LED (Light Emitting Diode)

A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, as in the simple LED circuit. The effect is a form of electroluminescence where incoherent and narrow-spectrum light is emitted from the p-n junction.

Fig. 2.22 LEDs

LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting. An LED is usually a small area (less than 1 mm2) light source, often with optics added to the chip to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection. The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet. Besides lighting, interesting applications include using UV-LEDs for sterilization of water and disinfection of devices, and as a grow light to enhance photosynthesis in plants.

2.6.1 LED TECHNOLOGY

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers

electrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.

The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

Fig. 2.23 Inner Working of LED

LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.

LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.

Fig. 2.24 V-I diagram for a diode an LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2-3 Volt

2.6.2 LIGHT EXTRACTION

The refractive index of most LED semiconductor materials is quite high, so in almost all cases the light from the LED is coupled into a much lower-index medium. The large index difference makes the reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients). The produced light gets partially reflected back into the semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat; this is usually one of the dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half of the emitted light is reflected back at the LED-package and package-air interfaces.

The reflection is most commonly reduced by using a dome-shaped (half-sphere) package with the diode in the center so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is minimized. Substrates that are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a reflective layer, increase the LED efficiency. The refractive index of the package

material should also match the index of the semiconductor, to minimize back-reflection. An antireflection coating may be added as well.

The package may be colored, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the color of the packaging does not substantially affect the color of the light emitted.

2.6.3 COLOR AND MATERIALS

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:

Table 2.10 Color and Their Respective Materials

Color Infrared

Wavelength(nm) Voltage (V) > 760 V < 1.9

Semi-conductor Material Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium (AlGaAs) gallium arsenide

Red

610 < < 760

1.63 < V < 2.03

Aluminium (AlGaAs) Gallium (GaAsP)

gallium

arsenide

arsenide

phosphide

Orange

590 < < 610

2.03 < V < 2.10

Gallium (GaAsP) Aluminium

arsenide

phosphide

gallium

indium

phosphide (AlGaInP) Yellow 570 < < 590 2.10 < V < 2.18 Gallium (GaAsP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) Green 500 < < 570 2.18 < V < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN) arsenide phosphide

Blue

450 < < 500

2.48 < V < 3.7 2.48 < V < 3.7

Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Purple

multiple types

Dual blue/red LEDs, blue with red phosphor, or white with purple plastic

Violet Ultraviolet

400 < < 450 < 400

2.76 < V < 4.0 3.1 < V < 4.4 V = 3.5

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) diamond (C) Aluminium nitride (AlN)

white

Broad spectrum

Blue/UV phosphor

diode

with

yellow

2.6.4 EFFICIENCY AND OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 3060 milliwatts (mW) of electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt (W). These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die.

One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured by its light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficiency of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with a luminous efficiency of 1822 lumens per watt (lm/W). For comparison, a conventional 60100 W incandescent lightbulb produces around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights produce up to 100l m/W.

2.6.5 CONSIDERATIONS IN USE

Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. When the voltage across the p-n junction is in the correct direction, a significant current flows and the device is said to be forward-biased. If the voltage is of the wrong polarity, the device is said to be reverse biased, very little current flows, and no light is emitted. LEDs can be operated on an alternating current voltage, but they will only light with positive voltage, causing the LED to turn on and off at the frequency of the AC supply.

Most LEDs have low reverse breakdown voltage ratings, so they will also be damaged by an applied reverse voltage above this threshold. If it is desired to drive the LED directly from an AC supply of more than the reverse breakdown voltage then it may be protected by placing a diode (or another LED) in inverse parallel.

Fig. 2.25 Identification of LED

2.6.6 TYPES OF LEDS

The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

1. Miniature LEDs These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-size packages:

1. Surface mount 2. 2 mm 3.3 mm (T1) 4. 5 mm (T1 ) 5. 10 mm Other sizes are also available, but less common.

Common package shapes: 1. Round, dome top 2. Round, flat top 3. Rectangular, flat top (often seen in LED bar-graph displays) 4. Triangular or square, flat top

The encapsulation may also be clear or semi opaque to improve contrast and viewing angle.

There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs: 1. Low current typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption). 2. Standard 20 mA LEDs at around 2 V (approximately 40 mW) for red, orange, yellow & green, and 20 mA at 45 V (approximately 100 mW) for blue, violet and white. 3. Ultra-high output 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight.

2. Five- and twelve-volt LEDs These are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.

3. Flashing LEDs Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators where it is desired to avoid the complexity of external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit inside which causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of a single color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

4. High power LEDs High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at hundreds of mA (vs. tens of mA for other LEDs), some with more than one ampere of current, and give out large amounts of light. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be highly efficient to minimize excess heat; furthermore, they are often mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will burn out in seconds.

A single HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

LEDs have been developed that can run directly from mains power without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficiency of HPLEDs is typically 40 lm/W[42]. As of November 2008 some HPLEDs manufactured by Cree, Inc exceed 95 lm/W [43] (e.g. the XLamp MC-E LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent style lights as LEDs become more cost competitive.

5. Multi-color LEDs A bi-color LED is actually two different LEDs in one case. It consists of two dies connected to the same two leads but in opposite directions. Current flow in one direction produces one color, and current in the opposite direction produces the other color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance of a blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this fashion will color blend to produce a yellow appearance. A tri-color LED is also two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit simultaneously. A three-lead arrangement is typical with one commmon lead (anode or cathode). RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). The Taiwanese LED manufacturer Everlight has introduced a 3 watt RGB package capable of driving each die at 1 watt.

6. Alphanumeric LEDs LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but increasing use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power consumption and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED display.

How the light switch works dark activated

The circuit operation is very simple. When the input to the transistor Q1, which is fed from the connecting point of R1 and R2, is greater than 1.4V the output is turned on. The voltage at the join of R1 and R2 is determined by the ratio of the two resistors. This is known as potential divider. Voltage at join of R1 and R2 = The supply Voltage x (R1/(R1+R2)) Normally it requires 0.7V to turn on a transistor but this circuit uses two resistors in a Darlington Pair meaning it requires 2 x 0.7V = 1.4V to turn on both transistors. It is also worth noting that the output, when turned on, will be around 0.9V lower than the supply voltage V+. This is because of the voltage drop across the collector and emitter pins of the Darlington Pair of transistors. Therefore if the supply voltage is 5V then the output voltage will be around 4.1V. R4 is present to protect the transistor should the variable resistor be set to zero.

Adjusting the trigger level

The point at which the circuit is triggered is set by the 47K variable resistor. By varying the value of this resistor the ratio of the resistance of R1 and R2 can be varied to a point where a centre voltage (trip point) of 1.4V is achieved at the desired light level.

LED (if fitted)

If LED1 and R3 are fitted the LED will light at this point. The value of R3 should be selected for the relevant supply voltage on LED used. A standard LED would require around 10mA (0.01A) producing a normal brightness. As stated a 5V supply would give 4.1V across LED1 and R3. The LED1 would use 1.9V leaving around 2.2V (4.1V-1.9V) across R3. Using R = V/I R3 = 2.2 / 0.01 R3 = 220

How the light switch works light activated

The circuit operation is very simple. When the input to the transistor Q1, which is fed from the connecting point of R1 and R2, is greater than 1.4V the output is turned on. The voltage at the joint of R1 and R2 is determined by the ratio of the two resistors. This is known as potential divider. Voltage at join of R1 and R2 = The supply Voltage x (R1/(R1+R2)) Normally it requires 0.7V to turn on a transistor but this circuit uses two resistors in a Darlington Pair meaning it requires 2 x 0.7V = 1.4V to turn on both transistors. It is also worth noting that the output, when turned on, will be around 0.9V lower than the supply voltage V+. This is because of the voltage drop across the collector and emitter pins of the Darlington Pair of transistors. Therefore if the supply voltage is 5V then the output voltage will be around 4.1V. Note: R4 is only present to protect the transistor in the dark activated version (when the variable resistor is set to zero).

Adjusting the trigger level

The point at which the circuit is triggered is set by the 47K variable resistor. By varying the value of this resistor the ratio of the resistance of R1 and R2 can be varied to a point where a centre voltage (trip point) of 1.4V is achieved at the desired light level.

LED (if fitted)

If LED1 and R3 are fitted the LED will light at this point. The value of R3 should be selected for the relevant supply voltage on LED used. A standard LED would require around 10mA (0.01A) producing a normal brightness. As stated a 5V supply would give 4.1V across LED1 and R3. The LED1 would use 1.9V leaving around 2.2V (4.1V-1.9V) across R3. Using R = V/I R3 = 2.2 / 0.01 R3 = 220