as
low as possible. Solid emissions can be reduced of course by using filters, scrubbers,
separators etc. ESP, bag filter and multicyclone are the most usual ones.

36
4.1.4. CO

Carbon monoxide is actually not globally harmful emission component, because it reacts into
CO2 in the atmosphere. Locally CO can however cause even fatal conditions for humans,
because it is a strong poison to breathe. CO is invisible, tasteless and smell-less gas and so
difficult to be noticed. If CO level is high in the flue gases, part of the fuel will be wasted. The
efficiency of the combustion process will slightly decrease if CO level is high. Following example
shows it clearly.
Heavy oil combustion and 1000 ppm CO.
Efficiency loss % = 0,0004 x CO (ppm)

(4)

Efficiency loss % = 0,0004 x 1000 = 0,4 %

CO is the most typical gas produced in an incomplete combustion process. All carbon containing
fuels can produce CO. Because its long residence time needed to be oxidised, it easily can be
find in flue gases. Good mixing, guiding and regulation of air and high temperatures in the
furnace can limit CO emissions. The combustion process must usually be optimised so that
oxygen level is taken down so low before CO starts to rise. Certain safety limit must be adjusted
however.
4.1.5. Noise

Noise is also one matter of emissions. Typically all engines cause some noise, because they
have moving parts or something is moving inside them. That movement causes vibrations and
eventually noise. Also changes of pressure levels and fluid flows may cause vibrations and
noise. All fans, valves, gas lines etc. and also combustion itself may cause noise. If the flame is
not stabilised properly, it may cause vibration and noise too. In that case process values and
burner settings must be checked and adjusted if needed.
Noise can naturally cause hearing problems and affect ears and even brains. Long stay in noisy
surroundings can cause permanent defects in hearing.
Noise levels are standardised and different rules are valid. Typically 85 dB(A) level is the limit of
staying longer time in noisy surroundings. Noise level is measured from one meter distance from
the source device. Background noise must be noticed when the guaranteed burner noise is
measured.

4.2.

Different Oil and Gas Burner Types and their Typical Emissions

4.2.1. Pressure Jet Oil Burners and with Gas

Typical values of combustion escape results on Oilon heavy oil burners

Values mentioned beneath are based on measurements made in laboratory and in various heating
plants with an excess air number of 1,17 (O2-content 3,0 %).
Values are valid under conditions that the load of combustion chamber doesnt exceed 1000 kW/m,
its shape is suitable for the flame and the characteristics of oil do not essentially vary from definitions
according to DIN 51603.
Oxygen (O2)

3,0 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

13,4 %

Carbon monoxide (CO)

< 50 ppm

63 mg/m

Nitric oxides (NOX)

< 350 ppm

720 mg/m

Hydrocarbons (CXHY)

< 20 ppm

Soot

< 4 Bac

Particulate emissions

< 142 mg/m

40

3
n
3
n

3
mg/m n

(calc. as NO2)
(calc. as C3H8)

3
n

The emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is depending on the content of sulphur in oil so that practically
all of it is burning to sulphur dioxide.

37
Typical values of combustion escape results on Oilon light oil burners.

Values mentioned beneath are based on measurements made in laboratory and in various heating
plants with an excess air number of 1,17 (O2-content 3,0 %).
Values are valid under conditions that the load of combustion chamber doesnt exceed 1000 kW/m,
its shape is suitable for the flame and the characteristics of oil do not essentially vary from definitions
according to DIN 51603.
Oxygen (O2)

3,0 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

13,2 %

Carbon monoxide (CO)

< 50 ppm

63 mg/m

Nitric oxides (NOX)

< 100 ppm

205 mg/m

Hydrocarbons (CXHY)

< 10 ppm

Soot

< 1 Bac

Particulate emissions

< 35 mg/m

20

3
n
3
n

3
mg/m n

(calc. as NO2)
(calc. as C3H8)

3
n

The emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is depending on the content of sulphur in oil so that practically
all of it is burning to sulphur dioxide.
Typical values of combustion escape results on Oilon natural gas burners.

Values mentioned beneath are based on measurements made in laboratory and in various heating
plants with an excess air number of 1,17 (O2-content 3,0 %).
Values are valid under conditions that the load of combustion chamber doesnt exceed 1000 kW/ m,
its shape is suitable for the flame and the characteristics of fuel do not essentially vary from the test
gas of the second family group H (standard EN 437).
Oxygen (O2)

3,0 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

10,0 %

Carbon monoxide (CO)

< 50 ppm

63 mg/m

Nitric oxides (NOX)

< 70 ppm

144 mg/m

< 10 ppm

3
mg/m n

Hydrocarbons (CXHY)

20

3
n
3
n

(calc. as NO2)
(calc. as C3H8)

The emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is depending on the content of sulphur in fuel so that
practically all of it is burning to sulphur dioxide.

4.2.2. Steam Atomising Power Plant and Process Burners and with Gas
Typical values of combustion escape results on Oilon heavy oil burners.

Values mentioned beneath are based on measurements made in laboratory and in various heating
plants with an excess air number of 1,17 (O2-content 3,0 %).
Values are valid under conditions that the load of combustion chamber doesnt exceed 350 kW/m,
its shape is suitable for the flame and the characteristics of oil do not essentially vary from definitions
according to DIN 51603.
Oxygen (O2)

3,0 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

13,4 %

Carbon monoxide (CO)

< 50 ppm

63 mg/m

Nitric oxides (NOX)

< 205 ppm

420 mg/m

Hydrocarbons (CXHY)

< 20 ppm

Soot

< 3 Bac

Particulate emissions

< 142 mg/m

40

3
n
3
n

3
mg/m n

(calc. as NO2)
(calc. as C3H8)

3
n

The emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is depending on the content of sulphur in oil so that practically
all of it is burning to sulphur dioxide.

38
Typical values of combustion escape results on Oilon light oil burners.

Values mentioned beneath are based on measurements made in laboratory and in various heating
plants with an excess air number of 1,17 (O2-content 3,0 %).
Values are valid under conditions that the load of combustion chamber doesnt exceed 350 kW/m,
its shape is suitable for the flame and the characteristics of oil do not essentially vary from definitions
according to DIN 51603.
Oxygen (O2)

3,0 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

13,2 %

Carbon monoxide (CO)

< 50 ppm

63 mg/m

Nitric oxides (NOX)

< 95 ppm

195 mg/m

Hydrocarbons (CXHY)

< 10 ppm

3
mg/m n

Soot

< 1 Bac

Particulate emissions

< 35 mg/m

20

3
n
3
n

(calc. as NO2)
(calc. as C3H8)

3
n

The emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is depending on the content of sulphur in oil so that practically
all of it is burning to sulphur dioxide.

Typical values of combustion escape results on Oilon natural gas burners.

Values mentioned beneath are based on measurements made in laboratory and in various heating
plants with an excess air number of 1,17 (O2-content 3,0 %).
Values are valid under conditions that the load of combustion chamber doesnt exceed 350 kW/m,
its shape is suitable for the flame and the characteristics of fuel do not essentially vary from the test
gas of the second family group H (standard EN 437).
Oxygen (O2)

3,0 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

10,0 %

Carbon monoxide (CO)

< 50 ppm

63 mg/m

Nitric oxides (NOX)

< 80 ppm

164 mg/m

< 10 ppm

3
mg/m n

Hydrocarbons (CXHY)

20

3
n
3
n

(calc. as NO2)
(calc. as C3H8)

The emission of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is depending on the content of sulphur in fuel so that
practically all of it is burning to sulphur dioxide.

4.3.

Conversion of Gaseous Emissions

4.3.1. Conversion of Gaseous Emissions to Different Units

Gaseous emissions are measured typically as ppm sometimes even as ppb. Practically unit ppm
6
is used. That means one parts per million so 1/10 part of the volume. If it is not specially
mentioned, ppm is actually ppmv and means per volume unit. Oxygen is measured more often
as vol-%.

39
Following formulas can be used to convert ppm unit to other units.
ppm x C = mg/m

(5)

ppm x C x G x = mg/MJ

(6)

mg/MJ x 3,6 = mg/kWh

(7)
NOx

SOx

CO

C
2,053
2,93
G for HFO
0,244/0,276
0,244/0,276
G for LFO
0,245/0,281
0,245/0,281
G for NG
0,237/0,296
0,237/0,296
G is for dry (left) and wet (right) flue gases. (lower heating value basis)

1,25
0,244/0,276
0,245/0,281
0,237/0,296

is the air factor or excess air factor, which can be calculated

20,93

or

20,93 - O 2

CO 2 max

(8)

CO 2 meas.

Fuel

CO2 max dry

CO 2 max wet

Heavy Fuel Oil

Light Fuel Oil
Natural Gas

15,8
15,3
11,7

14,0
13,3
9,4

Conversion example:
Measured 220 ppm NOx 2% O2 dry from HFO combustion.
Conversion:
220  2,053 = 452 mg/m
452 0,244 20,93
20,93 - 2

122 mg/MJ

122 x 3,6 = 439 mg/kWh

4.3.2. Conversion of Gaseous Emissions to Reference Levels

Following formulas can be used to convert measured ppm and mg/m

reference levels so that these units can be compared.

ppm meas.

20,93 O 2 ref.
20,93 O 2 meas.

mg/m n meas.

ppm ref.

20,93 O 2 ref.
20,93 O 2 meas.

mg/m 3 n ref.

units to other O2

(9)

(10)

40
Conversion example:
Measured 220 ppm NOx 2% O2 dry from HFO combustion.
Wanted to know the level in 3% O2 reference level.
Conversion:

220

20,93 3
20,93 2

208 ppm ref.

So 220 ppm at 2 % O2 level equals to 208 ppm at 3 % O2 level.

4.4.

Saturation Temperatures of Some Fuels

If the temperature of the flue gases decreases there will be a limit temperature after which acids
can saturate and cause corrosion problems. In the following table the typical dew points and
recommended flue gas temperatures are shown.

Fuel

Saturation Temperature
C

Minimum Flue Gas Temperature

C

~ 155
~ 135
~ 55

~ 180
~ 140
~ 100130

Heavy oil
Light oil
Natural gas

The exact values depend on many parameters.

4.5.

Typical Flue Gas Content

Fuel

CO2 vol-%

N2 vol-%

H2O vol-%

SO2 vol-%

O2 vol-%

HFO
LFO
NG

12,65
11,40
8,50

74,80
73,90
71,55

9,70
11,90
17,95

0,050
0,005
0,000

2,8
2,8
2,0

Density kg/m

3
n

1,302
1,284
1,233

Typical flue gas content should be calculated case by case, but the table above gives some figures
of the mentioned fuels. For instance if the sulphur content of the heavy oil varies much from 1 wt%,
the given SO2 value is not correct.

41

5.

Electrical Engineering

5.1.

Alternating-Current (AC) and Direct-Current (DC)

5.1.1. General

Alternating-current (AC):
-

periodic current change direction between positive and negative maximum values
the square area of the current curve is same size in the both side of the time axis
typically form of the current is sine wave
frequency of the current inform the number of the cycles per 1 second
measuring unit Ampere (A)

Direct-current (DC):
- the direction of the current is constant,

5.1.2. Alternating-Current: Voltage, Power, Y-Connection, D-Connection

Voltage:
Peak value , maximum instantaneous value of voltage (sine wave, 1.414 x URMS)
Root Mean Square URMS), typically measured value by multimeter (sine wave, / 1.414)
Measuring unit Volt (V)
Power:
Active power (P, measured W), for resistive load

P = U x I x cos

Reactive power (Q, measured VAR), for magnetic fields, motors

Q = U x I x sin

Apparent power (S, measured VA)

S= (P + Q )

Power, 3-phase:
Active power (P, measured W), for resistive load

P = 3 x U x I x cos

Reactive power (Q, measured VAR), for magnetic fields, motors

Q = 3 x U x I x sin

Apparent power (S, measured VA)

S = 3 x U x I

Y-connection:
U = 3 x Uphase

I = Iphase

D-connection:
I = 3 x Iphase

U = Uphase

42

5.2.

Resistance
The antagonistic force of the material to lead electrical current.
Measuring unit Ohm ()
Ohms law:
U=IxR
Connection in series:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +
Parallel connection:
1/R = 1/ R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +

5.3.

Short Circuit Protection and Overload Protection

5.3.1. Fuses

Overcurrent protection shall be provided where the current can exceed either the rating of any
Component or current carrying of the conductors, whichever is lesser value.
Rules:
IB < IN < IZ
I2 < 1.45 x IZ
IB = load current
IZ = load current ( installation depending)
IN = nominal current of the fuse
I2 = current limit of the fuse in which it works properly
Load capacity table 5.4.2.

5.3.2. Thermal Relays

Overload protection of motors shall be provided for each motor rated at more than 0.5 kW.
Automatic restarting of any motor after the operation of overload protection shall be prevented.
Where this can cause a hazardous condition or damage to machine or to the work in progress.
Overload protection of motors can be achieved by use of devices such as overload protective
devices (thermal relays, motor circuit breaker), temperature sensing devices (thermistor relays)
or current-limiting devices (electronic relays).

43

5.4.

Cables

5.4.1. Types
Material

Polyvinyl chloride, PVC

Polyethylene, LDPE
Polyethylene, HDPE
Polyurethane, PUR
Silicone, SI
Ethylene-propylene elastomer, EPM
Chloroprene, CR

VDEType

Operating
Temperature C

Y
2Y
2Y
11Y
2G
3G
5G

-30 ..+70
-50..+70
-50..+100
-40..+90/100
-60..+180
-30..+120
-40..+100

Note

5.4.2. Load Capacity

Current-carrying capacity (IZ )of PVC insulated copper conductors or cables under steady-state
conditions
In ambient air temperature of +40 C for different methods of installation.
Cross-Sectional
2
Area, mm

IZ
Installation B1

IZ
Installation B2

IZ
Installation C

IZ
Installation E

0,75
1
1,5
2,5
4
6
10
16
25
35

7,6
10,4
13,5
18,3
25
32
44
60
77
97

9,6
12,2
16,5
23
29
40
53
67
83

11,7
15,2
21
28
36
50
66
84
104

11,5
16,1
22
30
37
52
70
88
114

Note! For ambient temperatures other than 40 C, correct capacities by using correction factors
(EN 60204-1).
These values are not applicable to flexible cables wound on drums.
For grouped cables, correct capacities by using correction factors (EN 60204-1).
Methods of installation:
B1:

Using conduits and cable trunking systems for holding and protecting conductors (single
core cable)

B2:

Using conduits and cable trunking systems for holding and protecting conductors
(multicore cable)

C:

Cables installed on walls without ducts or conduits

E:

Cables in horizontal or vertical open cable trays

44

5.5.

Shielding from Contact, Enclosure Class (IP), EX-Class

5.5.1. Protection Against Direct Contact

*
*
*
*

Live parts shall be located inside enclosures (IEC 60536, IEC 60529)
Live parts protected by insulation
Using barries (IEC 60364-4-41)
Placing out of reach (IEC 60364-4-41)

5.5.2. Protection Against Indirect Contact

* measures to prevent the occurrence of a hazardous touch voltage

* automatic disconnection of the supply before the time of contact with a touch voltage
become hazardous (earthing system)
5.5.3. Enclosure Class

The protection of controlgear against ingress of solid foreign objects and of liquids shall be
adequate taking into account the external influences under which the machine is intended to
operate and shall be sufficient against dust, coolants and swarf.
Note! Enclosures of controlgear shall provide a degree of protection of at least IP 22 (IEC
60529)
IEC 529 degrees of protection:
Protection against the Ingress of Solid Bodies
Open construction
Over diameter 50 mm
Over diameter 12 mm
Over diameter 2,5 mm
Over diameter 1 mm
Dust protection
Dust proof

IP-class
IP 0X
IP 1X
IP 2X
IP 3X
IP 4X
IP 5X
IP 6X

Notes

Protection against the Ingress of Liquids

Open construction
Drip-proof
Drip-proof
Rainproof
Splash-proof
Spray protected
Water wave motion proof
Water proof
Pressure water proof

IP-class
IP X0
IP X1
IP X2
IP X3
IP X4
IP X5
IP X6
IPX 7
IP X8

Notes

5.5.4. EX-Class
Operational safety in explosive state could be confirmed with the construction below:
Type

o
P
q
d
e
i
m

Notes
Oil filled enclosure
Pressurized enclosure
Sand filled enclosure
Flameproof enclosure
Certified enclosure
Intrinsically safe enclosure
Hard-pulp enclosure

45
Explosive states:
Type

0
1
2

Notes

Explosive atmosphere continuously

Explosive atmosphere random
Explosive atmosphere seldom

Fuel tank is explosive state 0 and therefore only construction Exi is permitted to install inside the
tank.

5.6.

Burner Control Units

5.6.1. Control Unit LAL 1.25

Oil burner controls

With / without air pressure check for checked air damper control
Flame supervision with
photoresistive detectors QRB1...
blue-flame detectors QRC1..., or
selenium photocell detectors RAR...

The oil burner controls LAL... are tested and certified to EN 230.

Control and supervision of oil atomization burners

For burners of medium to high capacity
For intermittent operation (at least one controlled shutdown every 24 hours)
Universally applicable for multistage or modulating burners
For burners of stationary air heaters (WLE to DIN 4794)

46
LAL 1.25

Control outputs
of contacts

Lockout indication

a-b

Start-up sequence

b - b'

Idle steps (operation)

b(b') - a

Post-purge sequence (reset of control unit)

Switching times (in seconds) of the control program of the sequence switch

t1
t2
t3
t3
t3n
t4
t5
t6
t7
t8
t11
t12
t13
t16
t20

Pre-purge time with air dampers open

Safety time
Pre-ignition time SHORT (transformer connected to terminal 16)
Pre-ignition time LONG (transformer connected to terminal 15)

22,5
5
2,5
from start
command
Post-ignition time (transformer connected to terminal 15)
15
Interval between beginning of t2 and release of voltage at terminal 19
7,5
Interval between end of t4 and release of voltage at terminal 20
7,5
Post-purge time
15
Interval between start-up command and release of voltage at terminal 7
2,5
Duration of start-up (without t11 and t12)
47,5
Running time for air damper to OPEN position (air dampers position control)
optional
Running time for air damper to IGNITION position (air dampers position control) optional
Permissible after-burn time
15
Interval from start-up to OPEN command for air damper
5
Interval up to the self-shutdown of the sequence switch (idle steps)
35

47
5.6.2. Control Unit LFL1.322

Gas burner controls for gas, oil or dual-fuel forced draught burners of medium to high capacity.
Multistage or modulating burners in intermittent operation *) with air pressure for checked
supervised air damper control.
The gas burner controls are tested to EN 298 and CE-certified in compliance with the directives
for gas-fired appliances and electromagnetic compatibility.
*) For safety reasons, at least one controlled shutdown must take place every 24 hours!

The burner controls of the LFL1... range are designed for the control and supervision of forced
draught gas burners of both expanding flame and interrupted pilot construction of medium to
high capacity. They are universally applicable and can be used for both multistage and
modulating burners as well as for dual-fuel burners and for burners of stationary air heaters
(WLE to DIN 4794).

48
Control outputs
of contacts

LFL 1.322

Lockout indication

a-b
b
b-a

start-up sequence
operation
post-purge sequence (reset of control unit)

Switching times (in seconds) of the control program of the sequence switch

t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t6
t7
t9
t10
t11
t12
t13
t8

Pre-purge time
1st safety time
Pre-ignition time
Interval between beginning of t2 and release of voltage on terminal 19
Interval between end of t4 and release of voltage on terminal 20
Post-purge time
Interval from start-up to release of voltage on terminal 7
2nd safety time. Control function is not used
Interval from start-up to start of air pressure control
Running time for the air damper to "open" position
Running time for the air damper to "min." position
Permissible after-burn time
Duration of start-up sequence without t11 and t12

36
2
4
10
10
12
2
2
8
optional
optional
12
60

The lockout indicator, the fault signal lamp and the reset button are located in the viewing
window of the unit. The burner control is supplied with an exchangeable unit fuse and a spare
fuse.

49
Control Program under Fault Conditions and Lockout Indication (LAL, LFL):

In case of any disturbance the sequence switch stops and with it the lockout indicator. The
symbol above the reading mark of the indicator gives the type of fault.
No start, because the CLOSE signal has not been delivered to terminal 8 from air
damper servomotor or a contact has not been closed between terminals 12 and 4 or
4 and 5. Lockout during or after completion of control sequence due to extraneous light
(e.g. non-extinguished flame, leaking fuel valves, defects in flame supervision circuit,
etc.)
Interruption of start-up sequence, because the OPEN signal has not been delivered
to terminal 8 from the air damper servomotor. Terminals 6, 7 and 15 remain under
voltage until the fault is corrected!
P

Lockout, because the air pressure signal has not been received at the start of the air
pressure control. Every air pressure failure after this moment in time leads to a
lockout, too!

Lockout due to a fault in the flame supervision circuit.

Interruption of start-up sequence, because the position signal for the low-flame
position has not been delivered to terminal 8 from air damper servomotor. Terminals 6,
7 and 15 remain under voltage until the fault is corrected!

Lockout, because no pilot flame signal has been received during 1st safety time.
Every flame signal failure after completion of 1st safety time leads to lockout (gas
operation).
Lockout, because no oil flame signal has been received during 1st safety time.
Every flame signal failure after completion of 1st safety time leads to lockout (oil
operation).

Lockout, because no main flame signal has been received during 2nd safety time
(interrupted pilot burner, gas operation). This control function is not in use in oil
operation. (LFL 1.322)

Lockout, because the flame signal has been lost during burner operation.

The control unit can be reset immediately after a lockout has occurred. After resetting (as well
as after correction of a fault which resulted in a controlled shutdown, or after each mains failure)
the sequence switch always returns to its start position, whereby only terminals 7, 9, 10 and 11
receive voltage in accordance with the control program. It is only then that the control unit
begins with a new burner start-up.

50

5.7.

Air Damper Actuators SQN

The electric actuators of the SQN... range have been designed specifically for the control of
burner air dampers or for fuel/air ratio control of oil or gas burners.
Provided with:
auxiliary switches and built-in relays (optional)
reduction gears which can be disengaged
internal and external position indicators
easily adjustable limit and auxiliary switches
Example: 2-Stage Burner
Functions of cam discs in servomotor SQN

Set the switching points of cam discs manually or by turning with the adjusting key.
II:

Air damper closed/(). The adjustment has been made at the factory.

III:

Air damper position at stage 1/()

V:

Solenoid valve of stage 2

I:

Air damper position at stage 2/()

The setting of the disc V should preferably be as high as possible, not, however, so high that the
flame does not react when changing over from stage 2 to stage 1 (the setting of the disc V is
between discs III and I).
The servomotor is provided with a release lever (5). When the lever is pressed down, the air
damper can be moved by hand.
Cam disc positions in principle

1 Air regulation, stage 2

2 Air damper closure
3 Air regulation, stage 1

4 Control of solenoid valve for stage 2

5 Release lever
6 Adjusting key

51

5.8.

Ignition Units
Transformers:

Voltage between electrodes approx. 10 kV

Input power regulation to avoid over overload

Electronic Unit:

5.9.

Voltage between electrodes approx. 15 kV

Switching power supply, typically 20 kHz
ED in 3 minutes (cutting in) approx. 30 % at 35 C
Smaller size than transformers

Flame Detectors
UV Detectors:

UV detectors for use with burner controls, for the supervision of gas flames and oil flames.
The QRA... are used for the supervision of gas flames, yellow- or blue-burning oil flames and for
ignition spark proving.
With this type of flame supervision, the UV radiation emitted by gas or oil flames is used to
generate the flame signal.
The radiation detector is a UV-sensitive cell with two electrodes, which ignite when illuminated
with radiation in the 190...270 nm range of the spectrum, thereby initiating a current in the flame
detector circuit.
The UV cell does not respond to glowing firebrick in the combustion chamber, daylight or light
from the boiler room illumination.
Technical data:
Average life

10,000 h (at +50 C max.)

Min. required detector current *)

200 A

Max. detector current *)

*) with capacitor 100 F 10 V DC

630 A

52
Photoresistive Detectors:

Photoresistive flame detectors for use with burner controls, for the supervision of oil flames in
the visible light spectrum.
The QRB... are designed for the supervision of yellow-burning oil flames.
Technical data:
Min. required detector current with 230 VAC
Max. possible detector current

95 A
160 A

5.10. Temperature Sensors

Pt-100:

based to resistivity of platinum in the function of temperature

typically 2-, 3- or 4-wire sensors (with 2-wire without compensation)
high stability
measuring range -200+850 C (IEC 751)
accuracy class A (0.15+0.002xt) or B (0.3+0.005xt), t=temperature
casing type Form A, B, C, D, F (DIN 43763)

Ratio between temperature and resistance:

t= 0-850 C,

Rt = R0 x (1 + At + Bt )
Rt = Resistance in temperature t
R0 = Resistance in 0 C (100 R)
-3

-1

A = 3.9083 x 10 C (ITS 90)

-7

-1

B = -5.775 x 10 C (ITS 90)

t = temperature
Thermocouples:

based to Seebeck effect (produces a contact voltage between two different metals in the
function of temperature)
thermocouples to IEC 548-1: J, T, K, E, N, S, R, B
maximum temperature up to 1700 C
thermal voltage 075mV, depending on the type of thermocouple (IEC 584)
tolerance classes 1 (closer ) and 2

53

5.11. Pressure Sensors

based to piezo-resistive effect (voltage between the opposite sides of the piezoelectric
crystal in function of pressure)
typically thin film device, MTBF value 20 years
electrical output 0-10 V or 0/4-20mA
middle point temperature typically max. 130 C

5.12. Directives and Standards

98/37/EC

Machine Directive

73/23/EEC

Low Voltage Directive

90/396/EEC

Gas Appliance Directive

89/336/EEC

EMC Directive

Some standards:
EN-60335-1

Safety of household and similar electrical appliances.

EN-230

Monoblock oil burners, control and regulation devices and safety times.

EN-267

Forced draught oil burners - Definitions, requirements, testing, marking

EN-676

Automatic forced draught burners for gaseous fuels.

EN-60439-1

Low voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies.

Requirements for type-tested and partially type-tested assemblies.

EN-50081:1,2

EMC, emission

EN-50082:2

EMC, immunity

IEC 60364

Electrical installation of buildings

54

6.

Notes
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