Hallstatt culture

Map of distribution of the Hallstatt culture The Hallstatt culture was the predominant Central European culture in the 8th to 6th centuries BC (European Early Iron Age), de eloping out o! the "rn!ield culture o! the #$th century BC (%ate Bron&e Age) and !ollowed in much o! Central Europe 'y the %a T(ne culture) By the 6th century BC, the Halstatt culture e*tended !or some #+++ ,m, !rom the Champagne-Ardenne in the west, through the "pper .hine and the upper /anu'e, as !ar as the 0ienna Basin and the /anu'ian %owland in the east, !rom the 1ain, Bohemia and the %ittle Carpathians in the north, to the 2wiss plateau, the 2al&,ammergut and to %ower 2tyria) It is named !or its type site, Hallstatt, a la,eside illage in the Austrian 2al&,ammergut southeast o! 2al&'urg) The culture is commonly lin,ed to (pre-)3roto-Celtic and Celtic populations in its western &one and with (pre-)Illyrians in its eastern &one) Hallstatt site In #846, 5ohann 6eorg .amsauer disco ered a large prehistoric cemetery near Halstatt, which he e*ca ated during the second hal! o! the nineteenth century) E entually the e*ca ation would yield #,+47 'urials) The community at Hallstatt e*ploited the salt mines in the area (note 8halen8 is salt in 1odern 9elsh), which had 'een wor,ed !rom time to time since the :eolithic period, !rom the eighth century to !i!th century BC) The style and decoration o! the gra e goods !ound in the cemetery are ery distincti e, and arti!acts made in this style are widespread in Europe)

Periodization

The Hallstatt culture, e*tending !rom a'out #$++ BC until around 7++ BC, is di ided 'y archaeologists into !our phases; HaA; #$++<#+++ BC HaB; #+++<8++ BC HaC; 8++<67+ BC Ha/; 67+<4=7 BC Hallstatt A-B are part o! the Bron&e Age "rn!ield culture) 3hase A saw 0illano an in!luence) In phase B, tumulus (,urgan) 'urial 'ecomes common, and cremation predominates) The >Hallstatt period> proper is restricted to HaC and Ha/ (8th to 6th centuries BC), corresponding to the early European Iron Age) Hallstatt / is succeeded 'y the %a T(ne culture) Hallstatt C is characteri&ed 'y the !irst appearance o! iron swords mi*ed amongst the 'ron&e ones) Inhumation and cremation co-occur) ?or the !inal phase, Hallstatt /, only daggers are !ound in gra es ranging !rom c. 6++<7++ BC) There are also di!!erences in the pottery and 'rooches) Burials were mostly inhumations) Geography Two culturally distinct areas, an eastern and a western &one, ha e 'een postulated 'y @ossac, (#A7A)) The di iding line runs across the C&ech .epu'lic and Austria, at a'out #4 to #7 degrees eastern longitude) B The western Hallstatt &one includes; o northeastern ?rance; Champagne-Ardenne, %orraine, Alsace o northern 2wit&erland; 2wiss plateau o 2outhern 6ermany; much o! 2wa'ia and Ba aria o western C&ech .epu'lic; Bohemia o western Austria; 0orarl'erg, :orth Tyrol, 2al&,ammergut B The eastern Hallstatt &one includes; o eastern Austria; %ower Austria, "pper 2tyria o eastern C&ech .epu'lic; 1ora ia o southwestern 2lo a,ia; /anu'ian %owland o western Hungary; %ittle Hungarian 3lain o eastern 2lo enia; %ower 2tyria o northern Croatia; Hr ats,o CagorDe The main distinction is in 'urial rite and gra e goods; in the western &one, mem'ers o! the elite were 'uried with sword (HaC) or dagger (Ha/), in the eastern &one with an a*e) The western &one has chariot 'urials) In the eastern &one, warriors are !reEuently 'uried in !ull armour) The appro*imate di ision line 'etween the two su'cultures runs !rom north to south through central Bohemia and %ower Austria, and then traces the eastern and southern rim o! the Alps to Eastern and 2outhern Tyrol) 9hile Hallstatt is regarded as the dominant settlement o! the western &one, a settlement at the Burgstall,ogel in the central 2ulm alley (southern 2tyria, west o! %ei'nit&, Austria) was a maDor center during the Hallstatt C period) 3arts o! the huge necropolis (which originally consisted o! more than #,#++ tumuli) surrounding this settlement can 'e seen today near 6leinstFtten) Culture and trade

Trade and population mo ements ( ery pro'a'ly 'oth) spread the Hallstatt cultural comple* into the western I'erian peninsula, Britain, and Ireland) It is pro'a'le that some i! not all o! this di!!usion too, place in a Celtic-spea,ing conte*t) Trade with 6reece is attested 'y !inds o! Attic 'lac,-!igure pottery in the Glite gra es o! the late Hallstatt period) It was pro'a'ly imported ia 1assilia (1arseille)) Hther imported lu*uries include am'er, i ory (6rF!en'Ihl) and pro'a'ly wine) .ecent analyses ha e shown that the reputed sil, in the 'arrow at Hohmichele was misidenti!ied) .ed dye (cochineal) was imported !rom the south as well (Hochdor! 'urial)) The settlements were mostly !orti!ied, situated on hilltops, and !reEuently included the wor,shops o! 'ron&e-, sil er-, and goldsmiths) Typical sites are the Heune'urg on the upper /anu'e surrounded 'y nine ery large gra e tumuli, 1ont %assois in eastern ?rance near ChJtillon-sur-2eine with, at its !oot, the ery rich gra e at 0i*, and the hill !ort at 1olpKr in 2lo a,ia) In the central Hallstatt regions toward the end o! the period, ery rich gra es o! high-status indi iduals under large tumuli are !ound near the remains o! !orti!ied hilltop settlements) They o!ten contain chariots and horse 'its or yo,es) 9ell ,nown chariot 'urials include BLMK 2,Nla, 0i* and Hochdor!) A model o! a chariot made !rom lead has 'een !ound in ?rOgg, Carinthia) Ela'orate Dewellery made o! 'ron&e and gold, as well as stone stelae (see the !amous warrior o! Hirschlanden) were !ound in this conte*t) The material culture o! 9estern Halstatt culture was apparently su!!icient to pro ide a sta'le social and economic eEuili'rium) The !ounding o! 1arseille and the penetration 'y 6ree, and Etruscan culture a!ter ca 6++ BC, resulted in long-range trade relationships up the .hone alley which triggered social and cultural trans!ormations in the Hallstatt settlements north o! the Alps) 3ower!ul local chie!doms emerged which controlled the redistri'ution o! lu*ury goods !rom the 1editerranean world that is characteristic o! the %a T(ne culture) The 'iggest deposit o! Hallstatt 'ron&e arti!acts !rom Europe was !ound in .omania)

Heuneburg
The Heune'urg is a prehistoric hill!ort 'y the upper /anu'e) It is located in Hundersingen near Her'ertingen, 'etween "lm and 2igmaringen, Baden-9Irttem'erg, 6ermany) It is considered one o! the most important early Celtic centres in Central Europe) Apart !rom the !orti!ied citadel, there are e*tensi e remains o! settlements and 'urial areas spanning se eral centuries)

Location The !orti!ied citadel measures a'out P++ 'y #7+ m) It stood on a strategically positioned mountain spur that rises steeply 4+m a'o e the /anu'e) It is at the centre o! a !ertile ri er plain, surrounded 'y rolling hill country) History of research /isco ery and recognition The site was !irst noted in the #8$+s) In #88$, Eduard 3aulus recognised its importance and correctly identi!ied it as a prehistoric !orti!ication) He misidenti!ied the lower !orti!ications as medie al) 2ome o! the near'y 'urial mounds were opened in the #Ath century) Q#R E*ca ations, #A$+s to #A6+s 2poradic e*ca ation on the citadel 'egan in the #A$+s) In the #AP+s, the Hohmichele mound was e*amined (see 'elow)) A systematic e*ca ation programme too, place !rom #A7+ to #A=A, directed successi ely 'y Adol! .ieth, @urt Bittel, Egon 6ers'ach and 9ol!gang @immig) Current proDects 2ince $++P, the Heune'urg is one o! the !oci o! a multi-disciplinary research proDect on early Celtic centres underta,en 'y the /eutsche ?orschungsgemeinscha!t) :ew e*ca ations 'egan in $++4) History of occupation Al'eit 'est ,nown !or its role as an important early Celtic centre !rom the =th to 7th centuries BC, the Heune'urg was occupied at se eral other points during its history) Bron&e Age The !irst settlement on the site dates to the 1iddle Bron&e Age (#7th to #$th century BC)) At this time, the main plateau was !orti!ied with a massi e ditch-and-'an, enclosure, including a wooden wall) The settlement was a'andoned at the 'eginning o! the "rn!ield period) This a'andonment apparently did not entail a iolent destruction) /uring the "rn!ield period, there was a 'urial area in the location o! the later Sdsiedlung (see 'elow)) Iron Age The citadel was reoccupied and re!orti!ied around =++ BCS adDacent areas were occupied at the same time) The comple* de eloped 'ris,ly, and 'y 6++ BC, the Heune'urg was one o! the ,ey centres o! power and trade in CelticTHalstatt 2outhern 6ermany) 1aDor changes in internal structure occurred around that time) Be!ore 7++ BC, the site su!!ered a maDor destruction, !ollowed 'y a second !lourish 4

and a !urther destruction in the 7th century BC) It used to 'e assumed that the Heune'urg was a'andoned 'y the %a T(ne period, 'ut recent e idence does not !ully support this iew) Q6R The conDunction o! a prominent !orti!ied site, ela'orate 'urials, specialised cra!t production and trade o! alua'le imported goods class the Heune'urg with a small group o! similar important early Celtic sites, the so-called Frstensitze (see 'elow)) 1iddle Ages The strategic location o! the Heune'urg led to some acti ity in the 1iddle Ages, although no permanent occupation occurred at that time) The Celtic citadel A schematic plan o! the citadel, surrounded 'y the 6++ BC mud'ric, wall) Internal structures (as !ar as ,nown) as in circa 77+ BC) The main $-hectare plateau on the mountain spur, 4+m a'o e the /anu'e and naturally de!ensi'le, was the centre o! high-status occupation and o! !orti!ication in Celtic periods) It measures only #7+ 'y P++m 'ut is the main isual landmar, in the area) ?rom circa =++ BC onwards, it was the centre o! a large settlement) 3hasing The main settlement on the citadel underwent se eral changes during its e*istence) As the houses were 'uilt o! wood and dau', and the !orti!ications mostly o! wood and earth, they were replaced !reEuently) This resulted in o er a do&en identi!ia'le occupation phases, representing at least $7+ years o! acti ity) ?orti!ications The plateau was re!orti!ied !rom circa =++ BC onwards) Hriginally, the !orti!ication too, the !orm o! a classic Celtic wood-and-earth wall (murus gallicus), replaced regularly) The mudbrick wall Around 6++ BC, this was replaced 'y a structure without parallel in contemporary Celtic Europe) A limestone !oundation supported a mud'ric, wall o! circa 4 m height, pro'a'ly topped 'y a roo!ed wal,way, thus reaching a total height o! 6 m) The wall was clad with lime plaster, regularly renewed) Towers protruded outwards !rom the wall) It must ha e 'een widely isi'le in the area) :o other mud'ric, structures are ,nown !rom Celtic Central Europe at this time) It is generally accepted that this structure imitated contemporary walls in the 1editerranean region) The wall lasted circa =+ years (much longer than its wood-and-earth predecessors and successors which had to 'e renewed !reEuently)) A!ter a !iery destruction around 7P+ BC, the settlement was de!ended 'y murus gallicus again until a !urther destruction in the 7th century) Gates The !orti!ication had two monumental gates, one to the west, gi ing access to the outer settlements, and another to the east, pro'a'ly to a steep road leading directly to the /anu'e (and perhaps a har'our)) Architecture The citadel contained a regular system o! streets and houses) It appears that the settlement underwent a maDor reorganisation a!ter 6++ BC, a!ter which the dwellings were much more densely and regularly spaced than 'e!ore) At all times, the Heune'urg houses are o! remar,a'ly large si&e and ela'oration compared to contemporary settlements) The uni!orm 'uildings pro'a'ly ser ed as dwellings and

wor,shops) There is e idence !or an acti e metal industry, including a 'ron&e wor,shop in the southeast corner o! the citadel) A!ter the 7P+ BC destruction o! the mud'ric, wall, the internal arrangements underwent some changes) The wor,shops were mo ed to the north) A ery large house (#4 'y P+ m) was 'uilt in the southeast corner) This is sometimes interpreted as a Herrenhaus, ie the dwelling o! a local ruler) Finds The Heune'urg yielded many !inds mar,ing it as a rich site, operating 'oth as a local centre o! production and as a hu' !or long-distance trade) These included a !ull 'ron&e wor,shop, a high proportion o! 6ree, ases (in !act, the !ragments ma,e up a'out a do&en 6ree, pots, indicating a larger amount than contemporary sites 'ut also a ery limited elite access to such material), and other imported raw materials li,e tin and am'er) 1uch o! the e*otic material dates !rom a!ter 7P+ BC) There was also a local tradition o! producing painted and decorated (incised or stamped) pottery) Settlements outside the citadel Basic plan o! the Heune'urg and its surroundings) 9allsT'an,s mar,ed 'rown, ditches yellow) The course o! the de!ences is partly hypothetical) .ecent wor, in and around the Heune'urg has produced ground'rea,ing in!ormation regarding the !ull e*tent o! the settlement) It now appears that the citadel was a only a small, i! !ocal, part o! the o erall comple* at most times)

The Aussensiedlung The Aussensiedlung (6erman; >e*terior settlement>) was located downslope, immediately to the west and northwest o! the citadel) It was pro'a'ly occupied !rom the =th century (Hallstatt period) to the 7th century BC) It appears to ha e e*isted as a separate !orti!ied settlement) The Aussensiedlung co ered up to #++ hectares, many times the area o! the citadel proper) It appears to ha e consisted o! separate !enced or palisaded lots, each containing a main dwelling, storage areas and much terrain !or !ields) It is suggested that each o! the lots !unctioned as a separate !armstead, supporting an e*tended !amily) A population o! 7,+++ to #+,+++ indi iduals is estimated Dust !or the Aussensiedlung) It should 'e noted that the area enclosed could ne er ha e su!!iced to produce the amounts o! !ood necessary to !eed such a population) The 6iessI'el mounds (see 'elow) are erected on top o! the remains o! part o! the Aussensiedlung and must thus postdate it) The Sdsiedlung The Sdsiedlung (>south settlement>) !urther south appears to ha e 'een similar to the Aussensiedlung in character and chronology and may indeed ha e 'een contiguous with it) Q#AR orwerke (lower !orti!ications) The huge !orti!ications recognised in the #Ath century, 'ut then misinterpreted as medie al, are also part o! the Celtic comple*) They ha e 'een partially o'literated 'y erosion and ploughing) A triple system o! se eral hundred metres o! 'an,s and ditches enclosed and su'di ided the lower terrain Dust west o! the Heune'urg proper) 2ince they partially o erlay the Aussensiedlung houses, the walls must ha e 'een erected in a later phase) They sur i e to a height o! o er 6 mS the ditches were originally = m deep) The gate

.ecent e*ca ations ha e re ealed a spectacular monumental gate in the westernmost wall) 1easuring 8 'y #$ m, it was a massi e construction) Its walls had a core o! limestone set in a !ine clay mortar, and were !aced on each side with !ine limestone ashlar masonry) %i,e the mud'ric, wall on the citadel, this !eature is e*ceptional in the Celtic world and resem'les contemporary 1editerranean architecture) Celtic cemeteries 2e eral 'urial areas surround the Heune'urg) They consist o! clusters o! earthen tumuli or 'urial mounds) 1ore than 7+ such monuments are ,nown in the area) :ot all ha e 'een e*ca ated) 2ome date !rom the Hallstatt period, 'ut most are pro'a'ly %a T(ne) The a relationship 'etween prominent !orti!ied sites and ela'orate 'urials is also ,nown !rom other important Celtic centres, li,e 6lau'erg oppidum and gra e, the Hochdor! 6ra e near the Hohenasperg settlement and the 0i* gra e near 1ont %assois) 6iessI'el The 6iessI'el cemetery is located 7++m P northwest o! the Heune'urg) It was 'uilt on top o! the then a'andoned west part o! the Aussensiedlung) By the #Ath century, !our mounds remained here, each measuring circa 7+ m in diameter and = m in height) ?irst E*ca ations were underta,en in the #Ath century (mounds $ and P), 'ut more systematic wor, too, place 'etween the #A7+s and #A8+s) Gra!e " This mound contained a rectangular wooden cham'er (P)7 'y 7)7 m)) Its main occupant was a man aged around 7+) There were also remains o! two women) It had 'een ro''ed in antiEuity, 'ut !inds ne ertheless included weapons, gold and 'ron&e attachments !or garments, and some am'er plaEues that pro'a'ly once adorned a ,line (couch) imported !rom the 1editerranean) $+ !urther 'urials were later placed in and on the same mound) Q$$R Gra!e # 6ra e 4, also ro''ed, contained a single indi idual, accompanied 'y the remains o! metal attachments !rom a wooden chariot) Hohmichele A cluster or necropolis o! 'urial mounds, the so called Hohmichele 6roup is located P)7 ,m west o! the Heune'urg) It consists o! at least P6 'urial mounds) The group is named a!ter its largest mound, the Hohmichele) It is located near Altheim (Bi'erach district)) 1ost o! the mounds are not isi'le any more, due to natural erosion and ploughing) The #4 or so that remain are located in !orests) $%ca!ation The !irst e*ca ation o! the main Hohmichele mound too, place in #AP6-#AP8, directed 'y 6usta .ie, as part o! the research programme o! the 22-Ahnener'e) Hnly a'out a third o! the mound was remo ed during that proDectS the central 'urial cham'er was located) A!ter the war, !rom #A74 to #A76, 2iegwalt 2chie, undertoo, !urther e*ca ations) The Hohmichele mound 9ith a diameter o! 87m and a height o! o er #P m, the Hohmichele is one o! the largest Celtic tumuli in Europe) E*ca ation has mainly concentrated on its central and eastern portions) The mound was used !rom the late =th to the late 6th century BC) #P 'urials were located within the mound, se eral o! them accompanied 'y gra e o!!erings) The mound was restored to its original dimensions in #A6+) Today, it is isi'le as a egetation-co ered landmar, in a small !orest clearing) A modern war memorial is located on its summit)

Grave I The centre o! the mound contained an oa,-'uilt main cham'er (6ra e I), 'uilt on the original ground le el) It measured 7)= 'y P)7 m and was circa # m high) This gra e, containing a man and a woman, had already 'een plundered shortly a!ter the 'urial) The remaining !inds, re!lecting its original riches include horse trappings, nearly 6++ glass 'eads !rom a nec,lace, pieces o! am'er, and !ine gold threads that were originally part o! a 'rocade-li,e !a'ric) The !loor had 'een co ered with cows,ins) A central mound, 7m high and 4+ m in diameter co ered this cham'er) Grave I #$ m southeast o! the central cham'er and a'out $)$ a'o e the old ground sur!ace lay an unplundered wooden cham'er (gra e 0I)) It measured P 'y $)4 m and was # m high) This gra e also contained a man and a woman) Their eEuipment included a !our-wheeled chariot with trappings !or two horses, 'ron&e eating and drin,ing essels, a Eui er with 7# iron arrowheads, an iron ,ni!e and many am'er and glass 'eads (!rom nec,laces), including $,P++ green glass 'eads) The woman had 'een laid in the chariot, the man on the !loor) The 'ron&e essels were placed 'y their !eet and heads) There were also remains o! em'roidered !a'rics) Grave I! 6ra e IU, a so-called pyre gra e was located # m a'o e 0I) Its occupant was a woman who had died 'etween #8 and P+ years o! age, accompanied 'y $ 'ron&e armlets and o er $+ pottery essels with incised and stamped decorations and red paint) "ther graves 2i* !urther gra es (II-0, 0II, 0III) were inhumations) $$ !ireplaces !ound within the mound are pro'a'ly connected to cult acti ity) 2ome or all o! them may represent !unerary pyres) Interpretation and significance There can 'e no dou't that the Heune'urg and its associated monuments are one o! the most important centres o! the early Celtic Iron Age in Central Europe) It is also clear that the site should 'e seen in a conte*t with other prominent centres o! its time, the so-called ?Irstensit&e (6erman; >princely seats> see 'elow)) Social#economic development The Heune'urg settlement re!lects important sociopolitical de elopments in early Celtic Europe) It appears to 'e the case that a!ter =++ BC, in some regions, wealth and population 'ecame concentrated in relati ely small areas, a de elopment that !urther accelerated a!ter 6++ BC) Q$8R A growing di!!erentiation in terms o! wealth that is isi'le among settlements sites 'ut especially among 'urials, indicates the de elopment o! social hierarchies) This is illustrated 'y the disco ery, in $++7, o! the 'urial o! a $-year old child near the Heune'urg, accompanied 'y imported (Etruscan) Dewellery) It is clear that a young child could not ha e earned or gained such wealth, hence the indi idual must ha e 'een 'orn rich)There is pro'a'ly also an element o! political centralisation in ol ed in these processes) The !act that the Heune'urg and Aussensiedlung were not a'le to locally produce enough !ood to support their own populations implied Euite clearly that they must ha e 'een a'le to recei e and maintain the support o! a much larger surrounding area) Q$AR The ongoing social and pro!essional specialisation had led to the de elopment o! specialised wor,shops, perhaps e en artisanal Euarters that did not Dust produce to ser e local needs) The term Frstensitz The traditional term Frstensitz (>princely seat>) to descri'e has 'een criticised recently, especially 'y the archaeologist 1an!red Eggert (TI'ingen "ni ersity)) It could 'e argued that the phrase implies a

potentially misleading interpretation o! power structures, potentially distracting !rom more comple* realities) Interaction $ith other sites 2e eral other hilltop sites came into e*istence in the 'roader region at the same time as the Heune'urg, a'out =++ BC) Initially, they may ha e 'een similar in si&e and population) 2tri,ingly, most o! them were a'andoned around 6++ BC, ie when the Heune'urg settlement was reorganised) It is possi'le that the Heune'urg had 'ecome so power!ul as to attract population at the e*pense o! other sites) QP#R It has long 'een suggested that the Hohenasperg settlement, some #++ ,m to the :orth o! the Heune'urg, was somehow in ol ed in the destruction o! the Heune'urg a!ter 7++ BC and pro!ited !rom its demise (see >a'andonment> 'elow)) There is no clear e idence !or such an interpretation, especially as the a'andonment o! the Heune'urg area is now in dou't (see 'elow)) %estructions& a'andonment& and continuity The traditional iew that the two main destructions o! the citadel !orti!ications are the result o! iolent destruction, and that the Heune'urg was a'andoned a!ter the second destruction, which may ha e 'een part o! a power struggle with Honenasperg, ha e lost some ground recently) It remains li,ely that the mud'ric, !orti!ication was indeed destroyed iolently, 'ut there is no e*act e idence to indicate whether this may ha e 'een the result o! e*ternal war!are or o! internal di!!iculties) The renewed economic !lourish a!ter this e ent may argue against a wholesale destruction o! the site) The second destruction, in the 7th century, is e en more pro'lematic) It has 'een argued that the !ire or !ires could 'e accidental) It is also important to note that although the Heune'urg plateau is mostly a'andoned at this time, as is the Aussensiedlung, smaller settlements de elop in the surrounding area and 'urial acti ity continues, perhaps suggesting a change in the !ocus o! settlement acti ity, possi'ly connected with sociopolitical changes at that time) Trade& contacts $ith the Classical (orld The importance o! the Heune'urg, li,e that o! other contemporary centres, is closely connected with its location in relation to se eral important trade routes) 3laced Dust north o! the Alps and on the /anu'e, the site had access to important land routes across the mountains !rom QQItalyR and 2outhern ?rance (especially the 6ree, colony o! 1assalia), and, 'y ri er, to the Bal,ans and the Blac, 2ea) It was in ol ed in long-distance trade 'etween northern and southern Europe, in ol ing lu*ury goods (as !ound in the 'urial mounds) and pro'a'ly wine !rom the south, and am'er, metals, as well as pro'a'ly perisha'les li,e leather and !ur, !rom the north) The 1editerranean (6ree, andTor Etruscan) in!luence on the Heune'urg is especially strongly re!lected 'y its mud'ric, !orti!ication and the newly !ound ashlar masonry) Pyrene) In the mid-7th century BC, the 6ree, historian Herodotus (Boo, $)PP) made a 'rie! passing re!erence to a Celtic city called 'y the 6ree, >3yrene>; >?or the Ister !lows !rom the land o! the Celts and the city o! 3yrene through the ery middle o! Europe)))> 2ince the Heune'urg is roughly in the right location and was a maDor regional centre Dust 'e!ore that time, it is possi'le that it is the settlement re!erred to 'y that name)

Hochdorf, Germany

The great tumulus o! Hochdor! is located within a cluster o! tumuli, most o! which ha e not 'een e*ca ated, ca) #+ ,m due west o! the Hohenasperg) The latter, a si*hectare plateau ca) #++ m) a'o e the gently-rolling countryside, is isi'le !rom a great distance) Ha ing 'een continuously occupied since the 1iddle Ages, with many phases o! construction, some e*tending down to 'edroc,, it has not 'een e*ca ated and there appears to 'e no prospect o! maDor archaeological e idence to 'e !ound there) The Hohenasperg was most pro'a'ly the main seat o! go ernment o! the population on the plains 'elow, perhaps a gathering place !or mercantile or religious acti ity, perhaps also a !orti!ied place o! re!uge) Aerial photography has re ealed many more tumuli under the adDacent !ields than ha e 'een e*ca atedS most ha e 'een plowed !lat) The tumulus at Hirschlanden, south o! Hochdor!, dates to the Hallstatt period (6th c))) There the ring o! stones around the circum!erence o! the tumulus and the statue that originally stood on top ha e 'een preser ed) A later stele (%ate Hallstatt /-%a T(ne A) was !ound near'y at Hol&gerlingen) ?urther Hallstatt-period !inds ha e 'een made to the south and east, around Bad Cannstatt and %udwigs'urg, in addition to the important early %a T(ne princely tom' o! the @leinaspergle) ?inally, .oman-period sites include a !ascinating wood-!enced enclosure at ?ell'ach-2chmiden, apparently a cultic temenos (> iereckschanze>) or an open-air temple o! the second century B)C)E)) The contents o! a deep well sha!t inside the enclosure include monumental sculptures o! styli&ed deer and goat-li,e creatures rearing on their hind legs (see Biel #A87, PPA !!))) 2trong e idence !rom the pattern o! 'urials indicates continuity o! occupation o! the Hohenasperg and its surrounding countryside) Although the archaeological record is e*tremely spotty -- as is to 'e e*pected in an area that has 'een under intensi e culti ation and construction !or centuries -- it contains material !rom the late Hallstatt period through the transition to %a T(ne and into the %a T(ne period proper) The relationship 'etween the Hohenasperg and the outlying 'urial areas may ha e changed o er time, with the 'urials mo ing in closer to the !orti!ied hill settlement, 'ut !urther e*ca ation must 'e underta,en to determine the precise seEuence) The tumulus was originally ca) 6 m high and 6+ m in diameter) 2urrounded 'y a wide trench, it was arti!icially 'uilt up and protected at its 'ase 'y stones and wood posts -- at appro*) P m inter als, longer ertical wood posts were set into the stone pac,ing encircling the mound) The central cham'er with its inner dimensions o! 4)= * 4)= m was set 'elow ground le el into a stone- and wood-!illed sha!t ca) $)7 m deep and ca) =)4 * =)7 m) It was completely constructed o! wooden plan,s) The stone pac,ing !ell in when the roo! e entually collapsed and crushed the contents, which are remar,a'ly well preser ed ne ertheless)

10

The remains o! the tumulus, the central cham'er and se eral secondary 'urials were e*ca ated in #A=8 and #A=A and ha e 'een care!ully studied and reconstructed) 3u'lication o! this e*emplary e*ca ation is ongoingS Biel #A87 and @rauVe #AA6 ha e presented many o! the important o'Dects, while @Or'er-6rohne and others ha e concentrated on the paleo'iological remains) The walls and !loor o! the cham'er were entirely co ered with wo en and em'roidered te*tilesS a great deal o! plant !i'ers and animal !ur attest to the presence o! !urther organic material in the tom') 2ome o! the o'Dects themsel es were care!ully wrapped in cloth) The deceased, a man o! perhaps 47 years o! age at death, and #)8= m tall, was laid out in state on a 'ron&e couch along the west wall o! the cham'er) Hn and around his 'ody were arious o'Dects o! personal adornment; a 'irch-'ar, hat, a gold torc and 'racelet -- his 'elt, dagger and e en his shoes were co ered with gold !oil) At his !eet stood an enormous 'ron&e cauldron o! 9estern 6ree, manu!actureS it was !illed with mead) At his head and along the south wall hung nine drin,ing horns) Hther drin,ing and 'anEueting essels were placed on or in the cauldron, and stac,ed on the 'ed o! the wagon that occupied the eastern portion o! the cham'er) The composite 'elow places the >chie!tain> in a seated position on the 'ron&e couchS arguments that the couch could only ha e !unctioned as a 6ree, kline !ind the couch too low to 'e sat on) The P7 cm height o! the wheeled !igure supports seem adeEuate to me to allow the occupant to sit and not necessarily to recline on the couch, 'olstering my contention that he reclines in the tom' not 'ecause he is at symposion 'ut 'ecause he is dead) The composite does not include the thic, cushioning o! plant and animal materials that originally co ered the couch)

11

B skla near Adamovo (" he Bull !ock""

It was the 1ora ian archaeologist 5indWich 9an,el, who, in #8=$, made a legendary Hallstatt !ind in the so-called %o''y (3redsin) o! the BLMK s,Nla ca e near Adamo in the 1ora ian @arst region) He 'elie ed that there was a cremation 'urial o! a highly-placed no'leman on a !unerary cart, surrounded 'y a num'er o! gra e goods) :ot less than 4+ young women and their guards were also supposed to ha e 'een ritually ,illed at the spot) :umeruous animal and material o!!erings, such as crops, te*tiles, ceramic and sheet-metal essels, Dewellery, and glass and am'er 'eads, were also included) 2ince the disco ery 9an,elXs complete assem'lage has !ormed part o! the permanent display o! the 0ienna :atural History 1useum) The stray !inds o! later occassional e*ca ations at the ca e ha e 'een deposited in the 1ora ian 1useum in Brno) 9an,el8s interpretation o! the site was later critically ree aluated) A ree*amination o! the preser ed anthropological and archaeological material in the =+8s and 8+8s, and an e*pert geological appraisal o! the ca e sediments and o! the sur i ing >cremation> soil, ha e all led to the !inal reDection o! the original interpretation o! the site as a no'lemanXs 'urial) :one o! the other hypotheses, such as the murder o! a group o! !oreign traders or re!ugees, an acidental e*plosion and ca e-in, or the hiding o! a tri'al hoard, could !ace up to modern eri!ication o! the sur i ing material e idence and o! the site itsel!) The maDority o! researches loo,ing at the pro'lem o! the BLMK s,Nla site today tend to 'elie e that the ca e lo''y was in use !or a lengthy period o! time in the = th and 6th centuries B)C), as a central ritual place !or the region, to which people 'rought cereal and other o!!erings, including the ones o! animals and humans) It was a 'ron&e statuette o! a 'ull, originally attached at the hoo es to a sil er plaEue, and a 'ron&e head o! a >sceptre> that ha e come to sym'oli&e the site) ?ragments o! se eral Hallstatt period wagons, a range o! late 'oat !i'ulae, hundreds o! ri''ed 'racelets, se eral ri''ed sheet-'ron&e cists, a cauldron with cross-shaped attachGs and !ragments o! other sheet-'ron&e essels, a num'er o! pendants and many other arte!acts ha e turned out to 'e ery important e idence) A rather conspicuous !eature o! the site is the a'sence o! weapons)

12

#a $ne culture

&!er!iew of the Hallstatt and 'a T(ne cultures. The core Hallstatt territor) *+,, -./ is shown in solid )ellow0 the area of influence b) 1,, -. *Ha2/ in light )ellow. The core territor) of the 'a T(ne culture *#1, -./ is shown in solid green0 the e!entual area of 'a T(ne influence b) 1, -. in light green. The territories of some ma3or .eltic tribes are labelled. The %a T(ne culture was a European Iron Age culture named a!ter the archaeological site o! %a T(ne on the north side o! %a,e :euchJtel in 2wit&erland, where a rich tro e o! arti!acts was disco ered 'y Hansli @opp in #87=) %a T(ne culture de eloped and !lourished during the late Iron Age (!rom 47+ BCE to the .oman conEuest in the #st century BCE) in eastern ?rance, 2wit&erland, Austria, southwest 6ermany, the C&ech .epu'lic, 2lo a,ia and Hungary) To the north e*tended the contemporary 5astor! culture o! :orthern 6ermany) %a T(ne culture de eloped out o! the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture without any de!inite cultural 'rea,, under the impetus o! considera'le 1editerranean in!luence !rom 6ree,, and later Etruscan ci ili&ations) A shi!t o! settlement centres too, place in the 4th century) Hur ,nowledge o! this cultural area deri es !rom three sources; !rom archaeological e idence, !rom 6ree, and %atin literary e idence, and more contro ersially, !rom ethnographical e idence suggesting some %a T(ne artistic and cultural sur i als in traditionally Celtic regions o! !ar western Europe) 2ome o! the societies that are archaeologically identi!ied with %a T(ne material culture were identi!ied 'y 6ree, and .oman authors !rom the 7th century onwards as keltoi (>Celts>) and galli (>6auls>)) Herodotus placed keltoi at the source o! the /anu'e, in the heartland o! %a T(ne material culture) 9hether this means that the whole o! %a T(ne culture can 'e attri'uted to a uni!ied Celtic 13

people is di!!icult to assessS archaeologists ha e repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political a!!iliation do not necessarily run parallel) ?rey notes (?rey $++4) that in the 7th century, >'urial customs in the Celtic world were not uni!ormS rather, localised groups had their own 'elie!s, which, in conseEuence, also ga e rise to distinct artistic e*pressions>) In some cases where %a T(ne archaeological sites are o erlain 'y 2la ic culture, any identi!ication o! %a T(ne material culture with Celts may 'ecome a sensiti e local issue) E*tensi e contacts through trade are recogni&ed in !oreign o'Dects deposited in elite 'urialsS stylistic in!luences on %a T(ne material culture can 'e recogni&ed in Etruscan, Italic, 6ree, and 2cythian sources) /atea'le 6ree, pottery at %a T(ne sites and dendrochronology and thermoluminescence help pro ide date ranges in an a'solute chronology at some %a T(ne sites) A disputed La T*ne +homeland+ Though there is no agreement on the precise region in which %a T(ne culture !irst de eloped, there is a 'road consensus that the center o! the culture lay on the northwest edges o! Hallstatt culture, north o! the Alps, within the region 'etween the alleys o! the 1arne and 1oselle in the west and modern Ba aria and Austria in the east) In #AA4 a prototypical ensem'le o! elite gra e sites o! the early 7th century BCE was e*ca ated at 6lau'erg in Hesse, northeast o! ?ran,!urt-am-1ain, in a region that had !ormerly 'een considered peripheral to the %a T(ne sphere) ?rom their homeland, %a T(ne groups e*panded in the 4th century to Hispania, the 3o 0alley, the Bal,ans, and e en as !ar as Asia 1inor, in the course o! se eral maDor migrations) In the 4th century, a 6allic army led 'y Brennus reached .ome and too, the city) In the Prd century, 6allic 'ands entered 6reece and threatened the oracle o! /elphi, while another 'and settled 6alatia in Asia 1inor) La T*ne culture As with many archaeological periods, %a T(ne history was originally di ided into >early> (6th century BCE), >middle> (ca 47+-#++ BCE), and >late> (#st century BCE) stages, with the .oman occupation e!!ecti ely dri ing the culture underground and ending its de elopment) A 'road cultural unity was not paralleled 'y o erarching social-political uni!ying structures, and the e*tent to which the material culture can 'e linguistically lin,ed is de'ated) %a T(ne metalwor, in 'ron&e, iron and gold, de eloping technologically out o! Halstatt culture, is stylistically characteri&ed 'y inscri'ed and inlaid intricate spirals and interlace, on !ine 'ron&e essels, helmets and shields, horse trappings and elite Dewelry, especially the nec, rings called torcs and ela'orate clasps called fibulae) It is characteri&ed 'y elegant, styli&ed cur ilinear animal and egetal !orms, with elements a,in to 2cythian animal designs !rom the area o! ",raine, allied with the Hallstatt traditions o! geometric patterning) %a T(ne cultural material appeared o er a large area, including parts o! Ireland and 6reat Britain (the la,e dwellings at 6laston'ury, England, are a well ,nown e*ample o! %a T(ne culture), northern 2pain, Burgundy, and Austria) Ela'orate 'urials also re eal a wide networ, o! trade) In 0i*, ?rance, an elite woman o! the 6th century BCE was 'uried with a 'ron&e cauldron made in 6reece) E*ports !rom %a T(ne cultural areas to the 1editerranean cultures were 'ased on salt, tin and copper, am'er, wool and leather, !urs and gold) Initially %a T(ne !ol, li ed in open settlements that were dominated 'y the chie!tainsY towering hill !orts) The de elopment o! townsZ oppidaZ appears in mid-%a T(ne culture) %a T(ne dwellings were carpenter-'uilt rather than o! masonry) %a T(ne peoples also dug ritual sha!ts, in which oti e o!!erings and e en human sacri!ices were cast) 2e ered heads appear to ha e held great power and were o!ten represented in car ings) Burial sites included weapons, carts, and 'oth elite and household goods, e o,ing a strong continuity with an a!terli!e)

14

%iscovery, La T*ne site %a T(ne is a illage on the northern shore o! %a,e :euchJtel, 2wit&erland) It is 'oth an archaeological site and the eponymous site !or the late Iron Age %a T(ne culture, also spelt >%at(ne> or >%a-T(ne>) In #87=, prolonged drought lowered the waters o! the la,e 'y a'out $ m) Hn the northernmost tip o! the la,e, 'etween the ri er Thi(le and a point south o! the illage o! 1arin-Epagnier, Hansli @opp, loo,ing !or antiEuities !or Colonel ?rGdGric 2chwa', disco ered se eral rows o! wooden piles that still reached a'out 7+ cm into the water) ?rom among these, @opp collected a'out !orty iron swords) The 2wiss archaeologist ?erdinand @eller pu'lished his !indings in #868 in his in!luential !irst report on the 2wiss pile dwellings (4fahlbaubericht)) In #86P he interpreted the remains as a Celtic illage 'uilt on piles) Eduard /esor, a geologist !rom :euchJtel, started e*ca ations on the la,eshore soon a!terwards) He interpreted the site as an armory, erected on piles o er the la,e and later destroyed 'y enemy action) Another interpretation accounting !or the presence o! cast iron swords that had not 'een sharpened, was o! a site o! sacri!ices) 9ith the !irst systematic lowering o! the 2wiss la,es !rom #868 to #88P, the site !ell completely dry) In #88+, Emile 0ouga, a teacher !rom 1arin-Epagnier, unco ered the wooden remains o! two 'ridges (designated >3ont /esor> and >3ont 0ouga>) originally o er #++ m long, that crossed the little Thi(le .i er (today a nature reser e) and the remains o! !i e houses on the shore) A!ter 0ouga had !inished, ?) Borel, curator o! the 1arin museum, 'egan to e*ca ate as well) In #887 the canton as,ed the 2ociGtG d8Histoire o! :euchJtel to continue the e*ca ations, the results o! which were pu'lished 'y 0ouga in the same year) All in all, o er $7++ o'Dects, mainly made !rom metal, ha e 'een e*ca ated in %a T(ne) 9eapons predominate, there 'eing #66 swords (most without traces o! wear), $=+ lanceheads, and $$ shield 'osses, along with P87 'rooches, tools, and parts o! chariots) :umerous human and animal 'ones were !ound as well) Interpretations o! the site ary) 2ome scholars 'elie e the 'ridge was destroyed 'y high water, while others see it as a place o! sacri!ice a!ter a success!ul 'attle (there are almost no !emale ornaments)) An e*hi'ition mar,ing the #7+th anni ersary o! the disco ery o! the %a T(ne site was launched in 5une $++= at the 1usGe 2chwa' in Bienne, 2wit&erland) It is scheduled to mo e to CIrich in $++8 and the 1ont Beu ray in Burgundy in $++A) La T*ne sites B %a T(ne B Bern, Engehal'insel; oppidum B 1anching; oppidum B 1Insingen, 'urial !ield B Basel; oppidum B Bi'racte, oppidum o! the Aedui at 1ont Beu ray in Burgundy B Erst!eld hoard B Hochdor! Chie!tain8s 6ra e B Bop!ingen; iereckschanze, a characteristic rectangular enclosure B ?ell'ach-2chmiden, near 2tuttgart; iereckschanzeS ritual o'Dects reco ered !rom a well B @leinaspergle; elite gra es o! %a T(ne I B 9aldalgesheim; an elite chariot 'urial, 4th century B 6lau'erg, oppidum and elite gra es B /Irrn'erg near Hallein; Burial !ield and earthwor,s o! late Hallstatt<early %a T(ne

15

B B B B B

/onners'erg; oppidum 0ill near Inns'ruc,; remains o! dwellings 2and'erg Celtic city near 3latt and .oseldor! in %ower Austria 0i*T1ont %assois; oppidum and ela'orate gra es Titel'erg; oppidum in %u*em'ourg

Some outstanding La T*ne artifacts B >2trettweg Cart> (=th century BCE), !ound in southeast Austria, a !our-wheeled cart with a goddess, riders with a*es and shields, attendants and stags) (%andesmuseum 5ohanneum, 6ra&, Austria) B A woman in 0i* (ChJtillon-sur-2eine, Burgundy) 'uried with a #,#++ litre ($A+ gallon) 'ron&e 6ree, ase, the largest e er !ound) B The sil er >6undestrup cauldron> (Prd or $nd century BCE), !ound ritually 'ro,en in a peat 'og near 6undestrup, /enmar,, 'ut pro'a'ly made near the Blac, 2ea, perhaps in .omania) (:ational 1useum o! /enmar,, Copenhagen) B >Battersea 2hield> (P7+-7+ BCE), !ound in the Thames, made o! 'ron&e with red enamel) (British 1useum) B >9itham 2hield> (4th century BCE)) (British 1useum, %ondon) B >Turoe stone>, 6alway, Ireland B Chariot 'urial at 9aldalgesheim, Bad @reu&nach, 6ermany, late 4th century BCE) (Bonn; .heinisches %andesmuseum) B Chariot 'urial at %a 6orge 1eillet A li!e-si&ed sculpture o! a warrior that accompanied the 6lau'erg 'urials) B A gold-and-'ron&e model o! an oa, tree !ound at the Hppidum o! 1anching) B :oric steel

16

%trett&eg &agon
%en), 48 cm) Image [$P#8$+ Type o! o'Dect; Chariots and 9agons 1aterial; 'ron&e 3eriod; Hallstatt ?ind spot; 2trettweg Country; Austria /ate; =th c) BCE Collection; 6ra&, 2teiermFr,isches %andesmuseum 5oanneum

This wagon was !ound in a gra e at 2trettweg in Austria) The gra e in which this wagon was !ound was a cremation gra e in the se enth century BCE) This 'ron&e wagon has !our wheels and each o! them has eight spo,es) It may ha e a sym'olic meaning 'ecause its construction does not seem to 'e intend a carriage) Hn the 'ody, there are 'ron&e !igures (see details)) Twel e warrior-li,e !igures, !our horses, and two stags(\) are placed almost symmetrically (see photographs !rom other directions)) In the center, a tall !emale !igure is standing) 2he raise her hands to li!t a plate on which pro'a'ly a ase would 'e placed) 2andars suggested this was made 'y a 6ree, cra!tsman or 'y someone trained in 6ree,, since the style o! !igures resem'le a 6ree, warrior in 'ron&e !rom Hlympia (2andars)) 9e do not ha e a certain literary source in which these !igures were descri'ed) The central !igure was much larger than other !igures) It suggested she had an important role o! the e ent in which this wagon was used) 2he might 'e a goddess, a shaman or a person with high social ran,) The stag was o!ten associated with myth) According to 3are8s classi!ication, this wagon is one o! 8@esselwagen8, >which 'earing a 'ron&e essel and whose essels are mostly raised a'o e the wagon, o!ten supported 'y twisted 'ron&e rods, and the wagons themsel es sometimes carry small 'ron&e !igures> (3are, #8#)) This wagon might 'e used at some ,inds o! ritual to 'ring a sym'olic material, which we do not ,now, on the plate)

17

'() Grave
The 0i* @rater, an imported 6ree, wine-mi*ing essel !ound in the !amous gra e o! the >%ady o! 0i*> The area around the illage o! 0i* in northern Burgundy, ?rance is the site o! an important prehistoric comple* !rom the Celtic %ate Hallstatt and Early %a T(ne periods, comprising an important !orti!ied settlement and se eral 'urial mounds) The most !amous o! the latter, the 0i* 6ra e, also ,nown as the gra e o! the %ady o! 0i*, dates to circa 7++ BC) Her gra e had ne er 'een looted and contained remar,a'ly rich gra e o!!erings, including a great deal o! Dewellery and the 0i* ,rater, the largest ,nown metal essel !rom antiEuityZ'eing #)6P m (784>) in height) Location The sites are located near the illage o! 0i*, a'out 6 ,m north o! ChJtillon-sur-2eine, in the C]te-d8Hr department, northern Burgundy) The comple* is centred on 1ont %assois, a steep !lat-topped hill that dominates the area) It was the site o! a !orti!ied Celtic settlement, or oppidum) To the southeast o! the hill, there was a 4$-hectare necropolis with gra es ranging !rom the %ate Bron&e Age ia the Hallstatt Culture to %ate %a T(ne) Hther !inds indicate acti ity up to %ate AntiEuity) In the 6th and 7th centuries BC, the 0i* or, 1ont %assois, settlement appears to ha e 'een in control o! an important trading node, where the 2eine, an important ri erine transport route lin,ing eastern and western ?rance, crossed the land route leading !rom the 1editerranean to :orthern Europe) Additionally, 0i* is at the centre o! an agriculturally rich plain) History of discovery 0i* ,rater; ?rie&e o! hoplites and !our-horse chariots /isco ery o! archaeological material in the area, originally 'y a locally-'ased amateur, 'egan around #A$A) Increasingly systematic wor, throughout the !ollowing decades re ealed thousands o! pottery sherds, !i'ulae, Dewellery, and other 'ron&e and iron !inds) The !amous 'urial mound with the ,rater was e*ca ated in early #A7P 'y 3ierre 5ou!!roi) Archaeological research on and around 1ont %assois is ongoing as part o! the research agenda o! the C:.2, and important disco eries were made in $++6 (see 'elow))

The oppidum of -ont Lassois ?orti!ications and architecture E*ca ation o! the settlement on the summit o! 1ont %assois re ealed e*tensi e !orti!ications, with ditches and walls up to 8 m thic,) The walls were 'uilt in the 4fostenschlitzmauer techniEue, 'ut also yielded nails o! the type common in murus gallicus walls) E*ca ation inside the enclosure re ealed a ariety o! 'uildings, including post houses, pit dwellings, hearths, and storage units 'uilt on stilts)

18

6eophysical wor, shows a large planned settlement, with a central north<south a*is and se eral phases o! 'uildings) The >3alace o! the %ady o! 0i*> In $++6, a remar,a'le architectural unit was disco ered at the centre o! the site) It is a large comple* o! two or three 'uildings, the main one measuring P7 'y $# m, with an estimated height o! #$ m; the dimensions o! a modern church) The large hall had an apse at the 'ac, and a !ront porch in antis) H erall, the central unit resem'les the megaron comple* o! early 6ree, architecture) 2uch a !ind is unprecedented in early Celtic Europe) ?inds suggested domestic use or !easting uses) The structure has 'een descri'ed as the >3alace> o! the %ady o! 0i* ( 4alais de la 2ame de i%)) ?inds The many indi idual !inds !rom the %assois oppidum clearly demonstrate the settlement8s longranging trade contacts, as well as its own role as an economic centre) The most common !inds are sherds o! pottery, with more than 4+,+++ recorded to date) 1any are local products, decorated with simple geometric moti!s (chec,er'oard patterns) and occasional depictions o! animals) There also ha e 'een !inds o! imported Attic 'lac, !igure ases !rom 6reece) 1any amphorae and 'owls could 'e identi!ied as coming !rom the contemporary 6ree,-settled areas o! 2outhern ?rance) The amphorae had 'een used !or transporting wine) 5ewellery included !i'ulae, commonly decorated with am'er or coral, earrings, 'eads, slate 'racelets, and rings) 6lass ornaments also were !ound) 2ome small 'ron&e !igurines !ound are pro'a'ly o! 1editerranean origin) %ittle weaponry has 'een !ound as yet, the maDority o! it proDectiles and a*es) 2tatus 1ont %assois has all the !eatures o! a high-status settlement; large !orti!ications, the presence o! a citadel and a lower town, rare and !ine imported materials, as well as, numerous rich 'urial mounds in the icinity) The 'urial mounds The #A7P 0i* 6ra e The 'urial o! the >the %ady o! 0i*> too, place around 7++ B)C) The gender o! the indi idual 'uried has 'een interpreted as !emale) 2he is accompanied 'y many items o! Dewellery, 'ut no weaponry) Her social status is not clear and other than >%ady,> names such as, 5ueen, 4rincess, or 4riestess of i% ha e all 'een used in arious articles in ol ing conDecture) There can 'e no dou't o! her high status, as indicated 'y the large amounts o! Dewellery) 2he was 'etween P+ and P7 years old at the time o! her death) -urial and gra!e goods The inhumation 'urial was placed in a 4 * 4 m rectangular wooden cham'er underneath a mound or tumulus o! earth and stone which originally measured 4$ m in diameter and 7 m in height) Her 'ody was laid in the !reestanding 'o* o! a cart, or chariot, the wheels o! which had 'een detached and placed 'eside it) Hnly its metal parts ha e sur i ed) Her Dewellery included a 48+ gram $4-carat gold torc, a 'ron&e torc, si* !i'ulae, si* slate 'racelets, plus a se enth 'racelet made o! am'er 'eads) The gra e also contained an assem'lage o! imported o'Dects !rom Italy and the 6ree, world, all o! them associated with the preparation o! wine) They included the !amous ,rater (see 'elow), a sil er phiale (shallow 'owl, sometimes seen as a local product), an Etruscan 'ron&e oinochoe (wine Dug), and se eral drin,ing cups !rom Etruria and Attica) Hne o! the latter was dated as circa 7$7 BC

19

and represents the latest !irmly datea'le !ind in the gra e) It thus pro ides the 'est e idence, a terminus post 6uem !or its date) The essels were pro'a'ly placed on wooden ta'les or 'enches that did not sur i e) The i. /rater The largest and most !amous o! the !inds !rom the 'urial is an ela'orately decorated 'ron&e olute ,rater o! #)6P m (784>) height and o er $++ ,g (47+ l's) weight) @raters were essels !or mi*ing wine and water, common in the 6ree, world, and usually made o! clay) The 0i* ,rater has 'ecome an iconic o'Dect representing 'oth the wealth o! early Celtic 'urials and the art o! %ate Archaic 6ree, 'ron&e wor,) The ,rater was made o! se en or more indi idual pieces with alpha'etical mar,ings, indicating that it was pro'a'ly transported to Burgundy in pieces and assem'led in situ) The ase proper, made o! a single sheet o! hammered 'ron&e, weighs a'out 6+ ,g) Its 'ottom is rounded, its ma*imum diameter is #)$= m, its capacity #,#++ litres ($A+ gallons)) Its walls are only # to #)P mm thic,) The ,rater was !ound crushed 'y the weight o! the tumulus material a'o e it) It had telescoped completely; the handles were !ound at the same le el as the 'ase) It was restored a!ter e*ca ation) Its !oot is made o! a single moulded piece, its diameter is =4 cm, its weight $+)$ ,g) It recei ed the rounded 'ottom o! the main ase and ensured its sta'ility) It is decorated with stylised plant moti!s) The three handles, supported 'y rampant lionesses, weighed a'out 46 ,g each) Each is a 77 cm high olute, each is ela'orately decorated with a grimacing gorgon, a common moti! on contemporary 6ree, 'ron&es) A !rie&e o! hoplites decorates the nec, o! the essel, which is made o! a 'ron&e ring inserted into the main ase and supporting the handles) It depicts eight chariots, each drawn 'y !our horses and conducted 'y a charioteer (depicted smaller than the hoplites !or reasons o! space), each is !ollowed 'y a single !ully-armed hoplite on !oot) The !rie&e is an important e*ample o! early 6ree, 'ron&e relie! art, which has rarely sur i ed) The lid was a hammered 'ron&e sheet, weighing #P)8 ,g and shaped to !it the ,rater8s opening) It is conca e and per!orated 'y multiple holes, pro'a'ly 'ecause it also ser ed as a strainer !or puri!ying wine) A protrusion at its centre supports a #A cm statuette o! moulded 'ron&e, depicting a woman with one outstretched arm, which once may ha e held some o'Dect) 2he wears a peplos, a 'ody-length Ancient 6ree, garment worn 'y women, and her head is co ered 'y a eil) The statuette appears o! a somewhat older style than the rest o! the essel) Significance The enormous ariety o! apparently 1editerranean imports indicates wide-ranging trade connectionsS in particular, the 1editerranean material might ha e come to 0i* with 6ree, or Etruscan traders) The wealth o! imported lu*ury goods at 0i* is, so !ar, uniEue in %a T(ne Europe) It has 'een suggested that the ,rater, the largest ,nown 6ree, 'ron&e essel, should 'e seen in a conte*t o! high-status gi!t e*change connected with the trade o! wine !rom the 1editerranean !or raw materials !rom northern Europe)QARQ#+R 0.hi'ition and reconstruction A reconstruction o! the gra e and the original !inds are on display in the museum at ChJtillon-sur2eine) Further tumuli

20

Apart !rom this woman8s gra e (mound I), there are !i e !urther ,nown large 'urial mounds in the area) Three o! them ha e 'een e*ca ated so !ar) 1ound II had a diameter o! PP mS its central cham'er contained an urn with cremated human remains, dated 'y accompanying !inds to circa 87+ BC) The mound o! %a Butte pro'a'ly dates to the mid-6th century) As in its !amous neigh'ouring gra e, it contained a !emale laid in a cart, or chariot, accompanied 'y two iron a*es and a gold 'racelet) A third mound, at %a 6arenne, was destroyed in #846) It, too, contained a cart, as well as an Etruscan 'ron&e 'owl with !our gri!!in or lioness handles) It is not ,nown whether it contained s,eletal remains) Statues In #AA4, !ragments o! two stone statues, a warrior, and a !igure o! a woman, were disco ered in a small enclosure) Significance and historical role In the area, as elsewhere in Central and 9estern Europe, the early Iron Age led to changes in social organisation, including a mar,ed tendency towards the de elopment o! social hierarchies) 9hereas large open settlements had pre iously ser ed as central places, smaller enclosed settlements de eloped, o!ten in locally prominent locations (so called manors or princel) sites)) They pro'a'ly housed an aristocracy that had de eloped in the conte*t o! the increasingly important trade in iron ore and iron) 9hether they really were >princesses> or >princes> in a modern sense (ie a no'le or religious aristocracy) or simply represented an economic or mercantile elite is still the su'Dect o! much discussion) In any case, the changed social conditions were also represented 'y richly eEuipped gra es which are in sharp contrast to the preceding ha'it o! uni!orm simple urn 'urials) 2e eral so-called Frstensitze (a 6erman term descri'ing such sites, literally >princely seats>) are ,nown !rom %ate Hallstatt and Early %a T(ne Europe, !or e*ample, the 'urials at Hochdor! and 1agdalenen'erg, the Heune'urg settlement and the 6lau'erg settlement and 'urial comple*) They are suggested to indicate an increasing hierarchisation o! society, with these sites representing the top le el, an upper class that li ed remo ed !rom the 'ul, o! the population, and engaged in di!!erent social and 'urial ha'its to stress its own status) This separation was 'ased on economic success, connected with the trade o! the new, superior metal, namely iron) Iron ores were !ar more widespread than the rarer materials needed to produce the pre iously dominant 'ron&e; copper, 'ut especially tin) Thus, economic success ceased to 'e determined simply 'y access to the raw materials, 'ut started to depend on in!rastructure and trade) The increasing economic surplus in well-situated places was in ested in representati e settlements (and !orti!ications), Dewellery and e*pensi e imported lu*ury materials, a di!!erentiation not pre iously possi'le) These changes continued e en a!ter the end o! li!e) The new social class was not 'uried in egalitarian urns without much accompanying material, 'ut recei ed indi idual and ela'orate 'urial mounds as well as rich gra e o!!erings)

21

Burgstallkogel (%ulm valley"

The Burgstall,ogel (478 mS also ,nown as 6rill,ogel) is a hill situated near the con!luence o! the 2ulm and the 2aggau ri er alleys in 2outhern 2tyria in Austria, a'out P+ ,m south o! 6ra& 'etween 6leinstFtten and @lein,lein) The hill hosted a signi!icant settlement o! trans-regional importance !rom 8++ B)C to a'out 6++ B)C) 2urrounding the hill is one o! the largest iron age hill gra e necropolises, originally composed o! at least $,+++ tumuli, that e*ists in continental Europe)

Geography The Burgstall,ogel is prominently situated on a hill ridge that runs !rom east to west, straddling the southern 'an,s o! the 2ulm alley, on a trade route that crossed the @oralpe mountain range !rom Carinthia, connecting to the southern parts o! the 'asin o! 6ra& and onward to the Hungarian plains) The settlement apparently controlled long-distance trade along this route, which had 'een in use since neolithic times, and prospered !rom it) The community e*changed goods !ar into Italy and into the Bal,ans, and might ha e e*ploited the iron ore deposits that e*ist on the hill)

Settlement history The !irst signi!icant ha'itation on the hill was esta'lished during the late 1rnfield culture period around 8++ B)C) when hilltop settlements 'ecame common in continental Europe) Although the name >Burgstall,ogel> (a generic 6erman popular term !or a hill !orti!ication) suggests that ,nowledge a'out the hill8s history might ha e persisted until the 1iddle Ages, ery little was ,nown to archaeological science until #A8$-#A84 when an e*ploratory dig esta'lished !acts which led to signi!icant impro ements o! our conception o! the >2ulm 0alley 2u'group> o! the Eastern Hallstatt culture) ?our cultural layers were identi!ied containing pottery which led on !rom the late "rn!ield culture to the mid-Hallstatt culture period (Ha B$TP to Ha BPTC#)) Erosion has destroyed the youngest layers o! the late Hallstatt period, especially on the summit where no'ility is li,ely to ha e resided) 9hile the earliest settlement traces are 'elie ed to e*tend o er much o! the hill on all its sides (the southern slopes are co ered 'y ineyards and are almost impossi'le to in estigate archeologically), the settlement contracted towards the mountain top a!ter it was destructed 'y !ire twice (around =7+ and =++ B)C)) during the su'seEuent Hallstatt period) It was essentially a'andoned shortly a!ter 6++ B)C) The Burgstall,ogel settlement itsel! was not !orti!ied (although a system o! Hallstatt-era trenches was

22

!ound close to the 2ulm alley 'ottom at the northwestern side o! the hill, which is most e*posed to attac,s), and archeology gi es no indications that it e er su!!ered !rom warS the two catastrophic !ires seem to ha e 'een accidental) Hne o! these !ires destroyed a house containing the largest ertical loom !rom the Hallstatt era that has e er 'een identi!ied in Central Europe) The !act that the stone weights o! this loom remained in situ when it collapsed allowed its reconstruction, adding a alua'le piece o! ,nowledge to our conception o! ad anced wo en-te*tile manu!acturing technology during the central European iron age) This illustrates that the Burgstall,ogel population had a comparati ely high standard o! li ing (though not as high as is typical !or the 9estern Hallstatt culture), which can also 'e in!erred !rom the !act that the inha'itants slaughtered their cattle at a relati ely young age) In $++4, reconstructions o! typical mid-Hallstatt period houses (a residential 'uilding, a grainery and a 'a,ery) were erected the 9estern slope o! the hill employing e*perimental archaeology methods) Howe er, the !indings !rom the digs o!!er no proo! that these 'uildings resem'le any actual situation at the Burgstall,ogel settlement during this period) In contrast to the gra e mounds in the 9estern Hallstatt &one where the deceased were mostly 'uried intact, all Burgstall,ogel dead were cremated, !reEuently together with some o! their personal articles, 'e!ore the remains were deposited in the stone gra e cham'er and earth was piled on it to erect the tumulus) The >common citi&en> tumuli o! the 2ulm alley necropolis ('elie ed to ha e num'ered in e*cess o! $,+++ 'e!ore agriculture destroyed most o! them) surrounded the Burgstall,ogel settlement on all sides, and originally they co ered much o! the hill range 'etween 6leinstFtten and the illage o! @lein,lein, where a small area had 'een set aside !or the much larger tumuli o! the chie!tains) The oldest gra e mounds in the necropolis correspond to the youngest sur i ing settlement strata o! the Burgstall,ogel settlement, while two later (Hallstatt BPTC#) 'urial phases can only 'e in!erred !rom secondary deposits) Besides 'eing larger than most other necropolises in the Eastern Hallstatt area, the 2ulm alley necropolis is set apart 'y the !act that preser ed non-aristocratic 'urials !ar outnum'er the no'ility8s gra es) Today the sur i ing tumuli appear clustered in well-de!ined and dense groups) 1ost li,ely, this does not re!lect a design !rom the Hallstatt period 'ut rather the persistence o! larger tumuli which were 'etter a'le to resist human inter!erence and natural erosion, or were protected !rom 'oth 'y !orest growing o er them) The hill gra es ha e 'een a natural part o! the local population8s en ironment !or centuries, and were surrounded 'y much !ol, lore) The !irst crude e*ca ations date 'ac, to #844, and some !inds were on display during the #8=P 9orld E*position in 0ienna) The !irst systematic scienti!ic e!!orts were made 'y !our o!!icials, E) 3rato'e era in #876-#87=, and .adims,L, 2&om'athy and 6urlitt 'etween #88# and #88P on 'ehal! o! the Austro-Hungarian and 2tyrian Anthropological 2ocieties) The e*ca ations continued throughout 9orld 9ar I and into the #AP+s) A!ter a long lapse during 9orld 9ar II and the post-war-era, they resumed in #A=$) As is the case at all other well,nown archaeological sites, modern pro!essional gra e ro''ers (many eEuipped with metal detectors which ha e only ery recently 'een outlawed in Austria) ha e since caused much damage through their unscienti!ic e!!orts 'ut ha e also made !inds o! some signi!icance which !ound their way into the pu'lic domain) There are also se eral !lat gra es in the Burgstall,ogel area, which date 'ac, to the #+th century B)C) The rulers and their aristocracy, which prided itsel! o! military leadership, had the easternmost part o! the necropolis to themsel es) :aturally, their tumuli (o! which !our are ,nown Hartnermichel,ogel I and II, 3ommer,ogel and @rOll,ogel) were the largest and richest ones, containing signi!icant amounts o! 'ron&e essels and iron armament in addition to pottery) It is assumed that the chie!tains8 tumuli were modeled on Etruscan tom's) The cremation places ha e not 'een !ound, 'ut are supposed to ha e 'een either near the gra e site or near the hilltop) The 7r8llkogel was the last hill gra e to 'e set up !or a chie!tain ruling the Burgstall,ogel settlement, most li,ely dating to the !irst hal! o! the 6th century B)C) It had 'een scienti!ically pro'ed (and clandestinely ro''ed) many times !rom the mid-#A++s onward) (Among weapons and impressi e 'ron&e essels, these early and 'adly documented digs yielded the !amous small !ace mas, with the pair o! hands which su'seEuently 'ecame a sym'ol !or the necropolis)) A !inal and total e*ca ation o! this large tumulus, conducted in #AA7 !ollowing thorough geomagnetic and geoelectric prospections,

23

un eiled an astounding amount o! pre iously ignored pottery (much o! it ritually smashed !or the 'urial), and other ery remar,a'le !indings, including osteological proo! o! cremation o! three people (two male, one !emale), se eral animals, and a 'ron&e sword that was already a'out $++ years old (and totally outmoded !or actual com'at) when it was 'urnt and 'uried alongside with the deceased ruler) The central 'urial cham'er was 8 * 8 m in si&e) ?rom measurements and comparisons with similar gra es in 2lo enia an original tumulus diameter o! 4+ m and an original height o! #$ m could 'e in!erred)

Sulmtalne/ropole
/ie mit der prFhistorischen 2iedlung am Burgstall,ogel &eitgleiche 2ulmtalne,ropole (:e,ropole ^ altgriechisch >Totenstadt>), um!asste einstmals wohl an die $+++ 6ra'hIgel (lateinisch >tumuli>)) /ie heute noch mehr als =++ erhaltenen Tumuli am Burgstall,ogel stellen das grOVte hallstatt&eitliche HIgelgrF'er!eld des Hstalpenraums dar) In ihrem "rsprung reicht die :e,ropole noch in die spFte "rnen!elder&eit &urIc,) Es handelt sich ausnahmslos um Brand'estattung) /en Toten wurden o!t &ahlreiche @erami,ge!FVe als Ess- und Trin,geschirr mitgege'en, &um Teil wurde die @erami, auch, wie die I'rigen Beiga'en (Tracht'estandteile, 9a!!en et cetera), mit er'rannt) /ie :e,ropole liegt ,reis!Ormig angeordnet - in A'stFnden on 8++ 'is #+++ 1etern - rund um die 2iedlung am Burgstall,ogel und diente wahrscheinlich der wohlha'enden 1ittelschicht und der @riegerschicht als BegrF'nisplat&) Innerhal' der :e,ropole !inden sich auch immer wieder 'esonders groVe Tumuli, in denen man die 6ra'stFtten einer geho'enen so&ialen 2chicht er,ennen ,ann) %eider standen respe,ti e stehen die 6ra'hIgel immer wieder im Centrum illegaler 6ra'ungstFtig,eiten, was einen erhe'lichen In!ormations erlust &ur 6eschichte der .egion 'edeutet) /er Burgstall,ogel (478 m) ist die hOchste Erhe'ung eines #6 @ilometer langen, in westOstlicher .ichtung erlau!enden .iedels und liegt am Cusammen!luss on 2ulm und 2aggau) Au! ihm 'e!and sich einst eine ausgedehnte, etwa !In! He,tar groVe spFturnen!elder- und hallstatt&eitliche HOhensiedlung (8) 'is An!ang 6) 5hdt) ) Chr))) 2ie &Fhlte in der !rIhen Eisen&eit ne'en Hallstatt und Hallein &u den 'edeutendsten politischen und wirtscha!tlichen Centren des Alpenraums) /ies wird or allem an der auVergewOhnlich reichen Ausstattung der ier sogenannten ?IrstengrF'er in @lein,lein ersichtlich) Bei archFologischen 6ra'ungen au! der Burgstall,uppe in den acht&iger 5ahren des $+) 5ahrhunderts wurden &ahlreiche Hausgrundrisse, Herdstellen und A'!allgru'en au!gedec,t, die das Bild dicht er'auter 2iedlungsterrassen ermitteln) 0on 'esonderem Interesse ist der :achweis eines sen,rechten, P,=+ 1eter 'reiten 6ewichtswe'stuhles) /ieser stellt den 'isher grOVten !rIheisen&eitlichen 2en,rechtwe'stuhl!und 1itteleuropas dar und ermOglichte die Herstellung on etwa drei 1eter 'reiten Te*tilien) %ie F2rstengr3'er von 4lein/lein In der 2ulmtalne,ropole werden insgesamt ier 6ra'hIgel als ?IrstengrF'er 'e&eichnet) 2ie unterscheiden sich on den I'rigen durch ihre stattliche 6rOVe, ihre e*ponierte %age und ihr reiches 6ra'in entar) /ie ier 6roVgra'hIgel - Hartnermilch,ogel I und II, 3ommer,ogel, @rOll-2chmied,ogel - liegen rFumlich getrennt on den I'rigen HIgelgrF'ern im Tal der 2aggau, &ir,a $+++ 1eter %u!tlinie on der 2iedlung am Burgstall,ogel ent!ernt) Aus dem @rOll-2chmied,ogel stammen unter anderem die welt'erIhmte 'ron&ene 6esichtsmas,e mit den 'ron&enen Hand'lechen, ein 'ron&ener 6loc,enpan&er und ein 'ron&ener /oppel,ammhelm) E'en!alls einen 'ron&enen 6loc,enpan&er und teilweise reich er&ierte, EualitFts olle Bron&ege!FVe 'eher'ergten der 3ommer,ogel) /ie ?unde aus

24

den ?IrstengrF'ern sind heute Teil der archFologischen /auerausstellung des %andesmuseums 5oanneum im 2chloss Eggen'erg in 6ra&)

25

*aldalgeshe(m, Germany
I5 Site 9aldalgesheim is located slightly to the west o! the con!luence o! the .hein and the :ahe at Bingen (near 1ain&)) A !armer dug up the tom' contents in #86A) :othing is ,nown a'out the tom', other than that there was some stone pac,ing in ol ed) The deceased is considered !emale on the 'asis o! the lac, o! weapons in the tom' assem'lage) The !inds ha e 'een thoroughly de-restored and studied in the .heinisches %andesmuseum, Bonn, and were pu'lished in e*emplary !ashion 'y 5oachim (#AA7)) The images used here are deri ed in part !rom that pu'lication, in part !rom photographs ,indly pro ided 'y the museum) The !inds date the tom' in late 4th century B)C) II5 Finds

26

!agstone Head (Glava +elta"

1sec,e8 Cehro ice (Bohemia) $nd- #st c) BCE ragstone $P)7 cm 3rague, :arodni 1u&eum

The .agstone Head is that o! a male and is o!ten re!erred to as a Celtic deity due to 'eing !ound within a sacred enclosure) The head, terminating Dust 'elow his torc, was pro'a'ly once part o! a larger statue and damage to the head itsel! is Euite o' ious) The !ace has !our large crac,s running through it; two around the right eye, once across the le!t chee,, and the other across the right chee,) The head has the typical attri'utes which characteri&e it as 'eing Celtic; the spiral scrolls o! the eye'rows and drooping mustaches, the triangular nose, and the torc) "nli,e classical representations o! the Celts, the head has a neat hairstyle which is com'ed 'ac, !rom his !orehead and !lows smoothly down the 'ac, o! his head) The !igure8s eyes are wide and staring, the !ace is a !lat plan with no de!inition to indicate chee,'ones and has a relati ely shapeless pro!ile) The head has 'een reduced to its most important aspects ma,ing it recogni&a'le as a human head 'ut it is not meant to 'e a portrait) The head may ha e 'een created to stand alone, car ed and displayed li,e an actual head se ered !rom a 'ody, to 'e displayed within a sanctuary)

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'erg(na
0ergina (in 6ree, _`abcde) is a small town in northern 6reece, located in the pre!ecture o! Imathia, Central 1acedonia) The town 'ecame internationally !amous in #A==, when the 6ree, archaeologist 1anolis Androni,os unearthed what he claimed was the 'urial site o! the ,ings o! 1acedon, including the tom' o! 3hilip II, !ather o! Ale*ander the 6reat) The !inds esta'lished the site as the ancient Aigai) The modern town o! 0ergina is a'out #P,m south-east o! the district centre o! 0eroia and a'out 8+,m south-west o! Thessaloni,i, the capital o! 6ree, 1acedonia) The town has a population o! a'out two thousand people and stands on the !oothills o! 1ount 3ieria, at an ele ation o! #$+m (P6+ !t) a'o e sea le el) History 1odern 0ergina was !ounded in #A$$ near the two small agricultural illages o! @outles ( 6ree,; fghij`kS Tur,ish; 7tles, 7tle9S 2la ic; 7utlesh - lmnopq) and Bar'es (6ree,; 1rsatr`k, Tur,ish; -arbe9, 2la ic; -arbesh - uvwxpq) pre iously owned 'y the Tur,ish 'ey o! 3alatitsi and inha'ited 'y $7 6ree, !amilies in his employ as ser!s) A!ter the Treaty o! %ausanne and the e iction o! the Bey landlords, the land was distri'uted in lots to the e*isting inha'itants, and to #$# other 6ree, !amilies !rom Bulgaria and Asia 1inor a!ter population e*change agreements 'etween 6reece, Bulgaria and Tur,ey) The name !or the new town was suggested 'y the then 1etropolitan o! 0eria, who named it a!ter a legendary Eueen o! ancient Beroea (the modern 0eria) who had supposedly li ed in the icinity) 0ergina is situated close to the site o! ancient Aigai (latinised as Aegae), once the royal capital o! ancient 1acedon, ruled 'y the Argead dynasty !rom a'out 67+ BC onwards) (The ruins o! another Aigai, one o! the Aeolian dodecapolis, lie P7 ,m south o! ancient 3ergamon in ancient Aeolis, now in Tur,ey)) Archaeological finds Archaeologists were interested in the hills around 0ergina as early as the #87+s, ,nowing that the site o! Aigai was in the icinity and suspecting that the hills were 'urial mounds) E*ca ations 'egan in #86# under the ?rench archaeologist %eon Heu&ey, sponsored 'y the Emperor :apoleon III) 3arts o! the 1acedonian royal palace o! Antigonus III /oson ($6P<$$#), partly destroyed 'y !ire, were disco ered at 3alatista, which preser ed the memory o! a royal site in its modern name) Howe er, the e*ca ations had to 'e a'andoned 'ecause o! the ris, o! malaria) In #AP=, the "ni ersity o! Thessaloni,i resumed the e*ca ations) 1ore ruins o! the ancient palace were !ound, 'ut the e*ca ations were a'andoned on the out'rea, o! war with Italy in #A4+) A!ter the war the e*ca ations were resumed, and during the #A7+s and #A6+s the rest o! the royal capital was unco ered) The 6ree, archaeologist 1anolis Androni,os 'ecame con inced that a hill called the >6reat Tumulus> (in 6ree,, y`bsjz {ghtre) concealed the tom's o! the 1acedonian ,ings) In #A==, Androni,os undertoo, a si*-wee, dig at the 6reat Tumulus and !ound !our 'uried cham'ers, which he identi!ied as hitherto undistur'ed tom's) Three more were !ound in #A8+) E*ca ations continued through the #A8+s and #AA+s) Androni,os claimed that these were the 'urial sites o! the ,ings o! 1acedon, including the tom' o! 3hilip II, !ather o! Ale*ander the 6reat) Androni,os maintained that another was o! Ale*ander I0 o! 1acedon, son o! Ale*ander the 6reat and .o*ana, and this has now 'ecome the !irm iew o! archaeologists and the 6ree, go ernment) The museum and the artifacts The museum which was inaugurated in #AAP was 'uilt in a way to protect the tom's, e*hi'it the arti!acts and show the tumulus as it was 'e!ore the e*ca ations) Inside the museum there are !our 28

tom's and one small temple, the heroon 'uilt as the temple o! the great tom' o! 3hilip II o! 1acedon) The two most important gra es were not sac,ed and contained the main treasures o! the museum) The tom' o! 3hilip II, the !ather o! Ale*ander was disco ered in #A== and was separated in two rooms) The main room included a mar'le sarcophagus, and in it was the larna% made o! $4 carat gold and weighing ## ,ilograms) Inside the golden larna* the 'ones o! the dead were !ound and a golden wreath o! P#P oa, lea es and 68 acorns, weighing =#= grams) In the room were also !ound the golden and i ory panoply o! the dead, the richly-car ed 'urial 'ed on which he was laid and sil er utensils !or the !uneral !east) In the antecham'er there were another sarcophagus with another smaller golden larna% containing the 'ones o! a woman in a golden-purple cloth with a golden diadem decorated with !lowers and enamel) There was one more partially destroyed 'y the !ire 'urial 'ed and on it a golden wreath representing lea es and !lowers o! myrtle) A'o e the /oric order entrance o! the tom' there is a wall painting measuring 7)6+ metres which represents a hunting scene) In #A=8 another 'urial site was also disco ered near the tom' o! 3hilip, which 'elongs to Ale*ander I0 o! 1acedon son o! Ale*ander the 6reat) It was slightly smaller than the pre ious and was not sac,ed too) It was also arranged in two parts, 'ut only the main room contained a cremated 'ody this time) Hn a stone pedestal was !ound a sil er hydria which contained the 'ones and on it a golden oa, wreath) There were also utensils and weaponry) A narrow !rie&e with a chariot race decorated the walls o! the tom') The other two tom's were !ound to ha e 'een sac,ed) The >tom' o! 3ersephone> was disco ered in #A== and although it contained no alua'le things !ound, on its walls was !ound a mar ellous wall painting showing the a'duction o! 3ersephone 'y 3luto) The other tom', disco ered in #A8+, is hea ily damaged and may ha e contained alua'le treasures while it had an impressi e entrance with !our /oric columns) It was 'uilt in the 4th century BC and the archaeologists 'elie e that the tom' 'elonged to Antigonus II 6onatas) ergina Sun Hn the lid o! the larna% o! 3hilip II there is a sym'ol o! a sun or star and this 0ergina 2un has 'een adopted as a sym'ol o! 6ree, 1acedonia) It 'ecame the su'Dect o! international contro ersy in #AA# when the newly independent .epu'lic o! 1acedonia used the sym'ol on its !lag) This outraged 6ree, pu'lic opinion, which saw the use o! the sym'ol as an insult to its historical heritage and implying a territorial claim on 6reece) In #AA7 the .epu'lic o! 1acedonia was !orced to change its !lag)

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.A2T@H 0A2I|, Archaeological Institute, Beograd %(m(lar(t(es and ,(fferences of the -arly .ron Age (n the /entral Balkan Area The Central Bal,an area includes the large territory appro*imately 'etween the ri ers /rina in the west and the Is,er in the east, the /anu'e alley in the north and the 0ardar alley in the south, em'racing East Bosnia, 2er'ia, @oso o, }ugosla 1acedonia and 9est Bulgaria) 2ituated in the centre o! the Bal,an peninsula on the route Doining Central Europe and the Eastern 1editerranean, this area with two important ri er alleys, those o! the 1ora a and 0ardar, was a signi!icant tra!!ic artery throughout prehistory) There was a constant migration o! people, goods and ideas !rom the north to the south and ice ersa, and this was re!lected in the cultural de elopment o! the region) This mo ement is particularly noticea'le in the Early Iron Age, the period which 'egins in the early centuries o! the !irst millenium B)C) and ends appro*imately in P++ B)C) with the arri al o! Celtic tri'es) Both dates mar, important changes in the de elopment o! the material culture) It is less isi'le at the 'eginning o! the Iron Age 'ecause many ceramic and metal !orms !rom the %ate Bron&e Age sur i e, 'ut new !orms 'egin to appear and iron is now widely used) At the end o! the Early Iron Age the Celts 'ring new metallurgy and new pottery, Dewelry and weapons which soon !ind almost uni ersal acceptance) Howe er, the period 'etween these dates was also mar,ed 'y unrest and di erse e ents, so it is not possi'le to !ollow a regular cultural de elopment through all these centuries o er the entire territory) 3artial migrations, in!luences and contacts o! arious ,inds !rom the :orth and East, 2outheast and 2outh, made an important impacts on the local population, lea ing their particular traces to some degree) To illustrate this e*change o! goods and ideas 'etween our area and neigh'ouring and distant regions, we shall gi e here a !ew e*amples) The appearance o! an Etruscan !igurine, dated to the second hal! o! the =th century B)C), in 2medere o on the /anu'e, near Belgrade, can 'e ascri'ed to the increased intensity o! Etruscan in!luence towards 3annonia in this period, 'ut details are missing and we need new !inds !rom the middle /anu'e alley to gi e a satis!actory answer to the Euestion how this o'Dect reached our soil) The disco ery o! another Etruscan product a 'one 'o* decorated with !igural relie!s and dated in 7$+ B)C) in theprincely mound in Atenica can 'e e*plained more satis!actorily) 6ree, merchants 'ringing arious wares !rom southern and central Italy ia 2outh Adriatic to the Bal,an hinterland, o' iously 'rought that 'o* to southwest 2er'ia) A small !igure o! 'lac,smith, !ound in 0rani~te 'y Bela 3alan,a in 2outh 2er'ia, is pro'a'ly o! 3eloponnesian origin dating to the 8th century B)C) Its appearance in the Central Bal,ans presents certain chronological di!!iculties when considering the usually accepted dates o! the early south import in this region) }et i! we ha e in mind that the dating o! the early !i'ulae made under 6ree, in!luence in }ugosla 1acedonia is still a matter o! discussion (they might 'elong to the 8th century), the pro'lem is not as comple* as it seems on the !irst sight) 1acedonian traces are isi'le at some later stage north o! the /anu'e, in Baranya and Transdanu'ia, as clearly shown 'y the 'all-shaped pendant with circular openings !rom Batina and the 'ell-li,e pendant !rom Tapios&ele) These !inds, together with a 'umerang-pendant !rom the 1authner Collection which is 'elie ed to come !rom %ower Austria, are signs o! contact 'etween the south o! our area and 9est 3annonia in the second hal! o! the =th and !irst hal! o! the 6th century B)C) The route, connecting these distant points, passed in all pro'a'ility through /onDa /olina 'y Bosans,a 6radi~,a on the ri er 2a a, an important comercial and tra!!ic crossroad in the 9est Bal,ans, where se eral typical 1acedonian o'Dects o! this period were !ound) The Central Bal,ans area is not completely archaeologically in estigated as yet, so many lacunes e*ist in our ,nowledge o! the Early Iron Age) In spite o! this, it is possi'le to discern se eral

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cultural groups or comple*es in this large territory which show certain similarities 'ut also di!!er !rom each other) The 6lasinac group is the 'est ,nown Early Iron Age group in the Central Bal,ans) It is comprised o! the plateau o! 6lasinac and some other parts o! East Bosnia, the greater part o! 9est 2er'ia as well as parts o! :orth 1ontenegro) The spread o! 6lasinac elements !rom the =th to the 7th century B)C) created a cultural unity o er a large territory, in parts o! Central Bosnia and Hercego ina, Al'ania, @oso o, 2er'ia, e en 0oD odina, em'racing other groups with similar characteristics, e)g) the 1ati group in the 1ati alley in :orth Al'ania and .omaDa 3rce o group in 9est @oso o) The settlements were situated on the !orti!ied hill-tops, the main type o! 'urial custom was s,eleton gra es under tumuli, with cremation gra es appearing occasionaly and predominating at the end o! the 6th and the 'eginning o! the 7th century) 3ottery consists mainly o! one and two handled cups, rarely decorated) Arms are numerous, horse harness appears occasionaly, Dewelry is a'undant !i'ulae and 'racelets predominate, some are typical o! the 6lasinac group, then pins, two-shan, pins, 'eltgarnitures with round 'elt 'uc,les and astragali, arious pendants etc) ?oreign import consists mainly o! 'ron&e essels, de!ensi e arms and pottery) In the east the situation is not so clear) A num'er o! the Early Iron Age gra es in :orthwest Bulgaria 2o!ronie o, 0la~,o selo (Care ac), Beli I& or, 0idin, 1ura ica etc) ha e parallels in East 2er'ia in the Clot ca e, 0rti~te, :o o selo etc) and suggest the possi'le e*istence o! an important group here Clot-2o!ronie o, as it is called, dating to the =th and 6th centuries B)C) Burials are 'oth cremation and s,eleton gra es usually under tumuli, pottery !ollows the traditions o! Bassara'i decoration and !orms, arms are similar 'ut not so a'undant as in the 6lasinac group, in Dewelry !i'ulae and 'racelets predominate although the most signi!icant pieces are unusual openwor, 'elts) In the Iron 6ate area se eral necropolises, 'elonging to an early phase o! the Iron Age, 0aDuga, 1oldo a 0eche, Balta 0erde etc) !orm a separate group which can 'e partially related to the Clot-2o!ronie o group) 2ituated 'etween the 6lasinac and the Clot-2o!ronie o group one should mention the 1ora a group in the alley o! 1ora a, ,nown mainly through settlements with rich ceramic material, 'ut rarely with ertical stratigraphy) (#4) 1etal is rare and gra es !rom this period are not ,nown so that a satis!actory picture o! the group is di!!icult to o'tain) The predominance o! Bassara'i style pottery at an early stage o! the Iron Age suggest that this area was connected at that time with the area o! the Clot group) The Bosut group in 0oD odina and :orth 2er'ia 'ears similar characteristics) It is mainly ,nown through settlements with much pottery and scarce metal !inds) The di ision o! the group into three phases @ala,aMa, Bassara'i, !luted ware is 'ased on the de elopment o! pottery !eatures) In the south, in the large area including 2outh 2er'ia, parts o! @oso o and :orth 1acedonia, and partially East 1acedonia, a unity o! material culture is isi'le mainly in the 8th and =th centuries B)C) 2ettlements are on the hill-tops, 'urial customs are arious s,eleton and cremation gra es appear under and without tumuli 'ut the material is relati ely homogenous; pottery consists o! 'iconic urns with e erted rims, 'owls and one and two handled cups, decorated with cogwheel or incised lines, Dewelry !orms are !i'ulae and 'racelets, cruci!orm open discs, cruci!orm 'uttons ets) Arms appear rarely) ?rom the second hal! o! the =th century the !urther de elopment o! this comple*, which we call %apotince 0la~tice a!ter two important sites in the area, can 'e !ollowed in the settlements as !ar as the 4th century) But these in estigations, which are only partially pu'lished, do not permit any de!inite conclusion as yet) In the central and south parts o! }ugosla 1acedonia one can discern se eral groups which represent in a way a mi*ture o! northern and southern elemensts) An outstanding e*ample is the 6e geli group around 6e geliDa and 0alando o dated to the =th and 6th centuries B)C) Its characteristics are !lat s,eleton cist gra es, pottery made mainly on a wheel which has parellels in the south, and Dewelry with connections in the north (!i'ulae, 'racelets) 'ut also in the south (1acedonian 'ron&es))

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Beside the clearly e*pressed characteristics o! each cultural comple*, isi'le in pottery !orms and decoration and in some types o! arms and Dewelry concentrated in certain areas, there are common elements in 'urial customs and material culture (e)g) predominance o! !i'ulae and 'racelets) o er the entire area, a constant interchange o! material 'etween the regions, parellels and similarities all o er the Central Bal,ans) Here are some e*amples !rom the Clot-2o!ronie o group) The !inds !rom mound II !rom 0la~,o selo constist o! !i'ulae, 'racelet, 'uttons, ring!orm pendants, a !ragmented two-shan, pin etc) 1ost o! the material is typical o! this regionS the !i'ula with 'ron&e ri''ed 'ow and iron core has parallels mainly in East 2er'ia !rom 8T=th centuries B)C) Tripple 'uttons cruci!orm 'uttons and a twoshan, pin (i! it was one) point to contact with 1acedonia) The warrior gra e !rom 2o!ronie o contains pottery, arms and Dewelry, mainly characteristic o! this area, 'ut also rectangular ri''ed 'uttons which ha e parallels in BaM,a and 2lo enia, and a 'ron&e phiale, 6ree, in origin, which should 'e connected with the imports on 6lasinac rather than with the East) It is, as !ar as I ,now, the earliest imported 'ron&e essel and the only one o! this period in Bulgaria) The recent !inds !rom the Clot illage contain dou'le-looped !i'ulae with the leg in the !orm o! a Boeotian shield, a disc-headed pin and a round 'elt 'uc,le o! the 6lasinac type) The 'uc,le has a parallel in Beli i& or in :orthwest Bulgaria and points to contact with the 6lasinac group) Hn the other hand arious types o! the Iron Age !i'ulae, distri'uted all o er the Central Bal,ans, are the 'est e idence !or unity o! the archaeological material) The most important !i'ula !orm in this respect are dou'le-looped !i'ulae with the leg in the !orm o! a Boeotian shield, characteristic o! the =th and 6th centuries perhaps the most typical and popular shape o! the Early Iron Age in the Central Bal,an area in general which also penetrated !ar 'eyond this area) The same can 'e said to a certain e*tent o! two other !i'ula types, somewhat later in date; !i'ulae with the rectangular leg and the >2charnier> !i'ulae, ($6) which, although 6ree, and 1acedonian in origin, 'ecame widely popular in the 6T7th and in the 4th centuries o er the Central Bal,an area) In short, the material culture o! the Central Bal,ans in the Early Iron Age, in spite o! di!!erences 'etween arious regions, gi es a certain picture o! a unity in !orm, idea and spirit) The parallels and contacts with neigh'ouring regions are many, 'ut there are apparent di!!erences in material 'etween our area and the neigh'ouring groups in the East, in Central and East Bulgaria, in the 9est, in 9est Bosnia, %i,a and :orth /almatia as well as in the :orth, in :orth 0oD odina and Hungary) This Euestion reEuires wider and more pro!ound analysis) In any case it has to 'e ta,en into consideration when attempting to identi!y ethnically the Iron Age groups o! the Central Bal,ans and neigh'ouring areas) Translated 'y Ana 0asi

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