SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

ON

RCS MEASUREMENT OF STANDARD TEST TARGET USING VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER

AT

DEFENCE LABORATORY JODHPUR

SUBMITTED TO : Dr. D. Boolchandani Mr. Tarun Verma ECE Department MNIT Jaipur

SUBMITTED BY RAJAT RATHI 2010UEC114 B-tech, IV Year MNIT Jaipur

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Interdependence is a higher value than independence. The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be incomplete without the mention of people, who made it possible, whose constant guidance and encouragement crowned my efforts of success. First and foremost, I thank Almighty for all His blessings He showered on me. I wish to express gratitude to Mr. Virendra Kumar (Scientist B) for his valuable guidance and suggestion in completing this project. I also extend my regards to Dr. Prashant Vasistha (Scientist E) for his supervision. Last but the not the least I would like to thank every person from CAM Department whose guidance helped me in completion of this project.

-RAJAT RATHI

ABSTRACT
The training report deals with the RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS) MEASUREMENT OF STANDARD TARGETS USING VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER. I got the knowledge about the methods of RCS measurement i.e. ANECHOIC CHAMBER for indoor measurements of METALLIC DIPOLE MODELS. I also came to know about working of VNA along with ANECHOIC CHAMBER to measure maximum (BORESIGHTING) RCS. Hence I now know about a new ECM/ECCM technique known as STEALTH TECHNOLOGY which is used by NAVY AND AIR-FORCE for getting useful information about enemys activities without being known by the enemy forces.

RAJAT RATHI

CONTENTS
1. Radar 2. Introduction To Radar Cross-Section 3. RCS Measurement Techniques i. ii. Anechoic Chamber Compact Test Range

4. Vector Network Analyzer i. ii. VNA Architecture Specifications and Measurement Accuracy

5. RCS Measurement in Anechoic Chamber i. ii. iii. Setup Calibration Parameters and Steps of Measurement

6. RCS Measurement Sphere

Corner Reflector 7. Conclusion 8. Bibliography/Reference

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RADAR
INTRODUCTION
In the early 1930's and 1940's radar technology was increasingly used to detect aircrafts. During the Second World War all counters Germany, Great Britain, France and The United States of America used this technology for navigating ships and to detect approaching enemy aircrafts. This technology didn't pose much of a threat then as this was not incorporated into Antiaircraft defenses then. This whole story changed during The Vietnam and Yom Kipper wars. To make the feet more secure for use and more effective the Americans who were the sheet anchor needed to develop an effective way to evade radar.

RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)

Thus RADAR as it is abbreviated so uses radio waves for detection of the target. Radar basically works on two major principles.

a) Echo
Echo can be considered as a wave bouncing off a surface and coming back to the source. This Principle can be applied for all types of waves starting from sound waves to light waves. The time for the reception of the transmitted signal to reach the transmitter cum receiver can be effectively used to calculate the distance of the target from the transmitter.

b) The Doppler Shift

This is the second principle of the radar. This effect is more commonly felt for sound. The sound that you hear as a vehicle is approaching you is at a higher pitch or a higher frequency than the sound you hear when the vehicle is moving away from you.
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This property when applied to radar can be used to determine the speed of the object. The frequency of the reflected wave can be the same, greater or lower than the transmitted radio wave. If the reflected wave frequency is less then this means that the target is moving away from the transmitter and if higher then moving close to the transmitter and if constant then the target is not moving like a helicopter hovering at a point. This can be used to predict the speeds of the target too.

Why Radio waves and not sounds waves?

Although the above said principles are applicable to sound waves radio waves are used for detection and ranging due to the following reasons. The speeds of the radio waves are comparable with that of light and are much higher than that of sound. Sound waves cannot travel as far as light in the atmosphere without significant attenuation. And finally, electromagnetic echo is much easier to detect than a sound echo.

RADAR Applications
1. Satellite Communications For military communications satellites, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has assigned the X band uplink frequency band (for sending modulated signals) as from 7.9 to 8.4 GHz. The ITU-assigned downlink frequency band (for receiving signals) is from 7.25 to 7.75 GHz. 2. Terrestrial Communications and Networking In Ireland and Canada, the X band 10.15 to 10.7 segment is used for terrestrial broadband. Alvarion, Cambridge, and Ogier make systems for this, though these are all incompatible. The Ogier system is a full duplex transverter used for DOCSIS over microwave. The home/business CPE has a single coaxial cable with a power adapter connecting to an ordinary cable modem. The local oscillator is usually 9750 MHz, the same as for Ku band satellite TV LNB. Two way applications such as broadband typically use a 350 MHz TX offset.
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3. Space Communications Portions of the X band are assigned by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) exclusively for deep space telecommunications. The primary user of this allocation is the American NASA Deep Space Network (DSN). DSN facilities are located in Goldstone, California (in the Mojave Desert), near Canberra, Australia, and near Madrid, Spain. These three stations, located approximately 120 degrees apart in longitude, provide continual communications from the Earth to almost any point in the Solar System independent of Earth rotation. DSN stations are capable of using the older and lower S band deep-space radio communications allocations, and some higher frequencies on a more-or-less experimental basis, such as in the K band.

4. Amateur Radio The Radio Regulations of the International Telecommunication Union allow amateur radio operations in the frequency range 10.000 to 10.500 GHz and amateur satellite operations are allowed in the range 10.450 to 10.500 GHz. This is known as the 3-centimeter band by amateurs and the X-band by AMSAT. 5. Other Uses Motion detectors often use 10.525 GHz. 10.4 GHz is proposed for traffic light crossing detectors. Comreg in Ireland has allocated 10.450 GHz for Traffic Sensors as SRD. Many ELECTRON PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE (EPR) spectrometers operate near 9.8 GHz.

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR CROSS-SECTION

Radar cross section is the measure of a target's ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of the radar receiver, i.e. it is a measure of the ratio of backscatter power per steradian (unit solid angle) in the direction of the radar (from the target) to the power density that is intercepted by the target. The RCS of a target can be viewed as a comparison of the strength of the reflected signal from a target to the reflected signal from a perfectly smooth sphere of cross sectional area of 1 m2.

Figure 1: Concept of Radar Cross Section

In this figure we came to know about properties of a sphere that it radiates RADAR in all directions i.e. it is omnidirectional whereas an aircraft does not do so and gives an indication to RADAR receiver about its presence. The conceptual definition of RCS includes the fact that not all of the radiated energy falls on the target. A targets RCS () is most easily visualized as the product of three factors:

= Projected cross section x Reflectivity x Directivity

Reflectivity: The percent of intercepted power reradiated (scattered) by the target. Directivity: The ratio of the power scattered back in the radar's direction to the power that would have been backscattered had the scattering been uniform in all directions (i.e. isotropically).
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Figure 2: RCS vs Physical Geometry

For a sphere, the RCS, = r2, where r is the radius of the sphere. The RCS of a sphere is independent of frequency if operating at sufficiently high frequencies where <<Range, and << radius (r). Experimentally, radar return reflected from a target is compared to the radar return reflected from a sphere which has a frontal or projected area of one square meter (i.e. diameter of about 44 in). Using the spherical shape aids in field or laboratory measurements since orientation or positioning of the sphere will not affect radar reflection intensity measurements as a flat plate would. The sphere is essentially the same in all directions. The flat plate has almost no RCS except when aligned directly toward the radar. The corner reflector has an RCS almost as high as the flat plate but over a wider angle, i.e., over +60o. The return from a corner reflector is analogous to that of a flat plate always being perpendicular to your collocated transmitter and receiver.

Targets such as ships and aircraft often have many effective corners. Corners are sometimes used as calibration targets or as decoys, i.e. corner reflectors. An aircraft target is very complex. It has a great many reflecting elements and shapes. The RCS of real aircraft must be measured. It varies significantly depending upon the direction of the illuminating radar.

Figure 3: RCS PATTERNS OF DIFFERENT SHAPES

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Significance of the Reduction of RCS

If each of the range or power equations that have an RCS () term is evaluated for the significance of decreasing RCS, Therefore, an RCS reduction can increase aircraft survivability. The equations used are as follows:

Range (radar detection):2-way range equation:

(
Thus,

R4 or R

Range (radar burn-through): Crossover equation:

Thus,

RBT2 or RBT

Power (jammer): Equating the received signal return (Pr) in the two way range equation to the received jammer signal (Pr) in the one way range equation, the following relationship results:

Therefore, Pj or Pj
Note: Jammer transmission line loss is combined with the jammer antenna gain to obtain Gt.

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Thus the Deductions can be made from the figure given below. This shows an example of the effects of RCS reduction. Thus if the RCS of an aircraft is reduced to 0.75 (75%) of its original value, then the jammer power required to achieve the same effectiveness would be 0.75 (75%) of the original value (or -1.25 dB). Likewise, If Jammer power is held constant, then burn-through range is 0.87 (87%) of its original value (-1.25 dB), and the detection range of the radar for the smaller RCS target (jamming not considered) is 0.93 (93%) of its original value (-1.25 dB).

RCS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE

1. Anechoic Chamber 2. Compact Test Range

ANECHOIC CHAMBER
An anechoic chamber is a shielded room designed to attenuate sound or electromagnetic energy. Anechoic chambers are used for Antenna Pattern Comparison Method, Radar Cross section Measurement, and EMI/EMC Measurement. Based on the application the chambers are designed. Anechoic chambers which are used for EMI/EMC measurements are chosen mainly to test large EUTs at a frequency range of 30 KHz to 40 GHz.

Different Types of Anechoic Chambers:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) Acoustic anechoic chambers Semi-anechoic chambers Radio-frequency anechoic chambers Compact Range Chamber Tapered Anechoic Chamber Near-Field Test Chamber 7) Rectangular Chamber
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1) Acoustic Anechoic Chambers

Anechoic chambers are commonly used in acoustics to conduct experiments in nominally "free field" conditions. All sound energy will be traveling away from the source with almost none reflected back. The human ear can typically detect sounds above 0 dB, so a human in such a chamber would perceive the surroundings as void of sound. Common anechoic chamber experiments include measuring the transfer function of a loudspeaker or the directivity of noise radiation from industrial machinery. In general, the interior of an anechoic chamber is very quiet, with typical noise levels in the 10-20 dbA range.

2) Semi-Anechoic Chambers
Semi-anechoic chambers have a solid floor that acts as a work surface for supporting heavy items, such as cars, washing machines, or industrial machinery, rather than the mesh floor grille found over absorbent tiles present in full anechoic chambers. This floor is damped and floating on absorbent buffers to isolate it from outside vibration or electromagnetic signals. A recording studio may utilize the semi-anechoic chamber to produce high-quality music free of outside noise and unwanted echoes.

3) Radio-Frequency Anechoic Chambers

The internal appearance of the radio frequency (RF) anechoic chamber is sometimes similar to that of an acoustic anechoic chamber; however, the interior surfaces of the RF anechoic chamber are covered with radiation absorbent material (RAM) instead of acoustically absorbent material. The RF anechoic chamber is typically used to house the equipment for performing measurements of antenna radiation patterns, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and radar cross section measurements.

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Testing can be conducted on full-scale objects, including aircraft, or on scale models where the wavelength of the measuring radiation is scaled in direct proportion to the target size. Coincidentally, many RF anechoic chambers which use pyramidal RAM also exhibit some of the properties of an acoustic anechoic chamber, such as attenuation of sound and shielding from outside noise.

Figure 4: RF Anechoic chamber

4) Compact Range Chamber
This type of range makes use of optics principles and puts a source horn at the focal point of a reflector which results in plane waves coming from the reflector. This reduces the path length needed to create plane waves. It was discovered that if the reflector was sufficiently large and if the edges around the reflector were terminated properly to limit diffraction interference, the resulting beam would be collimated and have minimal phase ripple across the test region. There are a few different types of compact ranges but the idea is to measure a large aperture antenna while minimizing the length of chamber needed.

5) Tapered Anechoic Chamber

The tapered chamber actually uses the reflections off the walls to its advantage. It was found that suppression of reflections for low frequency broadbeamed antennas was almost impossible. Emerson discovered that tapering one end of the chamber would cause the chamber to act like an indoor ground reflection range. The reflections off of the chamber walls actually add together to form an almost uniform plane wave at the test region. The shape of this chamber and the wave front emanating from it is reminiscent of a horn antenna.
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The cost of a tapered chamber is usually less than a rectangular chamber because less surface area means less absorbing foam and also less structural material is needed. The tapered chambers are used mostly for low frequencies in the VHF/UHF range.

6) Near-Field Test Chamber

The test antenna is measured in the near-field and a near-field to far-field transform is used to obtain the far-field pattern [3]. The disadvantage of this method is that points in different planes are needed to get an accurate far-field calculation. The antenna needs to be scanned not just in the azimuth or elevation planes but many of the planes in between. The other disadvantage is that this method is very math intensive and requires more equipment to get a complete scan of the antenna. Depending on how large the chamber would have to be to reach the far-field of the test antenna, this could be advantageous.

7) Rectangular Chamber
This is the most common type of chamber because they are easy to build and easier to design than other types of chambers. These chambers range in size depending on what the operating frequency is and also on what is being tested. The major specification is that the chamber must be long enough so that the equipments under test are in the far-field. The end walls and the center parts of the side walls, floor & ceiling are covered with pyramids, other parts are covered with wedges. The equipment is placed on the middle line of the chamber. The dimensions of the chamber should be such that the angle of incidence on the walls is less than 60o. At large angles the reflections would be large. Typically the length to width ratio is 2:1. The source antenna should be chosen so that its main beam does not illuminate the sidewalls, ceiling and floor. At frequencies below about 1GHz, the rectangular chamber having absorbers of reasonable size has a high level of reflections.

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Compact Test Range Technique

The oldest and most frequently used technique, the far-field principle, is based on a sufficient separation between the transmitter and receiver so that the emanating spherical wave reaches nearly plane phase fronts. The far-field criterion R > 2D2/ for the distance R of the two parts results in a phase deviation of 22.5 degree in the aperture of the test object and therefore in an error of the recorded antenna pattern. For measurement of large test objects, this technique is mainly applied in outdoor ranges. In order to overcome the disadvantages of weather dependence and nonconstant and non-definite measurement conditions as well as for security reasons, now-a-days, indoor ranges are widely used within anechoic chambers. For testing of satellite applications within clean-room environment mainly the near-field and compact range techniques are applied. For near-field measurements, planar, cylindrical and spherical scanning can be used with subsequent transformation of the near-field into a far-field. Compact ranges require a collimating system for transformation of the spherical wave into a plane wave, whereas the collimator can consist out of one or more electrically conducting reflectors.

Compact range Principles:

A compact antenna test range can be realized with collimating lenses or reflectors, representing the principles of transmission or reflection for collimating of a spherical wave into a plane wave. The main advantage of reflector compact ranges is the broadband behavior whereas lens ranges require for an operation in a large frequency range different lenses. Reflector compact ranges can be designed with one or more reflectors. Geometries of a single reflector system, a double reflector system with single curved reflectors and a double reflector system with double curved reflectors for an equivalent quiet zone size, each.
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Single reflector ranges exhibit according to the offset geometry of the reflector a poor cross-polar behavior and are mainly used for RCS applications. Considering the dimensions of the reflector(s), the aperture efficiency of a single reflector compact range is approximately two times less than the ratio of a dual reflector system. That implies that the reflector dimensions of a single reflector compact range are two times larger than the dimensions of the main reflector of a dual reflector system for given quiet zone size. For reduction of diffracted fields generated at the reflector rims, serrated, rolled and resistive tapered edge concepts exit. The most cost efficient and in dual reflector systems only applicable solution is the application of serrated edges. Resistive tapered structures are in a first development state and are not qualified nowadays. The geometrical dimensions as well as shape of the serrations were optimized during the last years and optimized contours exist now for the different test facilities. Measurement applications for compact ranges:- Antenna Pattern Measurements - Antenna Gain Measurements - Antenna G/T Measurements - Antenna EIRP Measurements - Amplitude Response Measurements - PIM Measurement

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VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER

A network analyzer is a device that can measure S parameters over a range of frequencies. There are two types: 1. Scalar Network Analyzer: Measures only the magnitude of the S parameters. 2. Vector Network Analyzer (VNA): Measures both the magnitude and phase of the S parameters. The latter is generally a much more expensive piece of equipment. The VNA is basically a sophisticated transmitter and receiver pair with vast signal processing capabilities.

Figure 5: Block Diagram of a Typical Vector Network Analyzer

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The VNA measures the magnitude and phase characteristics of networks, amplifiers, components, cables, and antennas. It compares the incident signal leaving the analyzer with either the signal that is transmitted through the test device or the signal reflected from its input. The different types of measurements that the VNA can perform: Return Loss (dB) Reflection Coefficients (S11, S22) Reflection Coefficients v/s Distance (Fourier Transform) Impedance (R + jX) SWR

VNAs are self-contained, fully-integrated measurement systems that include additional measurement capabilities such as time domain and group delay. The system hardware consists of the following: An analyzer Precision components required for calibration and performance verification Optional use of synthesizers as a second source Optional use of power meters for test-port leveling and calibration

The VNA internal system modules perform the following functions: Source Module - The source module provides the stimulus to the device under test (DUT). The frequency range of the source and test set modules establish the frequency range of the system. The frequency stability of the source is an important factor in the accuracy (especially phase accuracy) of the network analyzer. Some VNA sources operate in either analog-sweep mode or step-sweep mode. Analog-sweep mode provides a faster measurement time. However, since the signal is not locked to a stable reference, measurement stabilityespecially phase - will suffer. For proper measurement accuracy, the VNA should always be operated in a step sweep, phase-locked condition. The difference is critical enough that all Anritsu VNAs provide only a step-sweep mode and do not provide the ability to unlock the source.

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 Test Set Module - The test-set module routes the stimulus signal to the DUT and samples the reflected and transmitted signals. The type of connector used is important, as is the Auto Reversing feature. Auto Reversing means that the stimulus signal is applied in both the forward and reverse directions. The direction is reversed automatically. This saves the engineer 6from having to physically reverse the test device to measure all four S-parameters. It also increases accuracy by reducing connector repeatability errors. Frequency conversion to the Intermediate Frequency (IF) range also occurs in the test-set module. Analyzer Module - The analyzer module receives and interprets the IF signal for phase and magnitude data. It then displays the results of this analysis on a high-resolution display screen. This display can show all four S-parameters simultaneously, as well as a variety of other forms of displayed information such as group delay, time and distance, and complex impedance information. In addition to the installed display, the engineer can also view the measurement results on an external monitor.

VNA Fundamentals
The VNA is a tuned receiver. The microwave signal is down converted into the pass band of the IF. To measure the phase of this signal as it passes through the DUT, a reference is needed for comparison. If the phase of a signal is 90 degrees, it is 90 degrees different from the reference signal. The VNA reads this as 90 degrees, since the test signal is delayed by 90 degrees with respect to the reference signal. The phase reference can be obtained by splitting off a portion of the microwave signal before the measurement. The phase of the microwave signal, after it has passed through the DUT, is then compared with the reference signal. A network-analyzer test set automatically samples the reference signal so no external hardware is needed.

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VNA Architecture
In its most basic form, the objective of a VNA is to capture S-parameter data. The instrument simply acquires incident and reflected waves at every port in question and, in most cases, provides a semi-known terminating impedance at all but the driving port. The basic requirements for capturing S-parameter data include: One or more signal sources with, at minimum, controllable frequency and a sufficiently-clean spectral tone for making a measurement. Sources with controlled power are preferred. Directional devices - whether physically or computationally directional - for separating incident and reflected waves at the ports. A means of switching RF signals when there are fewer sources than ports, or either more or fewer receivers than ports. One or more receivers, usually with down converters, to take incident and reflected waves down to some convenient IF for processing. An IF section and digitizer to transform the converted wave amplitudes into a useful form for computation.

System Architecture and Modes of Operation

The VNAs flexibility provides unique opportunities for specialized configuration. It is helpful to understand the differences in system architecture that can be found in different VNAs. Understanding the strengths and limitations of different VNA system architecture helps in choosing the best VNA for a particular application and in configuring the measurement for optimum results. The different modes of operation and types of system architecture include: Receiver Offset Mode - This mode allows for independent source and receive functions for mixer, harmonics, IMD, and other measurements where the source and receive frequencies are offset. Source Modes - Some non-Anritsu VNAs provide synthesized (step) mode and non-synthesized (open-loop) modes of operation. Verify that the VNA is properly configured for synthesized mode to ensure accurate phase measurements. Verify also that the VNA has the best trace noise to ensure accurate transmission tracking.

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 IF Chain Methodology - Microwave VNAs convert the RF signal to IF before analysis. There are different methods of down conversion, but they usually fall into two categories: harmonic sampling and harmonic mixing. VNAs utilizing harmonic mixing often have a lower compression point so care must be taken to ensure that accuracy is not lost due to compression errors. Receiver Calibration - Unlike conventional VNA RF calibrations (e.g., SOLT and LRL/LRM) that are used to calibrate the VNA for S-parameter measurements, the receiver calibration is more of an absolute power calibration to help with measurements like: o Harmonics o IMD, IP3 and other multi-tone distortion measurements o Mixer-conversion loss, in simpler scalar cases o Other times when the VNA is used just as a channelized receiver The idea behind receiver calibration is to take a known source power, at some source-reference plane, and transfer that knowledge to the receiver at a desired receiver-reference plane. If it is convenient to use the test port as the source-reference place, the built-in factory ALC calibration can be used to establish the power knowledge. If this is not convenientbecause of frequency translation or the requirement for some other network or greater accuracythen a power calibration can be performed with the help of a GPIB-controlled power meter to establish that power knowledge.

Specifications and Measurement Accuracy

Specifications help the user determine the level of measurement accuracy available from an instrument under a given set of conditions. When considering the VNA, specifications such as dynamic range, noise floor and available power provide information on the DUT conditions that can be measured and are not intrinsically accuracy specifications. Measurement accuracy is determined by factors such as directivity, source and load match, and isolation. These factors are often presented in the form of raw uncorrected performance and/or residual performance after calibration. In addition, the S-parameter performance of the DUT also contributes to the overall measurement accuracy as it interacts with the residual performance of the VNA. When considering measurement accuracy, it is important to take into account all
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parameters of the VNAs residual performance, combined with the S-parameter performance of the DUT at each frequency point-of-interest. Some of the important characteristics that determine the VNAs measurement-performance level: 1. Dynamic Range - This is a calculated value based on noise floor and either the compression level (for receiver dynamic range) or maximum port power (for system dynamic range). For dynamic-range values referenced to a direct-receiver access port, the compression level is referred to that input. For system dynamic range, the maximum available port-power level from the test setwell within the 0.1 dB compression levelis used. 2. Compression Level - This is the receiver power level at which the reported value is 0.1 dB below what is expected based on lower power results. Due to the accuracy required, this almost always is computed as a ratioed measurement where a second receiver gets a padded version of the signal fed to the target receiver. The second receiver is well away from compression and therefore, no inadvertent cancellation of distortion occurs. Padding is typically used to minimize match interactions. In general, compression is referred to test ports but can also be referred to direct receiver-access ports. For the direct receiver-access ports, the setup is relatively easy to implement. For the main test-port-based test receivers, a thru line and the internal source are used to provide drive. The driving-port test receiver is used as the norming receiver. Since this receiver sees a load-match value, it has the desired effect of reducing its drive level well below compression. 3. Noise Floor - This is a measure in absolute power (dBm) of the noise floor of the system referenced to the test port. Typically this is calculated by measuring S21 and S12 with a short-thru line connected and the port power set to some value X. The cable loss is normally subtracted separately or, alternatively, a flat-power calibration can be performed at the end of the cable. The traces are normalized with this thru in place. The ports are then terminated with loads (typically), and S21 and S12 measured in a 10 Hz bandwidth with no averaging. A minimum of 10 sweeps are acquired in linear magnitude mode and the root-mean-square (RMS) value is computed at each frequency point individually. This result is then normally converted back to log magnitude.

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4. Trace Noise (High Level Noise) - This is a measure of the scatter of data when measuring a high-level signal (full reflect or transmission through a short transmission line). The measurement is specified at default power with a 1 kHz IFBW and default auto-reduction for frequencies below 3MHz. The measurement is performed by acquiring a minimum of 10 sweeps of data from the desired parameter, in linear magnitude and phase, after a trace-math normalization. At each frequency point, the population-based standard deviation is computed. This forms the RMS high-level noise number. For magnitude, this is normally converted back to log magnitude. 5. Power Range - Maximum port power is determined by the power at which the system is still leveled. The same applies to minimum power when step attenuators are not involved. For those systems with attenuator options, the maximum attenuator value for the model is subtracted from the minimum ALC power to get the minimum system power. 6. ALC Power Accuracy And Linearity - Power accuracy and linearity are both determined with an external power meter. Accuracy is evaluated at default power across frequency. Linearity is evaluated over both power and frequency with the reference being the value at default. 7. Frequency Accuracy And Stability - Frequency stability is a pass-through specification of the 10 MHz time base and is not tested separately at instrument level. Accuracy is measured using a frequency counter synchronized to a GPSbased time base after the 10 MHz calibration is complete. 8. Harmonics - This is also port-referred and based on default power. It can be calculated as follows, using a properly-calibrated spectrum analyzer or the VNA itself, using multiple source control: Choose b2/1 as the measurement variable. Perform a flat-power calibration at the end of a cable from port 1 over the entire range of the instrument. Perform a receiver calibration on b2. With multiple source equations all set to 1/1(f+0), acquire data and normalize. Change the receiver and receiver source equation to look for the desired harmonic (e.g., 2/1(f+0) for the 2nd harmonic).

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9. Raw Directivity - This expresses the raw directivity of the test coupler assemblies as affected by internal match conditions. While it could be measured directly using direct-access loop options, it is normally done through the calibration engine. Perform a reasonably high-quality calibration and compute the term edx/etxx, where x refers to the port in question. The magnitude of this term represents the raw directivity. Use the form -20log10|edx/etxx| to get the value in the form of a specification. 10. Raw Source Match - Much like raw directivity, this can be extracted from the calibration system. The appropriate value is -20log10|epxS|, where x is the port in question. 11. Raw Load Match - This can also be extracted from the calibration system. Perform the calibration so that the reference plane is at the test port of the port under study. The value in this case is -20log10|epxL|. Alternatively, perform a 1port calibration at the end of a cable and then connect this cable to the port under study. The direct measurement in this case yields raw load match. 12. Residual Directivity - Residuals are all based on after-calibration results and, as such, reflect imperfections in the calibration. The residuals are determined primarily by the calibration method/algorithm, the calibration components involved and the skill of the person performing the calibration and verification. The residual measurements are generally traceable to airline standards which form the impedance reference for VNA measurements. Directivity is measured using an airline attached to the test port and terminated in either a load (preferred for broadband) or an offset (acceptable for lower frequencies). A ripple extraction method is applied to the resulting Sii data to determine the directivity. In an automated setup, circle-fitting and polynomial-fitting routines are commonly used, but each has its weaknesses. An adaptive sorting algorithm is generally advised. 13. Residual Source Match - This is also an airline ripple measurement but is performed with the airline shorted. 14. Residual Load Match - This is a direct reflection measurement with a thru or airline connected after calibration.

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15. Residual Reflection Tracking - This is a direct-reflection measurement of a short, but not the one used during calibration for the case of a defined standards calibration such as SOLT, short-short-load-thru (SSLT) or short-short-short-thru (SSST). The peak deviation from a linear fit is used as the starting point to remove the effect of loss of the short standard. The contribution due to source match and trace noise is then removed from that result to get reflection tracking. 16. Residual Transmission Tracking - This is a direct-transmission measurement of a thru or airline, depending on the calibration. The peak deviation from a linear fit is again used as the starting point. The contribution due to the load-match source match interaction and that due to trace noise is removed from the result to get transmission tracking.

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RCS Measurement in Anechoic Chamber

Setup:
The basic instrumentation required for RCS measurements consists of four subsystems that can be controlled by a central station; these subsystems are: Positioners and drivers (Target Positioning Systems) Receiver Transmitter Data acquisition system. Using a simple setup and placing the transmitter (TX) and receiver (RX) antennas in the scheme showed in Figure, it is possible to measure the RCS of targets in different frequency ranges. The distance between both antennas needs to be tested to eliminate the radiation coupling between them.

Figure 6: GENERAL RCS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE WITH THE HELP OF TX/RX ANTENNA AND COMPUTER GPIB INTERFACE.
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In order to have good precision, the transmitter must have means to provide enough power to allow a good signal/noise ratio for the measurement system and it is necessary to take care with the alignment between the transmission/reception antennas and the target. The use of a laser beam helps in the alignment of the system improving the precision of the measurements. The support column for the target, called as pylon, needs to be recovered with ERAM in order to avoid any possible contribution of reflected waves that prejudices the target characterization. Figure 8 shows a system used in this study that basically consists of two antennas, one transmitter and one receiver mounted on a tower keeping a certain distance from each other. The target is mounted on a dielectric support and this one is mounted on a positioner which will allow recording the RCS patterns. The transmission is made through a microwave generator that feeds, by a low loss coaxial cable, the antenna input terminals. A spectrum analyzer can be used as a receiver that collects the signals from the receiving antenna. The system has a positioner controller (driver) that controls the rotational speed, azimuth angle and limits. Some equipment is in a control room, where the user monitors the tests through a computer with a GPIB interface.

Figure 7: Block diagram for the set up of VNA and ANECHOIC CHAMBER connections for measurement of RCS.
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Figure 8
Above Figure shows the system composed by: a. Target under test (square flat plate with 0.2 m side); b. Pyramidal microwave absorbers; c. Horn antennas to the 8.2 12.4 GHz frequency range; d. Low loss coaxial cables; e. Network analyzer;

Calibration:
The main problem of RCS measurement is how to remove clutters from the test signal. Therefore, the measurement is usually completed in an anechoic chamber which can absorb the energy incident to the walls and floor. However, even the most thoughtful design anechoic chamber also retains some residual reflections and the mutual coupling between two antennas. The accuracy of measurement will be limited by these clutters, especially for the test on UHF band. If some calibration techniques are used, they can be greatly eliminated. 1. Fourier Transform Either in general scientific research or in application of engineering technology, Fourier transform is an important mathematical tool Step-frequency system can measure the response of each discrete frequency, and the response of time-domain can be displayed by inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT). It shows the reflection as whole chamber at different time (or range). So the reason why the reflection appears will be analyzed at a certain range, then through reducing

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the strong scattering points near target, the accuracy of measurement is substantially improved. 2. Time-domain Cancellation The echo of low scattering target is often mixed with background noise. In order to extract the useful signal, a hardware system is applied to reduce the effect of noise by traditional method. It separates the transmitted signal, then adjusts the phase and amplitude of sampled signal by phase shifter and attenuator, finally eliminates the echo of whole chamber. But the hardware system is only suitable for continue wave (CW) measurement system. The timedomain cancellation can be adopted in step-frequency measurement system. Way presented here is that first the time-domain response will be got by applying IFFT to the frequency-domain response of returns, and stored in a memory of network analyzer, and then vector subtraction is used between the current measurement data and the response stored before in memory. It can eliminate the coupling of antennas, as well as the reflection from the walls of chamber. The background noise will be decreased by 30 dB. Its effective for static measurement at a certain angle. 3. Frequency-domain Cancellation With the rotation of revolving stage, the support and the nearby surroundings will be changed, and the time-domain response is different at each angles. So the frequency-domain cancellation must be used for the whole angles RCS measurement. The method is that the echo of chamber at each frequency point is recorded over the whole rotation angles of the revolving stage firstly, and the frequency domain data of target are measured with no change of background at the same angle, then the vector subtraction is applied to the data of chamber and target at corresponding angle. It can reduce the harmful effect of support by 20 dB, and its important to the measurement of low scattering target. 4. Range Gate After obtaining the time-domain response of whole chamber, the distribution of reflection will be observed at different position by transforming time to range. The echo energy of target can be chosen by an appropriate range gate, and the background noises (such as the coupling between antennas) are removed effectively. It can improve the accuracy of measurement.

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5. Zero Insertion IFFT is often carried out in accordance with the stepped points, parts of information may not be displayed in time-domain because of no sufficient points, and its hard to choose the right range gate. So some returns of target may be lost, which causes the leakage of spectrum. The points of IFFT can be increased by zero insertion in frequency domain. Though the information of frequency-domain is not changed, the response resolution will be improved. Its important to choose the region of target exactly. 6. Window Function According to the theory of convolution, some parts of time-domain information chosen by range gate are equivalent to the convolution of original signal spectrum and gate function. It may cause the fluctuation of retrieved spectrum. The narrower range gated, the less accurate data gained. If a suitable window function is added to the original signal spectrum, the impact caused by cutting off data will be reduced. Generally speaking, its better to select a low side lobe window function that may improve the spectrum obviously. However, the width of main valve will be expanded, which may reduce the resolution. Therefore, we must consider it comprehensively, and normally the hamming window is taken.

PARAMETERS AND STEPS OF MEASUREMENT

Setting the appropriate parameters is essential to step-frequency RCS measurement system. According to the different requirements of measurement, the parameters need to be intercalated as follows: 1) The span of frequency. The signal provided by network analyzer is equivalent to a serial pulse in time-domain. The width of pulse is 1/BW, where BW is the span of frequency, so the resolution of range d is c/2BW. We can see that is a wide frequency span and narrow pulse signal which introduces a very good resolution of range. Therefore, the span of frequency must be chosen according to the desired resolution. 2) Number of points. According to the measurement distance R, the maximal interval of frequency fmax is c/2R, and the least points is BW/fmax.
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3) IF bandwidth. Its helpful to improve the signal to noise ratio (SNR) by setting appropriate IF bandwidth. In theory, the narrower IF bandwidth we set, the better results we get. However, if the IF bandwidth is too little, the sweep time will be increased greatly, and the time of measurement must be unbearable. 4) Power. Due to the effect of cable loss and attenuation on space, the received energy of signal will be reduced. So its necessary to increase the transmitted power to improve the SNR. However, the stability of power cannot be assured beyond a limited scope. Therefore, we add a power amplifier to keep the source unchanged.

The steps of measurement are as follows: Step 1: The whole chamber is measured, and then the time cancellation is done to reduce the impact of clutters. Step 2: The target is measured. The region where energy from target tested is higher than that from background will be chosen by a range gate, and returned to frequency-domain. Step 3: The scaling is measured. The frequency-domain data are recorded in the same range gate. The RCS of target is calculated by the following formula:

target s.target . Starget Ss.target dBsm = S21 S`21 + `dBsm

Where, dBsm is the RCS of target, ` dBsm is the RCS of standard target, S21, S`21 are the scattered power density measured value of target and standard target.

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RCS MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION:
The Anechoic Chamber is of size 3m x 3m x 10m. The target-to-source distance is about 6m, allowing far-field measurements at 3-18 GHz range on test objects upto 30 cm in size at X Band. The instrumentation comprises of the HP 8530 Microwave receiver, HP 83620 synthesized sweeper, an optional wideband amplifier in the transmit path, and an 8511A Front-End. This is a standard configuration widely used for RCS and antenna pattern measurements. Two illumination horns with low side lobes (Orbit Fr 6413 & 6414) for reduced coupling are used for transmit and receive in two bands i.e. 3-8 GHz & 8-18 GHz. A target stand made of low-density foam is used for placement of the target. Servo motor-controlled turntable is used for target rotation in azimuth/elevation. The instrumentation interfaces to a PC based controller over GPIB bus. The PC acquires processes and stores the data. The instrumentation is capable of synthesizing stepped frequencies over the given band, and measuring the precise amplitude and phase of the received return signal with respect to the transmitted signal. Swept frequency measurement can be carried out with this set-up. Data is processed by background subtraction and calibration with respect to a known standard. In background subtraction, the frequency trace data of the chamber with the test target not present is subtracted from the corresponding frequency trace data with the test target present. This removes key clutter contributions including leakage between transmit and receive antennas, as well as chamber reflections from the walls and absorbers. This data is then normalized to the data obtained by measuring a known calibration target like a precision cylinder or sphere. The normalization process removes any frequency response error of the instrumentation, and also permits the measurement result to be expressed directly in absolute dBsm. A 25.25 cm diameter sphere calibration is being used for this purpose.

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Further, optional processing is possible with the Time-Domain Gating Option. In this, the frequency domain data is Fourier Transformed to the Time-Domain. In the Time-domain, the contributions to the reflected return signal can be resolved as a function of distance (or time) from the transmit end. The desired contributions (e.g. from the test target) can be selectively gated out, and its frequency domain response calculated. This processing can help to further suppress spurious contribution to the measured return from sources such as multi-path contributions, which are not removed by background subtraction alone.

Practically graphs we obtain from VNA for SPHERE are:-

Figure 9: At 3 GHz

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Figure 10: At 5 GHz

Figure 11: At 8 GHz

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Figure 12: At 10 GHz

Figure 13: At 12 GHz

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Figure 14: At 15 GHz

Figure 15: At 18 GHz

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RCS Measurement of SPHERES

DATE

15-07-2013

SERIAL NO

DLJ/CAM/MW/RCS/02/

TASK SUBMITTED BY

RAJAT RATHI

REF NO OF OBJECT

CYL

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

8511A, no amplifier

CAL OBJECT

25.25 cm dia sphere

FREQUENCY

3-18GHz

ANGLE

Az 0, El 0

1. 3-8 GHz Horn

ANTENNA USED POLARIZATION

Vertical

2. 8-18 GHz Horn

NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION OF OBJECT

Sphere of Diameter 2.00 cm

Vertical
PLACEMENT OF OBJECT

Table 1

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Figure 16: At 3-8GHz Horn

Figure 17: At 8-18 GHz Horn

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RCS Measurement of CORNER REFLECTOR

DATE SERIAL NO

15-07-2013

DLJ/CAM/MW/RCS/02/

TASK SUBMITTED BY

REF NO OF OBJECT

RAJAT RATHI

PLT

SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

CAL OBJECT

8511A, no amplifier

25.25 cm dia sphere

FREQUENCY

ANGLE

3-18 GHz 1. 3-8 GHz Horn 2. 8-18 GHz Horn

Az 0, El 0

ANTENNA USED

POLARIZATION

Vertical

NOMENCLATURE AND DESCRIPTION OF OBJECT

Corner

reflector

with

PLACEMENT OF OBJECT

Vertical

edge length 10 cm

Table 2

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Figure 18: At 3-8 GHz Horn

Figure 19: At 8-18 GHz Horn

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Conclusion
This project was really a very educative and enlightening experience for me. I got variety of problems at various platforms. Besides developing my designing skills, I came to learn about Electromagnetic Theory, Microwaves, Radar Cross Section, Anechoic Chambers and Vector Network Analyzer. In the end, I would like to thank all the people who made such kind of training possible for me.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCE
1. IEEE papers 2. www.google.com 3. www.wikipedia.com 4. www.mi-technologies.com

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