CONTENTS

S.NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

TITLE ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION BLOCK DIAGRAM WORKING PRINCIPLE WELDING PROCESS TRANSFORMER INDUCTION MOTOR ADVANTAGES APPLICATION CONCLUSION REFERENCE

PAGE NO. 2 3 5 6 8 42 52 59 61 62 63

ABSTRACT Resistance seam welding is a simple process that uses one or two wheels to apply pressure to the surface of two or more layers of conductive material. As the wheels roll, electric energy is applied using a capacitive discharge, high frequency, or line frequency weld controller in precise amounts to form a joint between the faying surfaces of the material. The resistance seam weld process is a fast, reliable and low cost way to join many materials. Like most joining methods, it competes with other technologies like laser and TIG welding. This article explores the joint types and the common configurations to used form seam welds on small scale parts.

INTRODUCTION Whether the seam weld is longitudinal, circular, or a unique planar contour, the weld nugget is formed in one of three ways:

a) Roll spot b) Overlapping spot c) Continuous seam

The roll spot type occurs when there are distinct separations between the nuggets as the roller walks across the surface. If the weld schedule is fired at a constant repetition rate, the crosssection result looks like that shown in Figure

Obviously, if one maintains the linear velocity, but increases the firing rate, the spots will get closer and closer together until they overlap. This is called overlap spot welding and creates a hermetic (i.e. leak tight) joint between the materials as depicted in Figure. The overlap spot weld technique is very effective at joining thin materials (i.e. < 0.015 thick) without burn through. Continuous seam welding occurs when a constant stream of energy is applied to the rollers. This results in a joint like that in Figure 1(c). Regardless of the type used, the

electrodes are not opened between spots which results in a high speed joining process. Typical linear velocities for small scale resistance seam welding range from 0.2 to 1.0 in/sec and depend on the material type, part thickness, and weld schedule (one or two pulse) used. The roller forces usually range from 5 to 75 lbs for thin materials, about 5 to 10 times that for a comparable pointed spot weld electrode using the same material thickness. The higher force is due to the additional surface area of the roller when compared to a straight electrode tip.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

WORKING PRINCIPLE

This method is in effect a continuous spot welding process in which current is regulated by the timer of the machine. Seam welding consists of a continuous weld on two overlapping pieces of sheet metal that are held together under pressure between two circular electrodes. Coalescence is produced by heat obtained from the resistance tow flow of current that passes through the overlapping sheets. In high-speed seam welding using contiguous current, the frequency of the current acts as an interrupter. The heat at the electrode contact surfaces is kept to a minimum by the use of copper alloy electrodes and is dissipated by flooding the electrodes and weld area with water. Heat generated at the interface by contact resistance is increased by decreasing the electrode force. Another variable that influences the magnityde of the heat is the weld time, which in seam welding is controlled by the speed of rotation of the electrodes. the amount of heat generated is decreased with an increase in welding speed.

Operation of Seam Welding: The two work pieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other oxides either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The work pieces are overlapped and placed firmly between two wheel shaped copper alloy electrodes, which in turn are connected to a secondary circuit of a step-down transformer. The electrode wheels are driven mechanically in opposite directions with the work pieces passing between them, while at the same time the pressure on the joint is maintained. Welding current is passed in series of pulses at proper intervals through the bearing of the roller electrodes wheels. As the current passes through the electrodes, to the work piece, heat is generated in the air gap at the point of contact (spot) of the two work pieces. This is heat melts the work pieces locally at the contact point to form a spot weld. Under the pressure of continuously rotating electrodes and the current flowing through them, a series of overlapping spot welds are made progressively along the joint. The weld area is flooded with water to keep the electrode wheels cool during welding.

WELDING PROCESS

The application of welding is in very wide range of our modern world. The new 6.000 km pipelines used to transport natural gas from the other side of the Ural Mountains to Western Europe, the giant warships, the great bridges and the big aluminium liquid-gas storage tanks are just a few of the more impressive examples. The welding is none less important at fabrication of smaller size parts, for example, hypordemic needles, electric switches, parts of computers

A wide scale of materials is used to make these welded parts and constructions. This scale comprehends not only the metals from aluminium to zirconium but the considerable amount of plastic, too. In materials and sizes, very different welded workpieces demand the ample choice of welding processes. Nowadays, more than one hundred welding processes or process variables are used in practice. In spite of that, the welding is the most effective method of joining materials. It has some limitations since during the course of making a weld virtually all types of metallurgical phenomena occur. Usually, the welding is concerned with melting, solidification, gas-metal and slag-metal reactions, surface phenomena and otherwise solid state reactions. Not only the great variety of metallurgical reactions is very difficult, but these reactions occur very quickly during welding, in contrast to other metallurgy fields, such as steel making, casting or heat treatment. All the welding processes require the application of heat and/or pressure to produce a suitable bond. The heat, mechanical and electrical processes associate to welding procedures. The metal joining methods are usually grouped by their bonding mechanism: sticking, soldering and brazing, welding.

In the sticked joint, the attractive forces, which are between an adhesive and the base material, have physical in character. Two principal interactions that contribute to the adhesion are van der Walls bond and permanent dipole bond - as they are well known - are relatively weak.

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During soldering and brazing the coalescence of materials are realized by using a filler metal that is in liquidus temperature below the solidus of the base material. The filler metal in liquid state is distributed between the closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capillary action. The bond between the filler metal and the parent metal is generally due to some diffusion of the filler metal into the hot base metal into the hot base metal and to solve surface alloying of the metals. In this respect, the soldering and brazing are between the sticking and the welding. The difference between soldering and brazing is only in the melting point of applied filler metal. When the melting point of filler metal is above 450 oC temperature the process is named as brazing. The strength of welded joint is based on metallic bond. Opposite from van der Walls or permanent dipole bonds, the metallic bond is a primary bond. The crystal line structure is built up by well positioned metallic positive ions. Each ion is surrounded by at least twelve neighbours. The valence electrons are considered to have complete mobility and are free to move between ions. Each atom contributes with its valence electron to this "electron cloud" and there is no way to assign a given electron to a specific ion. The bond holding the structure together is caused by the attraction of the negatively charged electrons to the positively charged ions. This metallic bond is very strong. The condition of union of two previously separated metal parts is that the distance between surface ions of two parts should not be more than some timer of their lattice parameters. This wished distance is not more than half a nanometre. Under normal circumstances, the total surface or metal parts is covered with adsorbed gas molecules. This molecule layer has some manometers thickness and hampers the connections between metal ions. It is possible to reduce the amount of
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adsorbed gases by decreasing gas pressure or increasing the temperature. It should be mentioned that at higher temperature, the tendency of oxide films formation is higher. The oxide films or other similar dirt on the surface interfere with metal-tometal contact and must be removed in order to obtain the metallic bond. In total vacuum where the gas layer does not hinder from ionic connection of two metal parts placing on each other will not weld. Scabridity of surface explains this phenomenon, since under usual condition only every hundred thousandth millionth ion-pair of surface peaks and cavities are in appropriate proximity. Compressing the metal parts on the relatively small area of contact, the pressure reaches the compression yield and a part of metal surface flows plastically. During the plastic flow of metal, the amount of adsorbed gases decreases, while more and more metallic bonds are formed. Those welding processes in which pressure is used at room temperature to produce coalescence of metals with substantial deformation at the weld create the first main class of welding, and are classified as cold pressure welding. A fundamental requisite for satisfactory cold pressure welding is that at least one of the metals to be joined is highly ductile and does not exhibit extreme workhardening strength. Metals which have been successfully cold pressure welded have face-centred-cubic lattice structure, such as aluminium, copper, lead, nickel, gold, silver and platinum metal. The extremely high power which is required to the plastic flows of metal limits applications of cold pressure welding. The needful power is determined by the area of joint and by the compression yield strength of metal.

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It is possible to decrease the compression yield strength and in this way, the required power to pressure welding by rising of temperature. When the welding temperature is above the recrystallisation temperature, the yield strength drops and the deformation embrittlement does not occur. Coalescence in the weld area is achieved by heating and application of pressure. Those welding processes which join both pressure and heat are grouped in a second main class called hot pressure welding processes. In most of these processes welds are made without the workpiece being melted, or at least with very little melting. The hot deformation, the forging action results in a finer grain structure in the weld, disrupts and disperses the surface gas or oxide film. The hot pressure welding processes have high efficiency and the process of welding is very quick. In these processes, notably resistance and friction welding, the heat is obtained typically in the weld area from the electric resistance of the workpiece to the passage of an electrical current or from the heat cue to rubbing friction. The heated surfaces - in hot pressure welding processes - are in connection with each other and are excluded of atmosphere therefore they are prevented from oxidation. The third main class of welding processes is the fusion welding. In fusion welding processes the base metals are melted, and in many cases, filler metal is added. The molten metal, issuing from parent and filler metals, forms common weld pool. The weld pool is nucleated by solid parent metals. The liquid metal surrounded with base metal crystals begins to solidify growing dendritic grains at the area of contact with the cooler parent metal. These are common grains of both part of welded joint. The common solidification results in a metallic bond between parent metals.

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All welding processes require the application of energy to produce a suitable bond. The welding processes are grouped under these four categories of energy sources: mechanical, chemical, radiant and electrical sources.

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The most common applied processes are grouped according to their energy source. Energy of welding Friction Mechanical Ultrasonic Explosion Gas Chemical Thermit Laser beam Radiant Electron beam Electroslag Resistance Resistance spot Resistance butt Gas tungsten arc Plasma arc Electrical Arc Gas metal arc Shielded metal arc Submerged arc Welding Processes

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The mechanical energy is used for producing metallic bond in friction, ultrasonic and explosion welding. In friction welding a bond is created between a stationary and a rotating member by using the frictional heat generated between them, while subjected to high normal forces on the interface. Fig.2 illustrates principal stages of friction welding. Friction welds are made by holding a non-rotating workpiece in contact with a rotating workpiece under constant or gradually increasing pressure until the interface reaches welding temperature and then rotation is stopped by forming weld. The frictional heat developed at the interface rapidly raises the temperature of the workpieces over a very short axial distance to values approaching, but below the solidus temperature. Welding occurs under the influence of a pressure that is applied while the heated zone is metallurgically achieved by diffusion rather than fusion.

Because of this, the process is admirably suited for joining dissimilar metals, particularly those that undergo undesirable phases when joined by melting processes. Application of this process requires that the rotating member must be
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essentially symmetrical about the axis of rotation while the other one can be of any geometry. Ultrasonic welds are produced by the introduction of high frequency (15-75 kHz) vibratory energy into the weld zone of metals to be joined. The workpieces are pressed together between two tips and the vibratory energy is transmitted through one or both tips which oscillate in a plane parallel to the weld interface. This oscillating motion disturbs the oxide film on the surfaces of the metal surfaces, clears away the adsorbed gas layer and permits metal-to-metal contact. The oscillating shear stress, which occurs during motion results in electric hysteresis, localized slip and plastic deformation at contacted surfaces. The elastic and plastic deformations induce a very localized and transient temperature rise at the weld interface. Under proper conditions of clamping force and vibratory power, the temperature reached is usually half of the absolute melting point of the metals joined. For this reason, the ultrasonic welding is considered as cold or solid state pressure welding process. Because there is no fusion, this method has given good results with dissimilar metals. It is generally used to produce spot, straight, and circular seam weld between workpieces of with not more than 2 mm of sheet or foil thickness. In explosion welding, the deformation of an explosive is utilized to accelerate one of the workpieces to a high velocity before it collides with the stationary component. At the moment of impact, the kinetic energy of the fliyer is released as a compressive stress wave on the surface. The pressure level of these stress waves is greatly above the yield strength of plate material. The essential feature of the process appears to be that the two surfaces to be joined meet at a slight angle so that a "bonding front" is established, which moves across the
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interface. The surface films jets out of the interface by the deformation effect of bonding front on the perfectly clean, oxide and gas-free surface. The interatomic force creates a metallic bond. The result of this process is a cold pressed weld without a heat-affected zone. Explosion welding is generally used to produce a cladding plate but it is suitable for welding of bars. Satisfactory welds can be made between copper and steel and a variety of metals such as gold, silver, nickel and titanium. Chemical energy stored in a wide variety of forms can be converted to useful heat. The temperature and the rate of oxidation reaction are two major characteristics which determine the application of the various energy sources for welding. The involved heat of chemical reaction is utilized for melting of parent materials in gas and thermit welding. For this reason these processes are considered as fusion welding. In gas welding, the used fuel gases have two important characteristics. The first important characteristic of a flame is its chemical activity. Variation of the flame characteristics - oxidizing, neutral or reducing - is accomplished by altering the proportions of fuel gas and of oxygen or air. The neutral flame is the one most used one since neutral atmosphere surrounding the molten metal prevents contamination of weld before solidification.

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From the point of view of welding, the second important characteristic of a flame is its temperature as this largely determines the rate of burning at which welding can be carried on. Flames are hotter if the fuel gas is burnt in pure oxygen than in air. The presence in the flame of nitrogen, which is also heated but takes no part in the combustion, reduces the temperature of flame. At maximum temperature, the flames are oxidizing in nature and are usually not suitable for welding due to the formation of oxides in the weld metal. The acetylene and oxygen are under moderate pressure when mixed and burned in hand held welding torch. The flame is directed to the work surface and obtains fusion of the parts by melting the metals in contact. The gas welding can be applied to a wide variety of metals and it is employed not only in welding, but for brazing, too. Thermit welding utilizes heat from exothermic reaction. A number of metal oxides can be reduced by reaction with finely distributed aluminium with the liberation of considerable heat, so that the products of the reaction are molten. The reaction is obtained with ferric oxide produces 2450 oC temperature. A charge of

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1000g of oxide and aluminium produces 476 g of slag 524g of iron and 0.76 MJ of energy. Molten, superheated iron produced in this way can be poured into the cavity made between two parts of a joint to produce a weld. The slag floats to the surface and the molten material is heating to melt both faces of the base metal. When the filler metal has cooled, all unwanted excess material may be removed. Thermit welding is also used for welding of copper, nickel and their alloys. The most widely employed usage of thermit welding is for joining rails, concrete reinforcing bars, for repair and for welding of heavy construction with charges of up to 3 ton. The laser and electro beam welding employ energy in the form of radiant energy. Radiant energy welding methods are unique because the energy for welding must be focused on the object to be welded, and the heat is generated only where the focused beam strikes the work piece. Unlike other energy sources, the work is not brought in contact with any heated media, gas or metal vapour, and the processes usually may be carried out in low pressure systems where the ultimate in cleanliness can be achieved. The laser beam is focusable by various lens arrangements as well as the electron beam is by electrostatic or magnetic way. The focused beam gives high power densities up to 100 kW/mm2 which is some thousand times higher than power density of gas welding. With radiant energy welding can be produced by the conventional conduction limited manner and by the keyhole technique. In conduction limited welding, the beam impinges on and is absorbed by the metal
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surface. The inner portion of the material is heated entirely by conduction from the surface. In this welding mode, the intense energy concentration at the work piece surface induces local vaporization. A vapour cavity surrounded by molten metal is formed as the beam starts to move along the joint. The cavity is maintained against the fluid dynamic forces of the liquid metal surrounding it by the pressure of the vaporized metal. Metal is progressively melted at the leading edge of the moving molten pool and flows around the deep penetration cavity to the rear of the pool where it solidifies. In the keyhole mode, penetration is not limited by the thermal diffusivity of the material because beam energy penetrates directly into the cavity. Many different metals can be satisfactory welded with radiant energy welding processes. Copper, nickel, iron, zirconium, aluminium, titanium, magnesium, tungsten, molybdenum and their alloys are weldable with this process. Since radiant welding equipment costs more than conventional systems of equivalent power, the selection of applications must be based on unique process capabilities. Some of these capabilities that may be used as a guideline for selection are as follows: the specific energy input to the workpiece is very small the high power density can be used for welding or dissimilar metals with widely different physical properties or great differences in mass and sizes precision welding can be done with a well-defined focused spot the surroundings of welding are very clean
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they are ideally suited to automation.

Electron beam welding is a process that produces coalescence of metals by the heat obtained from a concentrated beam of high velocity electrons impinging upon the surfaces to be joined. The beam of electrons is produced and accelerated by an electron beam gun. Electrons are generated by heating a negatively charged emitting material to its thermal emission temperature range. The electrons boil off this emitter and are speeded and directioned by their attraction to a positively charged anode. A precisely configured electrode surrounding the emitter electrostatically shapes the ejected electrode into a beam. Electron beam welding system capable of producing beam power levels up to 100 kW and power densities in excess of 100 kW/mm2 have been built.

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In laser welding the source of energy is a laser. From an engineering standpoint, the laser may be considered as an energy conversion device in which energy from a primary form (electrical, chemical, thermal, optical, nuclear) is transformed into a beam of coherent electromagnetic radiation at ultraviolet, visible or infrared frequency. The laser "light" is monochromatic (single wavelength) and coherent (all waves are in phase). Because of laser lights are coherent, they can highly concentrate with transmitting or reflective optics to provide the high-energy density required for welding and cutting.

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The most commonly applied welding processes use electric energy. The electric energy may be transformed to heat in a resistance or in electrical arc. The way of energy transformation give a classification or electric welding processes, namely resistance and arc welding. The resistance welding processes - except for electroslag welding - employ a combination of force and heat to produce a weld between the workpieces. Resistance heating occurs as electrical current flows through the workpieces. In electroslag welding, an electrode such as a wire is fed through an electrically conductive bath of molten slag. The heat is generated by the resistance offered to the current during its passage from electrode wire through the slag into the weld pools. This heat melts not only the wire, but the base metals, too. Weld metal is deposited through the molten slag which refines out some impurities and protects the weld pool from the atmosphere. The weld metal solidifies upward as heat is extracted by the surrounding weldment and the containing shoes. Electroslag welding is primarily a method for welding heavy thickness of steel in the vertical or near vertical position.

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In resistance spot welding the two pieces to be spot-welded together are placed between the water-cooled copper welding electrodes. Heat for welding, however, is required only at the base metal interface, and the heat generated at any other locations should be minimized. In practice since the greatest resistance is located on interface, heat is most rapidly developed at that location. The heat at base metal interface is dissipated much more slowly into the base metal. Therefore, as the welding current continues to flow, the rate of temperature rise will be quicklier than at other points. In a well controlled weld, the welding temperature will first be reached at numerous contact points at the interface that met and quickly grow into a nugget with time.

During the spot welding, the workpieces are compressed by electrodes. On the interface the contact resistance between the workpieces decreases and by this way, the generated heat increases if the compression is increased. The welding current has a greater effect on the generation of heat than either resistance or time. Therefore, it is an important variable to be controlled. It is typical for the spot
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welding that the high welding current is up to 100 kA and welding time is very short, some hundredth seconds. The resistance seam welding is a special kind of resistance spot welding. This process use rotating wheel electrodes which pinch the two pieces of metals and controlled current impulses weld a continuous point-series, a seam of overlapping spot welds. The resistance spot and seam welding are used for welding of thin pieces up to 3 mm.

The resistance butt welding is a process which produces coalescence simultaneously over the entire area of two abutting surfaces. This welding process is essentially done in the solid state. The metal at the joint is heated to a temperature where recrystallisation can rapidly take place across the abutting surfaces. A force is applied to the welding to bring the surfaces into intimate contact and during the heating to upset the material tends to purge the joining of oxidized metal.
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This welding process is used for fabricating a rather wide variety of products from bar, rod, wire, strip and pipe. Particularly attractive feature of resistance spot seam and butt welding process are: the high speed of operation, the high productivity, ease of mechanization, elimination of oxidation by closing of heated surfaces and the absence of edge preparation or filler metal. The second main way to change electrical energy into heat is the application of electric arc. An arc is a continuous electric discharge between two solid or liquid electrodes which takes place through partially or totally ionized gas that is known as "plasma". The arc, as a heat source, is used for many important welding processes because it produces a high intensity of heat and is easy to control through electrical means. Under normal circumstances, gases are insulator. Ions and free electrons, which are current carriers, are produced by thermal means and field emission for the gaseous medium. The establishment of plasma state occur by collision processes of high energy particles. The particles of welding plasma, ions, electrons,
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neutral or excited gaseous atoms and molecules obtain their high energy by heating or electric field. As a gas is heated, the individual molecules or atoms obtain more energy. At low temperatures this energy is mainly translational associated with velocity of motion. At higher temperatures diatomic molecules such as nitrogen (N2) absorb energy firstly by rotation and secondly by vibration (an in-and-out movement of the two atoms relative to each other). When the vibration energy reaches a sufficiently high level it may rupture the valence bonds holding the two atoms together, causing them to dissociate into a monoatomic state. At higher temperatures part of the energy is absorbed by the outer electron bond of individual atoms, and eventually causes detachment of one of the outer electrons. During this process, the atom ionizes into one electron and a positively charged ion. The energy levels for ionization are substantially higher than for dissociation. Therefore, ionization becomes significant when the gas is substantially monoatomic and two reactions may be treated separately. The heated gas of the welding arc attains a maximum interval of temperature, between 5 000 and 30 000 K, depending on the kind of gas and the intensity of current carried by it. The gas which is between electrodes consists of shielding gas or air and vapours of base metal and slag.

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Only the highest energy level part of cathode emits electron. This part is called as cathode spot. The biggest and the most important region in the welding arc is the arc column. In most arc columns, the transfer of energy in a gas results from the interaction of the particles of which it is composed. These individual particles are in a state or continual random motion, and energy is transferred from one particle to another by collisions. Such collisions are called elastic, if the total kinetic energy of particles involved remains unchanged and only the motion parameters of collided particles are changed. If a part collision energy is absorbed internally - for example by excitation, dissociation or ionization - then the collision is termed inelastic. By increasing the temperature of the gas, the inelastic collisions will predominate. During recombination of excited dissociated or ionized particles, they irradiate discrete energy quantum in nature of ultraviolet, visible and infrared wavelength. This radiant energy maintains the high temperature of the arc and the plasma state.
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In practice, the plasma of welding arc is considered to be highly ionized. In highly ionized plasma distant encounters between electrons, ions and atoms are the main mode of interaction between particles. Though the anode has a vital role to play in preserving current continuity by receiving electron flow, it has less influence on the arc in a number of respects than the cathode. Striking of electron and negative ion beam into the anode, they transfer to it their kinetic energy and the energy of condensation. The incident particles form a pressure on the surface to the anode spot making a penetration in the weld pool. From the application point of view, welding processes consists in two basic types according to whether or not the electrode is melted. If the electrode is refractory - that means, if it is made of carbon or tungsten - it is not melted away in the process of arcing and is non-consumable. When the electrode - such as filler material melts and molten droplets can be detached and transported across the arc gap to the workpieces by the fast moving plasma jet, the electrode is consumable. Any arc welding process in which the electrode is melted off to become part of the weld is described as "metal arc". With a non-consumable electrode, heat finds its way into the work by the electron or ion processes which take place at the boundary of the arc column with the work - this being the largest source of heat - and also by the connection of the hot plasma jet and by the recombination of any particles dissociated in the arc column.

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Heat is lost to any fluxes present in the arc and also to a limited extent. Only a few percent is lost by radiation and to the gases leaving the arc space. Additionally, heat generated is lost by conduction up the electrode. If the electrode is consumable and is transferred to the weld pool, this heat is available again in the pool. Since the electrode is a part of electrical resistance, the passage of current down the electrode to the arc can cause resistance heating in an appreciable degree. During the arc welding, the weld pool is heated significantly above the melting point of parent materials and the temperature of droplets is near to the boiling point. At this temperature the oxidization and other similar chemical reactions are very quick. Therefore, then must be some way to exclude the air atmosphere while the process is carried out. Slag or shielding gas is used to protect the hot metal. Slag may be formed by melting of electrode covering or welding flux. Those welding processes, in which is used for protection slag, are named as "flux-shielded arc welding" If a flux is not used, shielding can be provided by a blanket of gas, or a gas which does not form refractory compounds with the base metal. The nonconsumable electrode welding processes in every case apply inert gas shielding the metal arc processes can apply active gas as well as. Shielding gas has four functions:

gas ionises and acts as a conductor for the electrons to flow. gas shields the weld pool from the surrounding air, it prevents oxidation the stability of the arc is influenced by the shielding gas at low and high currents.
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the heat of the arc and therefore the penetration are also determined by the gas.

Argon, carbon dioxide, helium, oxygen and their mixture are used most frequently. Argon is the most frequently used shielding gas for welding. It is relatively cheap and gives a stable arc that can be started easily. With pure argon, all metals may be welded. Helium is interesting because of the high arc voltage that provides a deeper penetration. This has a positive effect on the welding speed. Because the gas is extremely light, more gas is needed for welding. The arc is less stable than with argon. The gas is relatively expensive. Pure helium is used for welding copper and aluminium and their alloys. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a process wherein coalescence of metals is produced by heating them with an arc between a tungsten (non-consumable) electrode arc shielded from the atmosphere by a blanket of inert (Ar, He) gas fed through the gas nozzle. Besides this, there is Ar/H2 mixture is also done with argon and a little percentage of hydrogen because of it's reducing and gives a cleaner result.

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A weld is made by applying the arc so that the abutting workpieces are melted and joined together as the weld metal solidifies. Filler metal may or may not be added. The filler metal and the welding rod is hand held or the wire is fed mechanically. The GTAW is adaptable to both manual and automatic operation. This process is used with welding currents from 1 A to 700 A and is one of the most versatile methods of welding in respect of material. Although high welding currents permitting the welding of thick metal are possible, GTAW is primarily a process for welding sheet metal or small parts. Since GTAW is a metallurgically clean process and gives high quality welds, the process is greatly favoured for precision welding in the aircraft, nuclear energy and instrument industries. Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process where the heating occurs with a constricted arc between a tungsten electrode and the workpiece (transferred arc) or between the electrode and the constricting nozzle (nontransferred arc). Constriction of the arc is usually accomplished by passing the arc through a water-cooled copper orifice. The purpose of constriction is to control and increase the energy density of the arc stream. Shielding is generally obtained
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from the hot, ionized gas issuing from the orifice of the constricting nozzle. Shielding gas may be an inert gas or a mixture of inert gases. The orifice gas is the gas which is directed through the torch to surround the electrode. It becomes ionized in the arc to form the plasma and issues from the orifice in the torch nozzle as the plasma jet. Argon, helium, and hydrogen are applied as orifice gas. Filler metal may or may not be added.

The constricted arc used in plasma-arc welding offers several advantages over the non-constricted arc used in GTAW:

concentration of energy is greater, arc stability is improved, particularly at low current levels, solid backing is not required for obtaining complete penetration, because the keyhole technique can be used.

Plasma arc processes are employed not only in welding, but for cutting and surfacing of metals. Application of PAW is similar to GTAW. Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is an electric arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc established between a continuously fed filler metal (consumable) wire and the work. Shielding of the arc and molten weld pool is obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas
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mixture. Argon, carbon dioxide, helium, oxygen and their mixture are used most frequently for GMAW. Although Ar and He are used for gas metal arc welding of most metals, CO2 has become widely used (along with Ar-CO2 mixture) for welding of mild steels. GMAW is operated in semiautomatic machine and automatic modes. It is utilized particularly in high production welding operations. All commercially important metals such as carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium, and copper can be welded with this process in all positions by choosing the appropriate shielding gas, wire and welding conditions.

Shielded metal arc welding is a manual welding process in which the heat for welding is generated by an arc established between a flux covered consumable electrode and the work. The electrode tip, weld pool, arc and adjacent areas of the workpiece are protected from atmospheric contamination by a gaseous shield obtained from combustion and decomposition of the flux covering. Additional shielding is provided for the molten metal by a covering of molten flux, of the slag.

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Filler metal is supplied by the core of the consumable electrode and, in certain electrodes, from metal powder mixed with the electrode covering. SMAW is one of the most widely used welding process for joining metal parts, mainly because of its versatility. Also, the equipment is less complex, more portable and less costly than other arc welding processes. The utilization of welding is not limited by the process, but by the type and size of the electrode. Joints in virtually any position that can be reached with electrode can be welded. Carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, heat resisting alloys, copper and nickel and their alloys are the metals welded easilier by the SMAW process. Cast iron, and the high-strength and hardenable types of steel can also be welded by this process, but additional procedures that include preheating or postheating, or both, may be needed. Low melting metals, such as lead, tin and zinc and their alloys are not welded with the SMAW because the intense heat of the arc is too high for them. Also the reactive metals, such as titanium, zirconium, magnesium and aluminium alloys are not welded with covered electrodes. These metals are very sensitive to oxygen contamination and the shielding obtained with covered electrode is not adequate for them.

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Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an arc welding process in which the heat for welding is supplied by an arc (or arcs) developed between a continuously fed and consumable welding wire (or wires) and the workpiece. The arc is shielded by a layer of granular and fusible flux, which blankets the molten weld metal and the base metal from atmospheric contamination. While the process carries out the filler material, the wire is advanced in the direction of welding and mechanically fed into the arc while flux is steadily added.

The melted base and filler metal flow together to form the weld pool surface and a protective slab cover. Unmelted flux is reclaimed for reuse. Fluxes for SAW of alloy steels may contain alloying ingredients that modify the composition of the weld metal. There are three general methods by which the process can be applied: semiautomatic, automatic and machine welding.

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The SAW can be used for a wide range or industrial application. The high quality of welds, the high deposition rates, the deep penetration, and the adaptability to automatic operation make the process particularly suitable for fabrication of large and heavy weldments. It is used extensively in ship building, railroad car fabrication, pipe manufacturing and the fabrication of structural members where long welds are required. The process can be used to weld materials ranging from 3 mm thick sheet to very thick, heavy weldments. SAW is not suitable for all metals and alloys. It is widely used for welding carbon steels, low alloy structural steels and stainless steels. Submerged arc welding can be used only in the flat position. In case of electric arc welding electricity is supplied by the mains. In the welding machine electricity is converted into voltage and current suitable for welding. The machine is connected to the mains supply, usually 415 V and three phases. With this machine it is possible to weld with two types of current: Direct current and alternating current. When welding with direct current, the 415 V from the mains is at first transformed to a lower voltage and thereafter rectified. A rectifier converts the alternating current into direct current by means of diodes. Diodes are semi-conductors that only let pass the positive or the negative part of alternating current. The result is a direct current with high amperage and a low voltage of less than 120 V. When welding with an alternating current (AC), the voltage is transformed to a safety low value of less than 50 V. The mains voltage is transformed into a safe low welding voltage for welding. The highest heat generation is at the positive pole. The heat of the arc in the first place leads to the melting of the metal. At the same time the heat makes the gas better ionized; conductivity is improved.
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In case of gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding the arc starts with a simple short circuit. Some momentary short-circuits lead to sparking. These results in ionisation of the gas that becomes conductive and a welding arc can be formed. At shielded metal arc welding touch start of the arc is used when the tip of the electrode rests on the workpiece. After then the electrode is slowly (lifting method) or quickly (scratch method) lifted from the workpiece; at the slightest gap between electrode and workpiece a spark is transmitted and the arc starts.

This touch start of the arc is not the best way for gas tungsten arc welding. It can lead to contamination of the weld pool or tungsten electrode. Therefore power sources for gas tungsten arc welding have electronic device for starting the arc.

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During ignition a high-frequency generator is used. It is delivering highfrequency current pulses of 2000 to 10000 V at a frequency of 150 kHz.. The result of this is an excess of electrons at the minus pole and a lack of electrons at the plus pole and this leads to sparking. When a welding arc is started, the open voltage changes to a lower voltage that is needed to maintain the welding arc: this is the so called welding voltage that is necessary to overcome the resistance in a total welding circuit, inclusive the welding arc. Electric arc welding is usually carried out with direct current. This works well for the welding of steel and its alloys. During the welding of light metals such as aluminium or magnesium a phenomenon occurs resulting in a malfunction of this process. An oxide layer is formed on surface of workpiece and on the weld pool. This ceramic layer is an obstruction to metallic connection. The solution is the prevention or elimination of the oxide layer on the light alloy. Aluminium can be properly welded when using alternating current.

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When welding with alternating current (AC) the arc must be ignited again and again. An extra problem is the so-called rectifier effect. When the flow of electrons turns and they run from workpiece to electrode, the oxide layer is broken by impacted ions and the conditions of welding joint improve. The GMAW welder does not always use a filler metal, but metal arc welding are imaginable without consumable filler material. It is the material that is fed drop by drop into the weld pool and that fills up the joint. The choice of the filler metal must be such that a perfect and durable melting with the base material is created. Normally the filler metal has the same composition as the base material. It's no wonder that there are many types. In the welding procedure specification you'll find the indication of the correct composition of the filler metal.

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TRANSFORMER A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two circuits through electromagnetic induction. Transformers may be used in voltage conversion to transform an AC voltage from one voltage level on the input of the device to another level at the output terminals, to provide for different requirements of current level as an alternating current source, or it may be used for impedance matching between mismatched electrical circuits to effect maximum power transfer between the circuits. A transformer most commonly consists of two windings of wire wound around a common core to effect tight electromagnetic coupling between the windings. The core material is often a laminated iron core. The coil that receives the electrical input energy is referred to as the primary winding, while the output coil is called the secondary winding. An alternating electric current flowing through the primary winding (coil) of a transformer generates an electromagnetic field in its surroundings and a varying magnetic flux in the core of the transformer. By electromagnetic induction this magnetic flux generates a varying electromotive force in the secondary winding, resulting in a voltage across the output terminals. If a load impedance is connected across the secondary winding, a current flows through the secondary winding drawing power from the primary winding and its power source. A transformer cannot operate with direct current, but produces a short output pulse as the voltage rises when connected to the DC source.

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Invention The invention of transformers during the late 1800s allowed for longerdistance, cheaper, and more energy efficient transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy. In the early days of commercial electric power, the main energy source was direct current (DC), which operates at low-voltage highcurrent. According to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of current. This law revealed that even a tiny decrease in current or rise in voltage can cause a substantial lowering in energy losses and costs. Thus, the historical pursuit for a high-voltage low-current electricity transmission system took shape. Although high voltage transmission systems offered many benefits, the future fate of high-voltage alternating current still remained unclear for several reasons: high-voltage sources had a much higher risk of causing severe electrical injuries; many essential appliances could only function at low voltage. Regarded as one of the most influential electrical innovations of all time, the introduction of transformers had successfully reduced the safety concerns associated with alternating current and had the ability to lower voltage to a value that was required by most essential appliances. Applications Transformers perform voltage conversion; isolation protection;

and impedance matching. In terms of voltage conversion, transformers can step-up voltage/step-down current from generators to high-voltage transmission lines, and step-down voltage/step-up current to local distribution circuits or industrial customers. The step-up transformer is used to increase the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage, whereas the step-down transformer is used to decrease the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage. Transformers range
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in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A broad range of transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power applications, including miniature, audio, isolation, high-frequency, power conversion transformers, etc. Basic principles] The functioning of a transformer is based on two principles of the laws of electromagnetic induction: An electric current through a conductor, such as a wire, produces a magnetic field surrounding the wire, and a changing magnetic field in the vicinity of a wire induces a voltage across the ends of that wire. The magnetic field excited in the primary coil gives rise to self-induction as well as mutual induction between coils. This self-induction counters the excited field to such a degree that the resulting current through the primary winding is very small when no load draws power from the secondary winding. The physical principles of the inductive behavior of the transformer are most readily understood and formalized when making some assumptions to construct a simple model which is called the ideal transformer. This model differs from real transformers by assuming that the transformer is perfectly constructed and by neglecting that electrical or magnetic losses occur in the materials used to construct the device. Induction law[ A varying electrical current passing through the primary coil creates a varying magnetic field around the coil which induces a voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of very
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high magnetic permeability, usually iron,[c] so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. The current through a load connected to the secondary winding and the voltage across it are in the directions indicated in the figure.

Leakage flux Main article: Leakage inductance

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Leakage flux of a transformer The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[19] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.[12] Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.[19]Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.[20] In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[12] Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[21] Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings.

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Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were

hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current). However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units' values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%, X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~ 4.75.[23][24] Core form and shell form transformers

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils.[40] Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end
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of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent.[40][41][42][43] Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.[43] Construction Cores Laminated steel cores Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability silicon steel.[44] The steel has a permeability many times that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings. [45] Early transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.[46] Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin nonconducting layer of insulation.[47] The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation. The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to construct. Thin laminations
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are generally used on high-frequency transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of Eshaped steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I transformer'.[49] Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap. They have the advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance. A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform. Overcurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.
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Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with low-loss high-permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load. Solid cores Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switch-mode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resistivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made from non-conductive magnetic ceramic materials called ferrites are common.[49] Some radio-frequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radio-frequency circuits.

Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.[53] A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in
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the construction of an E-I core.[21] The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from

generating electromagnetic interference. Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low off-load losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classification parameters below). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types. Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin containing primary and secondary windings.

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INDUCTION MOTOR An induction or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is induced

by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor therefore does not require mechanical commutation, separateexcitation or self-excitation for all or part of the energy transferred from stator to rotor, as in universal, DC and large synchronous motors. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type. Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and VFD applications.

HISTORY In 1824, the French physicist Franois Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations, which, by manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in effect the first primitive induction motor.[1][2][3][4] Practical alternating current induction motors seem to have been independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the latter in 1887. Tesla applied for U.S. patents in October and November 1887 and
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was granted some of these patents in May 1888. In April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferraris's research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation.[4][5] In May 1888 Tesla presented the technical paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors and Transformers to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) describing three four-statorpole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-startingreluctance motor, another with a wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and the third a true synchronous motor with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at that time, licensed Teslas patents in 1888 and purchased a US patent option on Ferraris' induction motor concept.[11] Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant. Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at

Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky's invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in 1890.[15][16] However, he claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work.[17] Although Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors until B. G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. TheGeneral Electric Company (GE) began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the barwinding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor.[6] GE's Charles Proteus Steinmetz was the first to make use of the letter "j" (the square root of minus one) to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in electrical mathematical expressions and thereby be able to describe the induction motor in terms now commonly
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known as the Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100 horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5 horsepower motor in 1897.

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor; in a manner similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary winding(s). The currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field. Due to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-winding currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field. The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the applied load. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slower than synchronous speed. The

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difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5 to 5% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction machine's essential character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in synchronous or DC machines or being selfmagnetized as in permanent magnet motors.

For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field ( ); otherwise the magnetic field would

not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called slip. Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors.[24] An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. Synchronous speed An AC motor's synchronous speed, , is the rotation rate of the stator's magnetic

field, which is expressed in revolutions per minute as

(RPM), where is the motor supply's frequency in Hertz and is the number of magnetic

poles. That is, for a six-pole three-phase motor with three pole-pairs set 120
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apart,

equals 6 and

equals 1,000 RPM and 1,200 RPM respectively for

50&NBS;Hz and 60 Hz supply systems. When motor running in full load there are frequency change in various types of angle so not consider motor degree will be correct. CONSTRUCTION Typical winding pattern for a three-phase (U, V, W), two-pole motor. Note the interleaving of the pole windings and the resulting quadrupole field the stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 from the singlephase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase motors require some mechanism to produce a rotating field on startup. Cage induction motor rotor's conductor bars are typically skewed to reduce noise. ROTATION REVERSAL The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends on whether it is a three-phase or single-phase machine. In the case of three phases, reversal is carried out by swapping connection of any two phase conductors. In the case of a single-phase motor it is usually achieved by changing the connection of a starting capacitor from one section of a motor winding to the other. In this latter case both motor windings are similar (e.g. in washing machines).
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POWER FACTOR The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at full load to as low as 0.35 at no-load, due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing reactances. Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors either on an individual motor basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering several motors. For economic and other considerations power systems are rarely power factor corrected to unity power factor. Power capacitor application with harmonic currents requires power system analysis to avoid harmonic resonance between capacitors and transformer and circuit reactances. Common bus power factor correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and to simplify power system analysis.

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ADVANTAGES OF SEAM WELDING:

A continuous overlapping weld produced by the process makes it suitable for joining liquid or gas tight containers and vessels.

Efficient energy use. Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes or gases. This results in clean welds.

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DISADVANTAGES OF SEAM WELDING:

Requires complex control system to regulate the ravel speed of electrodes as well as the sequence of current to provide satisfactory overlapping welds. The welding speed, spots per inch and timing schedule are all dependent on each other.

Difficult to weld metals having thickness greater than 3mm.

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APPLICATIONS OF SEAM WELDING: Used to fabricate liquid or gas tight sheet metal vessels such as gasoline tanks, automobile mufflers and heat exchangers.

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CONCLUSION

As one can see, a micro resistance seam welder is a flexible machine that is well suited to fabricating various small scale components. It offers a cost effective and high throughput joining method that often provides a reliable alternative to TIG and laser welding. Please contact techMatrix to take advantage of our free applications lab and engineering assistance regarding your next seam weld project.

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REFERENCE 1. ^ ISO 4063: "Welding and allied processes - Nomenclature of processes and reference numbers" (1998) 2. Jump up^ "Welding Inspection Handbook", 3rd edition, American Welding Society, ISBN 0-87171-560-0, Miami, FL, pp. 10-11 (2000) 3. Jump up^ Also known as metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding. 4. Jump up^ Also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. 5. Jump up^ Also known as manual metal arc (MMA) welding or stick welding.

Cary, Howard B. and Scott C. Helzer (2005). Modern Welding Technology. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-113029-3.

Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding. Cleveland: Lincoln Electric. ISBN 99949-25-82-2.

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