PRACTICAL WORK BOOK

For Academic Session 2012

BASIC ELECTRONICS (EL-182) For S.E(EL)

Name: Roll Number: Batch: Department: Year:

Department of Electronic Engineering N.E.D. University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi 75270 Pakistan
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LABORATORY WORK BOOK FOR THE COURSE EL-182 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Prepared By: Sana Arshad (Lecturer) & Nida Fareed (Lecturer)

Reviewed By: Mr. Muhammad Khurram Shaikh (Assistant Professor)

Approved By: The Board of Studies of Department of Electronic Engineering

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A practical approach is probably the best approach to mastering a subject and gaining a clear insight. Electronic Devices and Circuits Practical Workbook covers those practical oriented electronic circuits that are very essential for the students to solidify their theoretical concepts. This workbook provides a communication bridge between the theory and practical world of the electronic circuits. The knowledge of these practical are very essential for the engineering students. All of these practical are arranged on the modern electronic trainer boards. This book comprises of three sections. The first section consists of Diode circuits. Some of the very useful diode based circuits are discussed in this section. Labs concerning over this part of the workbook basically provides the elementary knowledge of the subject. It also provides some sort of introduction to the lab equipments. The second section of the workbook describes the Bipolar Junction Transistor based circuits. Different configurations of BJT amplifier are discussed in this part of the book. Each and every practical provides a great in depth practical concepts of BJT. It also covers some other useful features such as biasing concepts, different type of biasing technique and load line concept, etc. Field Effect Transistor (FET); one of the leading technology in electronics is discussed in third and the final section of this workbook. It gives the introduction to the FET based electronic circuits.

Basic Electronics Laboratory CONTENTS

Lab No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8A 8B 9A 9B
10 11

Dated

List of Experiments

Page No.

Remarks

To study about electrical symbols and laboratory 6-13 equipments Multimeter Oscilloscope Function Generator Power Supplies Dual Track To study the characteristic curve of Silicon diode. 14-19 To study the characteristic curve of Germanium 20-25 diode. To analyze the Half-wave rectifier. 26-30 To analyze the Full-wave rectifier. 31-35 To analyze the Bridge rectifier. 36-41 To study the operation of filters for smooth DC 42-49 supply. To study the operation of Diode Limiters. 50-66 To study the operation of Diode Biased Limiters. To study the operation of Diode Clampers. To study the operation of Diode Biased Clampers. 50-66 67-81 67-81

To study the characteristic curve of Zener Diode & 82-89 find the Zener voltage Vz . To identify the type of Transistor ( NPN & PNP ) & 90-98 find its mode of operation on different values of Vcc. To find emitter , base , collector voltage & currents 99-108 by applying different supply voltage and find the mode of operation.

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Lab Session 01 OBJECTIVES

To study about Electrical variables and electrical symbols. To study about Digital Multimeter. To study about Digital Oscilloscope. To study about Function Generator. To study about Dual Track Power Supplies.

APPARATUS
Digital Multimeter. Digital Oscilloscope. TDS-210 Function Generator. Power supply unit mod. PS1-PSU/EV.

THEORY:
Electrical Symbols

Digital Multimeter
Multimeter is the measuring instrument use to measure voltage, current and resistance of the electronics and electrical circuit. Multimeter is basically an integration of Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohm-meter. Some of the modern digital Multimeter also contains Frequency meter. Ammeter is used to measure the current. Since current flows through the component, the ammeter must go in series with the component. This makes sure the same current flows through the meter. Current is measured in Amperes (A). Often in electronics we use large resistors which only allow very small current to pass. Therefore we used two other small units. mA (milliamperes) A (microamperes)

Voltmeter is used to measure the voltage and potential difference across the component. Therefore the 6

voltmeter must go in parallel. If the internal resistance of voltmeter is quite small then the loading effect causes the problem.

The unit for measuring the voltage is volt. Small signals such as bio-signals are generally measure in millivolts (mV).

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

We use CRO to visualize at the voltages that changes with the time such as AC voltages and signal waveforms from amplifiers. The voltage on the X-plate makes the electron beam sweep across the screen. This sets the time base. The spot on the screen shows how the Y-voltage varies with the time.

In this example the oscilloscope measures the sine wave with the peak amplitude of 5V and the frequency of 50 Hz. The two properties we need to know about the sine wave is its amplitude and frequency. Here we are using Digital Oscilloscope with LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) panel. Volts/div. and Time/div. are controlled digitally through Autoset button. Even other electrical calculations are done directly through this oscilloscope. There are several controlling knobs and buttons that are quite user friendly.

Digital Real-Time Oscilloscope

General Features
100MHz (TDS220 or TDS224) or 60MHz(TDS210)bandwidth with selectable 20 MHz bandwidth limit. 1GS/s sample rate and 2,500 point record length for each channel Cursors with readout Five automated measurements High-resolution, high-contrast LCD display with temperature compensation and replaceable back Light. Setup and waveform storage Autoset for quick setup Waveform averaging and peak detection Digital real-time oscilloscope Dual time base Video trigger capability RS-232, GPIB, and Centronics communication ports easily added with optional extension modules Variable persistence display User interface available in ten user-selectable languages

Functional Check
Perform this quick functional check to verify that your instrument is I operating correctly. 1. Turn on the instrument. NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 9

Wait until the display shows that all self tests passed. Push the SAVE/RECALL button, select Setups in the top menu box and push the Recall Factory menu box. The default Probe menu attenuation setting is 10X.

1 Set the switch to 10X on the P2100 probe and connect the probe to channel 1 on the oscilloscope. To do this, align the slot in probe connector with the key on the CH 1 BNC, push to connect, and twist to the right to lock the probe in place. Attach the probe tip and reference lead to the PROBE COMP connectors. 2 Push the AUTOSET button. Within a few seconds, you should see a square wave in the display (approximately 5 V at 1 kHz peak-to-peak). Push the CH 1 MENU button twice to turn off channel, push the CH 2 MENU button to turn on channel 2, repeat steps 2 .and 3. For TDS 224, repeat for CH 3 and CH 4.

Using Autoset
The Autoset function obtains a stable waveform display for you. It automatically adjusts the vertical and horizontal scaling, as well as the trigger coupling, type, and position, slope, level and mode settings. NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 10

The Function Generator

This instrument is basically the frequency generator that can generate signals of different frequency, amplitude and shape. It is known as variable frequency source.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

LED DISPLAY. INTERNAL EXTERNAL SWITCH. : PUSH IN RANGE SWITCHES. FUNCTION SWITCHES. ATTENUATOR. GATE TIME INDICATOR. FREQUENCY DIAL. MHz, KHz, Hz, mHz INDICATOR. EXTERNAL COUNTER INPUT BNC. SWEEP RATE CONTROL. . SWEEP WIDTH CONTROL. VCF INPUT BNC.

Displays internal or external frequency. External Frequency Counter. PUSH OUT: Internal Frequency Counter Frequency range Selector. Select Sine wave, Triangle wave or Square wave output. Selects Output Level by -20 dB. Gate Time Is selected automatically by input signal. Controls Output frequency in selected range. Indicates unit of frequency. Used as an External Frequency Counter. On/Off Switch for Internal Sweep Generator, adjusts sweep rate of Internal Sweep Generator Pull out and adjusts Magnitude of Sweep. Voltage controlled Frequency Input permits External Sweep. Frequency control sweep rate control should be off when applying External Voltage at this BNC. Adjust Symmetry of Output Waveform 1:1to 10:1 with Push/Pull Switch On. Selects TTL or CMOS mode Pull-out: CMOS Level Control, Push-In: TTL Level. TTL/CMOS Level Output. Adds Positive or Negative DC Component to Output Signal . 11

13 14. 15. 16.

SYMMETRY CONTROL. TTL/CMOS CONTROL. TTL/CMOS OUTPUT BNC. DC OFFSET CONTROLS.

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MAIN OUTPUT BNC. Impedance 50 Ohm. AMPLITUDE CONTROL. Adjusts Output Level from 0 to 20 dB. TILT STAND. PullOut to adjust tilt. POWER SWITCH. Push type switch. turning on the power when pressed. FUSE HOLDER. Replacing fuse with unscrewing AC INLET. For connection of the supplied AC power

Usually these are the shapes of the signal that can be generated using Function Generator.

EXERCISES
1 2 3 Set the Function Generator to the value 1Vp-p sinusoid and 5Vp-p square wave?

Use dual channel of the oscilloscope to measure the signal from Function Generator?

Write down peak to peak, average and RMS values of the incoming signal?

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Lab Session 02 OBJECTIVES

Identify diode schematic symbols. Describe Silicon based diode operating characteristics. Identify diode construction characteristics. Observe normal operations in a diode circuit.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Base unit for the IPES system. Power supply module PSU/EV. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter. Oscilloscope.

INTRODUCTION
Although the diode is a simple device, it forms the basis for an entire branch of electronics. Transistors, integrated circuits, and microprocessors are all based on its theory and technology. In today's world, semiconductors are found all around us. Cars, telephones, consumer electronics, and more depend upon solid state devices for proper operation.

PN Junction
Now, we are ready to build a diode. To do this, we need two blocks of material, one N type and one P type.

Figure 1. N and P Material

Figure 2. Diode The resulting block of material is a diode. At the instant the two blocks are fused, their point of contact becomes the PN junction. Some of the electrons on the N side are attracted to the P side, while at the same 13

time, an equal number of hole charges are attracted to the N side.

Figure 3. PN Junction Diode As a result, the PN junction becomes electrically neutral. The barrier in Figure 3 is greatly exaggerated. In some semiconductor devices, the PN junction barrier may only be a few atoms thick. The PN junction is an electrical condition, rather than a physical one. The junction has no charge; it is depleted of charges. Thus, another name for it is the depletion zone. Because of the existence of the depletion zone, there is no static current flow from the N material to the P material. The diode consists of two parts or elements, the N material and the P material. Their proper names are cathode and anode. The cathode is the N material and the anode is the P material. Electron current flow is from the cathode to the anode. Figure 4 illustrates a PN junction diode.

Figure 4. The Diode

Bias
Average DC level of current to set operating characteristics. There are two types of bias in semiconductors, forward and reverse. Forward bias will eliminate the depletion zone and cause a diode to pass current. Reverse bias will increase the size of the depletion zone and in turn, block current. Figure 6 and 7 illustrates forward and reverse bias.

Figure 5. Bias A diode is biased by placing a difference in potential across it. Figure 7 illustrates a forward biased diode. Because of the positive potential applied to the anode and the negative potential applied to the cathode, the depletion zone disappears. Current flows from the negative terminal of the battery through the N region, across the non-existent depletion zone, and through the P region to the positive terminal of the battery. It takes a specific value of voltage for a diode to begin conduction. Approximately .3 volts across a 14

germanium diode or .7 volts across a silicon diode are necessary to provide forward bias and conduction. A germanium diode requires a lower voltage due to its higher atomic number, which makes it more unstable. Silicon is used far more extensively than

Figure 6. Reversed Biased Diode Figure 7. Forward Biased Diode Reverse bias is accomplished by applying a positive potential to the cathode and a negative potential to the anode as shown in Figure 6. The positive potential on the cathode will attract electrons from the depletion zone. At the same time, the negative potential on the anode will attract holes. The net result is that the depletion zone will increase in size. A forward biased diode will conduct, with only a small voltage drop over it. The voltage drop for a forward biased germanium diode is .3 volts, while .7 volts is normal for a silicon diode. We can say that a forward biased conducting diode is almost a short. A reversed biased diode will not conduct. Therefore, it can be considered an open circuit. We call a reversed biased diode cut off. Cut off refers to the current flow through the diode being blocked, or cut off.

Diode characteristics
The diode consists of two elements, the anode and the cathode. The anode corresponds to the P material and the cathode to the N material. Current flow is from the cathode to the anode.

Figure 8. Forward Biased Diode

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Figure 8 illustrates a forward biased diode with current flow and the diode elements labeled. The graph in Figure 9 depicts current flow through a diode with different values of forward and reverse bias.

Figure 9. Forward and Reverse Currents of a Semiconductor Diode Let's examine forward bias first. As the forward bias is gradually increased, current through the diode will increase. A small forward voltage (forward bias) will generate a very large forward current (cathode to anode). Typical values of forward current are in the range of .2 to 20 amps. Of course, every diode has a maximum value of forward current that can be passed without damage. Typical low power diode current characteristics are: If- the maximum forward current (upto1amp) Ifm- maximum peak forward current (upto5amps,repetitive) Ifs- maximum peak surge current (upto35amps,non-repetitive) Reverse bias will effect diodes in a different manner. Figure 9 illustrates the point. As the reverse bias or voltage is increased, there will be a very small reverse current (anode to cathode). It will be in the range of 1 milliamp for a germanium (Ge) diode and 1 microampere for silicon (Si) diode. As the reverse voltage is gradually increased, the reverse current will stay at a constant low level until the junction breakdown voltage VB is reached. At that point, the junction will cease to exist and the diode will conduct. As you can see in Figure 9, the current flow will be massive. Reverse current flow is so heavy that it is called avalanche conduction. When the diode is operated in the avalanche region, current flow becomes independent of voltage, and that point is called avalanche breakdown. Due to the massive electron flow, normal PN junction diodes are destroyed when operated in this manner. The forward and reverse biased states of a diode can be compared to a variable resistor. Figure 10 illustrates the concept. A forward biased diode will drop only .3 or .7 V. That corresponds to an internal resistance in the anode that drops from several Kilo-ohms at the point where conduction begins to several ohms where a diode is conducting heavily. In the reverse bias state, resistance will be in the Mega-ohms until breakdown voltage is reached. At that point, internal resistance will drop rapidly.

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The stripe on the body of the diode indicates the cathode. To test a diode, you will measure the resistance of the barrier junction.

PROCEDURE Measurement of the forward and reverse resistance of diode

1 2 3 Set the Multimeter for resistance measurement. Measure the forward and reverse resistance of D1 (Silicon) and D2 (Germanium). Record the values in the table. D1 (Si) Forward Resistance Reverse Resistance Measurement of diode current as function of applied voltage 1 2 3 4 Connect jumpers J2, J8, J9 and J5 to produce the circuit shown in the figure. Steadily increase the supply voltage and measure the voltage across the silicon diode D1. Remove all the jumpers from the module. With the result obtained plot the voltage current curves for D1. D2 (Ge)

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OBSERVATIONS
S.No. VOLTAGE (Volt) D1 CURRENT (mA) D1

CONCLUSION Current through Silicon based diode starts increasingly exponentially when potential
across diode is approximately millivolts (Cut-in Voltage).

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 18

Lab Session 03 OBJECTIVES

Identify diode schematic symbols. Describe Germanium based diode operating characteristics. Identify diode construction characteristics. Observe normal operations in a diode circuit.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
Base unit for the IPES system. Power supply module PSU/EV. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter. Oscilloscope.

INTRODUCTION
A germanium diode requires a lower voltage due to its higher atomic number, which makes it more unstable. Silicon is used far more extensively than germanium in solid state devices because of its stability.

PROCEDURE
1 2 3 4 Connect jumpers J2, J10, J11 and J5 to produce the circuit shown in the figure. Steadily increase the supply voltage and measure the voltage across the silicon diode D2. Remove all the jumpers from the module. With the result obtained plot the voltage current curves for D2.

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OBSERVATIONS
S.No. VOLTAGE (Volt) D2 CURRENT (mA) D2

CONCLUSION
Current through Silicon based diode starts increasingly exponentially when potential across diode is approximately millivolts (Cut-in Voltage).

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SUMMARY
Semiconducting elements can act as conductors or insulators. Silicon and germanium are semiconductor elements most often used in electronics. N material is formed from silicon or germanium doped to add electrons. Most common doping agents are arsenic, antimony, or phosphorous. o P Material o is formed from silicon or germanium. o is doped to add holes. The most common doping agents are aluminum, boron, or gallium. o A PN Junction o is formed from a block of P material fused with a block of N material. o is also called a junction barrier. o is electrically neutral (with no bias voltage to the device). o is an electrical barrier rather than a physical one. o requires 0.3 V to be overcome if the material is germanium, or 0.7 V if it is silicon. o is also called the depletion zone. o is called a diode. o The diode consists of two parts: The N material is called the cathode. The P material is called the anode. Current flows from cathode to anode. Bias determines whether a diode conducts or is cut off. Forward bias allows a diode to conduct. Reverse bias blocks conduction, or cuts off a diode. With forward bias, current increases as the voltage increases. With reverse bias, reverse current is minimal until avalanche conduction is reached. o Diode current flow After leaving the negative source terminal, it enters the right end of the diode. It travels through the N region as a free electron. Near the junction, it recombines and becomes a valence electron. It travels through the P region as a valence electron. After leaving the left end of the diode, it flows into the positive source terminal.

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EXERCISES

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Lab Session 04 OBJECTIVE To study the half-wave rectifier. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Base unit for the IPES system. Power supply module PSU/EV. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter. Oscilloscope.

BASIC THEORY
The rectifier circuit converts the AC voltage furnished by the utilities company into the DC voltage required to operate electronic equipment. Many common electrical products use voltages provided by a rectifier. Without the rectifier to convert the AC voltage to the DC voltage required to operate these electrical units, it would be virtually impossible to have the conveniences that we enjoy today. A television without a rectifier would require several extremely large batteries. These batteries would have to be large because of the current that is required. In other words, a television without the rectifier would be so large that it would occupy an entire room. The rectifier is the heart of the electronic unit.

Introduction
A rectifier system can be divided into five sections, each performing a separate function. Figure 1 is a block diagram of a rectifier system. This lesson deals with the input, rectifier, and filter sections.

Figure 1. Rectifier System

Input Block
The input block consists of a transformer, normally a power transformer that receives the AC input signal from some power source. The transformer transfers the electrical energy received to the rectifier section by electromagnetic induction or mutual inductance. The transformer performs the transfer of energy without any change in frequency, but it is able to change the voltage and current from the input source to the voltage and current required by the rectifier section. The phase relationship of the current in the secondary of the transformer is dependent upon the phase of the voltage in the primary winding and the direction of the winding in the secondary. If the secondary windings are wound in the same direction as the primary windings, the phase between the input signal and the output signal will be the same. If the secondary windings are wound in the opposite direction of the primary windings, the phase between the input signal 25

and the output signal will be 180 degrees out of phase. The schematic drawings of a transformer indicate the phase relationship between the primary and secondary with the use of dots. The dots on a schematic diagram indicate which windings are in phase. Figure 2 illustrates this

Figure 2. Transformer

Rectifier Block
The rectifier circuit is the most important part in the rectifier system. The rectifier circuit converts the AC waveform from the input block into a pulsating DC waveform. One of several different rectifier circuits may be utilized to perform this function. These circuits are the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier, the full-wave bridge rectifier, and the voltage doubler.

Half-Wave Rectifier
Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram for a half-wave rectifier. The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier; it consists of only one diode. For explanation purposes, a load resistance must be placed in the circuit to complete the path for current flow and to develop the output signal.

Figure 3. Half-Wave Rectifier The half-wave rectifier in Figure 3 is a positive half-wave rectifier. It is called a positive half-wave rectifier because it only uses the positive portion of the input sine wave and produces a positive pulsating DC signal. During the positive alternation of the input voltage, the positive alternation of the sine wave causes the anode of the diode to become positive with respect to the cathode. The diode is now forward-biased and will conduct. Current will flow from the negative side of the transformer secondary, through the load resistor, through the diode, to the positive side of the transformer secondary. This path for current flow will exist during the complete positive alternation of the input waveform because the diode will remain forwardbiased as long as the positive signal is applied to the anode. The resulting output of the rectifier will be developed across the load resistor and will be a positive pulse very similar to the positive alternation of the input waveform. Figure 4 illustrates the output waveform across the load resistor. During the negative alternation of the input sine wave, the anode is negative with respect to the cathode and the diode will become reverse-biased. As long as this condition exists, no current will flow in the circuit and an output 26

signal cannot be developed across the load. The circuit gives the appearance of producing a series of positive pulses. A negative half-wave rectifier operates very similar to a positive half-wave rectifier, except the output will be a series of negative pulses. (Refer to Figure 5.)

Figure4. Output Waveform of a Positive Half-WaveRectifier During the positive alternation, the diode is reverse-biased; no current will flow through the circuit, and no signal will be developed across the load. This condition will exist any time a positive alternation is present on the cathode. When the negative alternation is present on the cathode, the diode is forward-biased; current flows from the negative side of the secondary through the diode, through the load resistance, to the positive side of the secondary. This condition allows a negative pulse to be developed across the load resistance and continues until the negative cycle is removed from the cathode. The output of a negative half-wave rectifier will be a series of negative pulses. The amplitude of the output is approximately the same as the peak voltage of the input signal if measured with the oscilloscope. If a multimeter is used to measure the pulsating DC voltage, it will indicate the average voltage. The average voltage of a sine wave is zero volts; however, if the negative portion of a sine wave is clipped off, the average value changes to some positive value. Since the waveform swings positive but never goes negative, the average voltage will be positive. To determine the average value of a pulsating DC signal using a half-wave rectifier, multiply the peak voltage by .318. Example: Input peak value = 10 volts AC 10 volts AC X .318 = 3.18 volts AC EAVG = EPEAK x .318 The average value of a signal is the average of all the instantaneous values during one alternation. For one positive alternation, the voltage value increases from 0 volts to some maximum peak value and decreases back to 0 volts; the average value would be some value between the two limits. The instantaneous value of an alternating voltage or current is the value of voltage or current at one particular instant. The value may be zero if the particular instant is the time in the cycle at which the polarity is changing. It may also be the same as the peak value if the selected instant is the time in the cycle at which the voltage or current stops increasing and starts decreasing. There are actually an infinite number of instantaneous values between zero and peak value.The current flows in the circuit during the half cycle (duration of a half- wave) and produce a positive half-wave voltage across the load. The average value Vm of the rectified voltage is:

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The rms voltage is:

Ripple Frequency
The half-wave rectifier gets its name from the fact that it conducts during only half the input cycle. Its output is a series of pulses with a frequency that is the same as the input frequency. Thus, when operation is from a 60 hertz line source, the frequency of the pulses is 60 hertz. The frequency at which the pulses appear is called ripple frequency.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The largest reverse voltage that the diode must be able to withstand without breakdown is known as PIV. It is the largest reverse voltage that is expected to appear across the diode. PIV = VM

PROCEDURE
Connect jumpers J14, J24, J31, J27, J20 and the ammeter to produce the circuit shown below. Adjust RV2 to obtain the minimum current in the circuit. Connect the Oscilloscope to display both the input voltage and the voltage across the load. Compare the two waveforms and determine at which time the diode conducts.

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Write down the frequency of the input AC cycle?

Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of input AC cycle?

Write down the frequency of the Half wave rectifier output?

Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of Half wave rectifier output?

CONCLUSION
In Half-wave rectifier the two signals are in phase but the load signal lacks the negative half wave, and the input one has slightly higher amplitude.

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 29

Lab Session 05 OBJECTIVE To study the Full-wave rectifier. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Base unit for the IPES system. Power supply module PSU/EV. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter. Oscilloscope.

BASIC THEORY
Conventional Full-Wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes and a center-tapped transformer. Before we discuss a full-wave rectifier, let's consider these points about a center-tapped transformer. Refer to Figure 1. A center-tapped transformer is composed of two windings, one primary winding and one secondary winding which is divided by a ground connected to the center of the secondary winding. When a center tap of a transformer is grounded, the voltages at the opposite side of the secondary windings are 180 degrees out of phase. The amplitude of these two signals will be the same, because there is the same number of windings above the ground as there is below the ground. When the voltage at point A is positive

Figure 1. Center-tapped Transformer

Theory Of Operation Of A Full-Wave Rectifier

During the first half cycle, the anode of CR1 is positive with respect to the cathode, while the anode of CR2 is negative with respect to the cathode. Refer to Figure 2. Thus, CR1 is forward-biased, while CR2 is reverse-biased. During the second half cycle, the anode of CR1 is negative with respect to the cathode, while the anode of CR2 is positive with 30

Figure 2. Full Wave Rectifier When CR1 is forward-biased, current will flow from ground through the load resistor, through the diode CR1, to the upper half of T1, through T1 to the center tap, and back to the ground. As current flows through the load resistor, a positive signal is developed at the junction of RL and CR1. This signal is a positive DC pulse with amplitude approximately the same as the input signal. This signal is developed during the first half of the input cycle only. Refer to Figure 3.

Figure 3. First Half Cycle Rectifier During the second half cycle of the input signal, CR2 is forward-biased and will allow current to flow. CR1 is reversed-biased during this half cycle. Current will now flow from the ground through the load resistor, through CR2, up through the lower half of the transformer, to the center tap, and back to the ground. Current is still flowing in the same direction across the load resistor so that a positive signal will be developed at the junction of CR2 and RL. Refer to Figure 4.

Figure 4. Second Half Cycle Rectifier During this one cycle of the input sine wave, two positive DC pulses have been developed. With this 31

condition, the output frequency has doubled. If the input frequency is 60 hertz, the positive alternation will be present 60 times. After the full-wave rectification, there will be 120 positive pulses at the output. The amplitude, if measured with an oscilloscope, will be approximately the same as the peak input signal. If the DC output signal is measured with a multimeter, the indication will be the average value of the peak signal. To determine the average value of a full-wave rectified signal, multiply the peak value by .636. Example: EAVG = EPEAK x .636 Input peak value = 10 V AC 10 V AC x .636 = 6.36 V DC

Advantage of Full Wave Rectifier

The Half wave rectifier has too low an average (or rms) value of output voltage, as it uses only half the input cycle. This is inconvenient, especially if the load requires a lot of power. There are two alternatives to the simple rectifier, which rectify the whole of the input cycle, and so increase the average and rms value of the rectified voltage. One circuit the full-wave rectifier, uses two diodes, as seen in figure

This dual diode rectifier requires two equal voltages, but 180 apart, on the anodes. The average value Vm of the rectified voltage is:

The rms voltage Veff is:

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The largest reverse voltage that the diode must be able to withstand without breakdown is known as PIV. It is the largest reverse voltage that is expected to appear across the diode. During the positive half cycle D1 is conducting and D2 is cut off. The voltage at the cathode of D2 is VO = VM 2VDO and that at its anode is VM. Therefore, PIV = 2VM - VDO 32

It is approximately for the case of half-wave rectifier.

PROCEDURE
Connect jumpers J14, J18, J24, J31, J27, J20 and the ammeter to produce the circuit shown below. Connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the common point of the two ac input voltages. Connect the probes to display the voltage across the load and alternatively on the anodes of diodes D3 and D7. Adjust RV2 to obtain the maximum load current through the circuit. Set the ammeter to dc, disconnect jumper J18 and measure the current.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Write down the frequency of the input AC cycle?

Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of input AC cycle?

Write down the frequency of the Full wave rectifier output?

Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of Full wave rectifier output?

CONCLUSION
In Full-wave rectifier D3 and D7 rectify the half wave with the help of center-tapped transformer. The voltage on the load consists only of positive pulses. 33

SUMMARY

Rectification is the process of changing alternating current to direct current. A half-wave rectifier consists of one diode that changes AC voltages to DC voltages, using only one-half cycle of the applied AC voltage. A full-wave rectifier consists of two or four diodes connected to utilize both halves of the input AC cycle for producing a DC output. The average voltage output of a half-wave rectifier is equal to: EAVG = 0.318 x EPEAK . The average voltage output of a full-wave rectifier is: EAVG = 0.636 x EPEAK The average output voltage of a full-wave rectifier is higher than that of a half-wave rectifier. The current capability of the full-wave rectifier is higher than that of the half-wave rectifier. A full-wave rectifier is more efficient than a half wave rectifier, and its output is much better filtered, because it uses the entire cycle of the applied AC cycle. There are two main types of rectifiers: the half-wave and the full-wave. The half-wave rectifier uses only one diode and produces an output during one half of the input signal. The direction of current flow through the diode

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Lab Session 06 OBJECTIVE To analyze the Graetz (Bridge) rectifier. EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Base unit for the IPES system. Power supply module PSU/EV. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter. Oscilloscope with differential probe.

BASIC THEORY
The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
A basic full-wave bridge rectifier is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Basic Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier A full wave bridge rectifier has one advantage over the conventional full-wave rectifier: the amplitude of the output signal. The frequency of the positive pulses will be the same in either rectifier. When the output signal is taken from a bridge rectifier, it is taken across the entire potential of the transformer; thus, the output signal will be twice the amplitude of a conventional full-wave rectifier. For the first half cycle of a bridge rectifier, refer to Figure 2.

35

Figure 2. Full Wave Bridge Rectifier (First Half-Wave Cycle Operation) During the first half cycle of the input signal, a positive potential is felt at Point A and a negative potential is felt at Point B. Under this condition, a positive potential is felt on the anode of CR3 and on the cathode of CR4. CR3 will be forward-biased, while CR4 will be reverse-biased. Also, a negative potential will be placed on the cathode of CR1 and the anode of CR2. CR1 will be forward-biased, while CR2 will be reverse biased. With CR1 and CR3 forward-biased, a path for current flow has been developed. The current will flow from the lower side of the transformer to Point D. CR1 is forward-biased, so current will flow through CR1 to Point E, from Point E to the bottom of the load resistor, and up to Point F. R3 is forwardbiased, so current will flow through CR3, to Point C, and to Point A. The difference of potential across the secondary of the transformer causes the current to flow. Diodes CR1 and CR3 are forward-biased, so very little resistance is offered to the current flow by these components. Also, the resistance of the transformer is very small, so approximately all the applied potential will be developed across the load resistor. If the potential from Point A to Point B of the transformer is 24 volts, the output developed across the load resistor will be a positive pulse approximately 24 volts in amplitude.

Figure 3. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier (Second Cycle Operation) When the next alternation of the input is felt (Figure 3), the potential across the transformer reverses polarity. Now, a negative potential is felt at Point A and a positive potential is felt at Point B. With a negative felt at Point C, CR4 will have a negative on the cathode and CR3 will have a negative on the anode. A positive at Point D will be felt on the anode of CR2 and the cathode of CR1. CR4 and CR2 will be forward-biased and will create a path for current flow. CR1 and CR3 will be reverse-biased, so no current will flow. The path for current flow is from Point A to 36

Point C, through CR4 to Point E, to the lower side of the load resistor, through the load resistor to Point F, through CR2 to Point D, and to the lower side of T1. Current flows because of the full potential being present across the entire transformer; therefore, the current through the load resistor will develop the complete voltage potential. The frequency of the output pulses will be twice that of the input pulses because both cycles of the input AC voltage are being used to produce an output. The average value Vm of the rectified voltage is: The rms voltage Veff is:

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

Consider the circuit during the positive half cycles. The reverse voltage across CR2 can be determined from the loop formed by CR2, CR1 and RL as VD2 (reverse) = VO + VD1 (forward) PIV = VM 2VDO + VDO= VM - VDO PIV is about half the value for the full wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer. This is one of the advantages of bridge rectifier.

PROCEDURE
1- Connect jumpers J14, J16, J24, J31, J17, J15 and the ammeter to produce the circuit shown below. 2- Adjust RV2 to obtain the maximum current in the circuit. 3- Connect the ground of the oscilloscope to the anode of D4 and probe 1 to the cathode of the D4 and probe 2 across the load.

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 37

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Write down the frequency of the input AC cycle?

Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of input AC cycle?

Write down the frequency of the Bridge rectifier output?

Write down peak to peak, rms and mean value of Bridge rectifier output?

Write down the Peak Inverse Voltage that appears across the diode?

CONCLUSION
In Graetz Bridge rectifier the voltage across the load is pulsating in nature. In Graetz Bridge rectifier; at any moment one pair of diodes in the bridge are conducting.

SUMMARY
The operation of electronic equipment in any system requires many different operating voltages, both AC and DC. The device utilized to convert the energy from the prime power source to the required operating voltage is the rectifier, which is part of the power supply source. There are two main types of rectifiers: the half-wave and the full-wave. The half-wave rectifier uses only one diode and produces an output during one half of the input signal. The direction of current flow through the diode determines the polarity of the output voltage. The frequency of the output of a half-wave rectifier is the same as the input. The full-wave rectifier uses two diodes that alternate their conduction on each of the input signals. This allows current to flow through the load during the entire input signal. Because of this action, the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is double the input frequency. The full-wave rectifier also requires a center-tap transformer in order to perform the complete full operation. A bridge rectifier does not use a center-tap transformer. Four diodes are used, and the output is taken across the full secondary.

38

EXERCISES

39

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 40

Lab Session 07 OBJECTIVES

To observe the voltages filtered with C, LC and CLC circuits on the oscilloscope. To measure the peak-to-peak ripple voltage. To measure the average rectified voltage. To calculate the ripple voltage.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Base unit for the IPES system power supply. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual module SIS3. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter Oscilloscope with differential probe.

BASIC THEORY
Filter Block
The output from the rectifier circuit is a pulsating DC. This pulsating DC cannot be utilized in most electronic circuits because of the fluctuation of the output voltage. To make this output voltage usable, it must be smoothed out to a steady DC output with very little fluctuation. To perform this, a filter circuit is utilized. The filter circuit is placed between the rectifier and the output load; it uses capacitors, resistors and inductors to smooth or decrease the ripple voltage. There are four basic types of filter circuits used in basic electronics. These are: 1 Basic capacitor filter 2 LC (choke-input) filter 3 LC (capacitor input) filter 4 RC (capacitor input) filter

Capacitive Filter
This can be achieved by connecting a capacitor across the load, as shown in the figure. The behavior of the smoothed voltage, and the current, with the capacitor are also shown in figures.

41

The capacitor charges up while the diode is conducting, until it reaches the maximum value of the rectified voltage. When the supply voltage to the anode is less than the voltage on the cathode, (i.e. the max. voltage of the capacitor), the diode is cut off. The capacitor will then supply current to the load. This discharge current is shown as area 2 of figure B05.2. The capacitor discharges during the time interval (t2-t1). If the capacitor is small, and/or the resistance of the load is low, the capacitor will discharge very quickly, and the smoothing will not be very good. When the input voltage to the anode, is higher than the voltage left across the capacitor, the capacitor charges up again (during interval t3-t2). The diode provides a current pulse to replace the charge lost by the capacitor. During the time t3-t2 the capacitor must restore the quantity of charge lost during t2-t1. The voltage across the load looks like this;

The time taken by capacitor to discharge depends on the time constant of the circuit. 42

T=RC Vr=Vp/(fCR) The capacitor input filter is the most basic type of filter, and its use is very limited. It can be used in circuits that require extremely high voltage and low current, such as power supplies for cathode-ray tubes or electron-tube circuits which require very little load current from the power supply. This type of filter is also used where the power supply ripple frequency is not critical and has minimum effect on the operation of the circuit.

Figure 1. Capacitor Input Filter (Capacitor Charge) When a positive potential is felt at the top of T1, CR1 will be forward-biased and will allow current to flow from the bottom of T1 to the bottom of C1 and from the top of C1 through CR1 to the top of T1. With this path for current flow, C1 will charge to some positive potential. This positive potential will be less than the peak value induced across the transformer because of the voltage drop of C1. The charge time of C1 will be extremely short because of the RC time constant of CR1 (which is forward-biased and

Figure 2. Capacitor Input Filter (Capacitor Discharge) When the next alternation of the input is felt on the secondary of T1, the top of T1 will be negative. With the negative on the anode of CR1, it will become reverse-biased and will not allow current to flow through it. Now that C1 has a chance to discharge, it will discharge through the load resistor. The RC time constant of RL and C1 should be very long; with this long TC, C1 will discharge very slowly. Due to this slow discharge time, C1 will not be allowed to discharge completely and will retain most of the charge that as placed there during the first alternation. This establishes a high DC level for the output and reduces the output ripple. Refer to Figure 2.

LC Choke-Input Filter
This filter is used in power supplies where voltage regulation is important and current output is relatively high. It is used in radar and communication transmitters. Refer to

43

Figure 3. LC Choke-Input Filter (Capacitor Charge Path) L1 placed in series with the output of the rectifier attempts to keep the current through the load flowing at a constant rate. Figure 3 shows the charge path for C1. Any time the current starts to decrease in this circuit, the magnetic field of L1 will begin to collapse

Figure 4. LC Choke-Input Filter (Capacitor Discharge Path) Figure 4 shows the discharge path for C1. Again, the charge time is short so that C1 can charge rapidly, and the discharge time is extremely long to prevent the capacitor from discharging completely.

LC Capacitor Input Filter

This is one of the most commonly used filters. It is used in circuits that require a low current output and a load current that must be relatively constant, such as those for radio

Figure 5. LC Capacitor Input Filter

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The purpose of C1 is to reduce the ripple to a relatively low level and, at the same time, to establish the DC level for the output. C1 will charge to the maximum peak value of the input signal. Also, C1 will charge very rapidly but will discharge extremely slowly. With this slow discharge time, the voltage on C1 will not discharge back to zero before the next pulse is felt on C1 and recharges it. L1 and C2 form the LC filter and reduce the ripple even further. L1 has a high value of inductance and a high value of inductive reactance to the ripple frequency. C2 offers a low reactance to the ripple. L1 and C2 form a voltage divider; because of the reactance offered by each component, most of the ripple is dropped across L1 and very little ripple is felt across C2 and the load. L1 and C2 have very little effect on the DC voltage, because the only opposition to current flow is the internal resistance of the wire of L1. The LC filter provides good filtering action over a wide range of currents. C1 filters best when the load is drawing very little current. L1 filters best when the current is highest. The complementary nature of these two components ensures that good filtering will occur over a wide range of frequencies. The LC filter has two disadvantages: it is more expensive to build, and the inductor is heavy and bulky. The combination of rectifier and filter comprises what is normally called the power supply. The power supply, as designed for the application, provides the required voltages to satisfy the equipment operation.

PROCEDURE
Analysis Capacitive Filter
1 Connect jumpers J14, J24, J29, J27, J20 and the ammeter, for dc current measurements, to produce the circuit of figure B05.9. 2 Connect the oscilloscope to display the ac input voltage on channel, and the voltage across the load (resistor R2) on channel. 3 Observe the voltage across the load on the oscilloscope, and measure the current through the circuit. 4 Connect jumper J23 to produce a capacitive filter with C3. 5 Measure the current through the load; observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the load. 6 Disconnect jumper J29 and connect jumper J30, so increasing the load resistance. 7 Take the circuit back to the last configuration, i.e. disconnect J30 and connect J29. Disconnect J23 and connect J25 to increase the capacitance of the filter. 8 Measure the current through the circuit, observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the load.

45

Analysis of LC Filters
1 Remove jumper J24 to produce the L C filter. 2 Measure the dc current between test points 7-8, the average current in the circuit and observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the load.

Analysis of CLC Filters

1 Connect jumper J23, to produce the CLC filter. 2 Measure the average current through the circuit, observe and measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple on the load. 3 The addition of capacitor C3 provides the L C filter with a quite stable input voltage, with an average value near to the max. power supply voltage. Comparing the measured voltages in the different configurations, it can be seen that the dc output voltage increases with the dc voltage from the output of the filter, and also with the reduction of the ripple factor.

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 46

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

What are the ripple voltages in case of C-filters? What are the ripple voltages in case of LCfilters? What are the ripple voltages in case of CLC-filters?

What effect can be observed when the load resistance increases?

What effect can be observed when the capacitance increases?

CONCLUSION
There are many types of filters, such as the LC type, inductor or capacitor input, and the RC type. Of these, the LC type is the one most widely used because it provides better filtering with lower voltages. The filter circuit is required by the rectifier in order to provide a smooth DC output. CLC Filter supplies the maximum current, with the least ripples. The output voltage is smooth and free from every kind of spikes and glitches.

47

EXERCISES

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 48

Lab Session 08-A&B OBJECTIVES

1 2 3 Identity diode limiter schematic symbols. Describe diode limiter operating characteristics. Describe diode biased limiter operating characteristics.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Test Console PC130-77A Function Generator Oscilloscope Multimeter

INTRODUCTION
In power supplies, a device called a rectifier uses a diode limiter. The input voltage to the power supply is a 115 V AC sine wave. The output is a DC voltage. This would be impossible without the simple, yet vital, diode. In this lesson, you will explore how a diode can customize waveforms for you. In order for a complex piece of electronic equipment to function, it requires different shaped signals and triggers. By using limiters and other types of circuits, sine waves and square waves can be converted to practically any shape the circuit requires. The diode limiter is the simplest wave shaping circuit yet designed.

Diode Limiter
The diode limiter can also be called a diode clipper. The definition of a limiter is: DEFINITION LIMITER - A device which clips or removes all or part of an existing waveform, above or below a specified bias level. A basic diode limiter circuit is composed of a diode and a resistor. Depending upon the circuit configuration and bias, the circuit may clip or eliminate all or part of an input waveform. Limiter circuits, which are used for wave shaping and circuit protection, are very simple circuits. The phenomenon that allows a limiter to work is diode biasing. A forward-biased diode conducts, acting almost like a short circuit. It will have a very small voltage drop due to the barrier junction. If the diode is germanium, the drop will be .3 V. If it is a silicon diode, the drop will be .7 V. A reversed biased diode, being cut off, acts as an open circuit. By controlling the cut-off and conduction states of a diode, input waveforms can be customized, or wave shaped. Though this sounds complex, all you do is use biasing to control a diode. The square wave and the sine wave are the most common signals used in electronics. As many electronic applications require different wave shapes, circuits have been developed to alter wave shape. Figure 1 illustrates some typical wave shapes that some applications require and that can be developed by simple limiter circuits.

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Figure 1. Wave Shapes Depending upon how the wave shape is to be altered, one of five simple diode limiter circuits can be used. 1 Series Positive Limiter 2 Series Negative Limiter 3 Parallel Positive Limiter 4 Parallel Negative Limiter 5. Parallel Positive and Negative Limiter Now, let's examine each diode limiter circuit in detail. Even though any wave shape can be limited, sine waves have been used throughout the discussion for simplicity.

Series Positive Limiter

Figure 2 illustrates a typical series positive limiter circuit. The reasons it is called a series positive limiters are: The diode is in series with the output, and The circuit eliminates the positive alternation of the input waveform. When the input waveform goes positive, the diode is reverse biased. A reversed biased diode acts as an open circuit, blocking current flow to the output. Since a forward biased diode acts like a short circuit, the negative alternation of the input signal is developed over R1 without any changes.

Figure 2. Series Positive Limiter

Series Negative Limiter

Figure 3 illustrates a typical series negative limiter circuit. It is called a series negative limiter circuit because:
The diode is in series with the output, and

The circuit eliminates the negative alternation of the input waveform. When the input waveform goes negative, the diode is reversed biased. A reversed biased diode acts as an open circuit, blocking current flow to the output. Therefore, the negative alternation of the signal is not developed over R1. When the input waveform goes positive, the diode is forward biased. Since a forward biased diode acts like a short circuit, the positive alternation of the input signal is developed over R1, without any changes. Note that a positive limiter eliminates the positive alternation and the negative limiter eliminates the negative alternation. The way to convert from a positive limiter to a 50

Figure 3. Series Negative Limiter

Parallel Positive Limiter

The limiter circuit depicted in Figure 4 illustrates a typical parallel positive limiter circuit. It is classified as a parallel positive limiter circuit for two reasons: The diode is in parallel with the output, and The circuit eliminates the positive alternation of the input waveform. When the input signal goes positive, the diode is forward biased. As a forward biased diode conducts, the positive portion of the input signal is shunted to ground, preventing any signal from being passed out of the circuit. A negative input signal reverse biases the diode. As you remember, a reversed biased diode acts as an open circuit. Therefore, the

Figure 4. Parallel Positive Limiter

Parallel Negative Limiter

The circuit depicted in Figure 5 illustrates a typical parallel negative limiter circuit. It is classified as a parallel negative limiter circuit for two reasons: The diode is in parallel with the output, and The circuit eliminates the negative alternation of the input waveform. When the input signal goes negative, the diode is forward biased. As a forward biased diode conducts, the negative alternation of the input signal is shunted to ground,

Figure 5. Parallel Negative Limiter 51

Biased Limiters
By the addition of circuit bias, waveforms can be truly customized. Up until now, either the positive or negative alternation of the input waveform could be eliminated. Controlled application of bias enables the partial elimination of a signal. What these simple circuits can do is very interesting.

Biased Negative Series Limiter

Figure 7 illustrates a typical negative limiter circuit with bias applied. The bias is provided by the 5 volt battery in series with R1. As you remember, a negative limiter clips the negative alternation of the input signal and passes the positive alternation to the output. Where this circuit is different from a negative limiter is the application of bias.

Figure 7. Series Negative with Negative Bias Due to the applied bias on the cathode, the diode remains in the forward biased state until the signal on the anode drops below 5 volts. That is why the negative alternation of the signal is clipped, or limited, from 5 volts to 10 volts. If positive bias is used, as in Figure 8, the biased negative limiter gives a different output. The diode remains in the cut-off state until the voltage on the anode exceeds +5 volts. As the input is a 20 volts peak-to-peak sine wave, the output from the limiter is less than one half cycle.

Figure 8. Negative Limiter with Positive Bias

Biased Positive Series Limiter

From its name, you know that this circuit limits the positive alternation of the output signal. Figure 9 depicts a positive series limiter with positive bias. As the anode has +5 volts bias on it, the only time the diode is reversed biased is when the cathode voltage exceeds +5 volts. If negative bias is used, the waveform is altered. In Figure 10, the series positive limiter has a negative bias applied to the anode. That means the diode is reversed biased unless the cathode voltage is less than 5 volts. As a result, the output of the limiter circuit never exceeds 5 volts. 52

Figure 9. Series Positive Limiter with Positive Bias

Biased Parallel Limiters

With the parallel limiters, remember that if the diode is forward biased, the alternation of the input signal is eliminated by being shunted to ground. By adding bias, the output waveform is a portion of the input waveform. The circuit illustrated in Figure 11 is a parallel positive limiter with positive bias. As the input waveform is 20 volts peak-topeak and the limiter has +5 volts of bias applied to the cathode, the only time the diode is forward biased is when the input waveform exceeds 5 volts.

Changing the bias changes the output waveform. Figure 12 is a parallel positive limiter with negative bias. The only time the limiter is forward biased is when the input signal exceeds 5 volts. When the diode is forward biased, it conducts, and that part of the signal is shunted to ground.

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Negative biased parallel limiters function in just the opposite way. First, let's investigate the negative limiter with positive bias, pictured in Figure 13. Limiting occurs only when the diode is forward biased. The diode remains cut off until the cathode voltage drops below +5 volts. The signal from the limiter is just the positive peak of the input waveform on a +5 volt baseline.

The final parallel negative limiter uses negative bias. In order for limiting action to occur, the diode must be forward biased. Due to the negative bias on the anode, the diode does not conduct until the signal on the cathode drops below 5 volts. Figure 14 illustrates the circuit and waveform.

Parallel Positive And Negative Limiter

The parallel positive and negative limiter is depicted in Figure 15. As you can see, the limiter is constructed from two diodes in parallel. During the positive alternation, one diode is forward biased. The other diode is forward biased during the negative alternation. When bias is provided on the cathode of one diode and the anode of the other, the positive and negative peaks of the waveform are limited or clipped.

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EXPERIMENT
In this experiment, you will investigate how parallel diode limiter circuits operate. The experiment consists of two parts: PART 1. DIODE LIMITERS PART 2. BIASED DIODE LIMITERS

PART 1 PREPARATION
Examine PC130-77A, illustrated in Figure 16, and notice that it contains four diode circuits. By using slide switch S1, you can select either the test console Low AC voltage or the output of a function generator as an input to circuits A, B, C, and D. Potentiometers R5 and R6 are provided so the circuits C and D may be biased.

55

PART 1 PROCEDURE
1-1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and turn CONSOLE POWER to ON. Insert PC130-77A into the PC1 connectors. Set PC switch S1 to position B to establish the circuit of Figure 17.

Figure 17. Applied 1-2.

Circuit

Connection

to

Test

Positive

and

Negative

Limiters,

Sine

Wave

Set the function generator to the SINE WAVE function at 1 kHz. Connect the output of the function generator to the INPUT BNC connector on PC1 of the test console.

1-3.

1-4.

Connect the oscilloscope GROUND to PC TP1 and CH1 INPUT to the input to the limiters at the top of R7. Set the oscilloscope CH1 COUPLING to DC and use .5 mS TIME/DIV to display approximately 2 cycles of EIN. Adjust the amplitude control on the function generator for a 5 VPP display on the oscilloscope. In Figure 18A, draw the resultant waveform. USE DC COUPLING FOR THE REMAINDER OF THE EXPERIMENT. Move the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to TP3 and draw the resultant waveform on Figure 18B. Negative limiter, Circuit A. 56

1-5.

Move the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to TP5 and draw the resultant waveform on Figure 19. Positive limiter, Circuit B.

1-6. Compare Figures 18B and 19 with Figure 18A and answer the following questions.

1-7. 1-8. 1-9.

Set the generator to the SQUARE WAVE function at 1 kHz. Connect oscilloscope CH1 input to the top of R7 (INPUT). Adjust the amplitude control for an input of 5 VPP. Draw the resultant waveform in Figure 20A. Move the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to TP3 and draw the resultant waveform on Figure 20B. Negative limiter, Circuit A. Move the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to TP5 and draw the resultant waveform on

57

1-10. Repeat Step 7 for a TRIANGLE WAVE function. Use Figure 21A. 1-11. Repeat Step 8, using Figure 21B. 1-12. Repeat Step 9, using Figure 21C.

58

1-13. Adjust the function generator amplitude and frequency controls and observe the effect on the Figure 21C waveform. You have observed how a negative and positive un-biased parallel limiter operates. Series limiters produce the same waveforms. 1-14. If you are not proceeding to Part 2, return the POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and turn OFF the CONSOLE POWER switch. Remove PC130-77A and return all equipment to its designated storage area.

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PART 2. BIASED DIODE LIMITERS

In Part 2, you will apply various alternating waveforms and biases to positive and negative diode limiters. An oscilloscope will be used to observe circuit conditions.

PART 2 PROCEDURE
2-1. 2-2. 2-3. 2-4. 2-5. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and insert PC130-77A into the PC1 connectors. Press the CONSOLE POWER switch to ON. Set PC switch S1 to position B. Rotate R5 mid-range and R6 mid-range. Connect the function generator to the test console's PC1 INPUT BNC to establish the circuit of Figure 22. Adjust the POSITIVE SUPPLY control for a 5 V indication. Adjust the NEGATIVE SUPPLY control for a 5 V indication. Set the PC1 DC POWER switch to ON. A +5 V bias is now placed on the cathode of D4 and a 5 V bias is now placed on the anode of D3, as indicated in Figure 22.

2-6.

Set the generator to SINE WAVE function at 1 kHz. Connect the oscilloscope GROUND to PC TP1 and CH1 INPUT to the top of R8 (INPUT). Adjust the generator amplitude for a 5 VPP sine wave. Display two cycles. Draw the resultant waveform on Figure 23A. 2-7. Move the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to the negative parallel limiter output at TP7. Draw the resultant waveform on Figure 23B. Record the clamp point in Figure 23B. Negative limiter, Circuit C. 2-8. Move the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to the positive parallel limiter output at TP9. Draw the resultant waveform on Figure 23C. Record the clamp point in Figure 23C. Positive limiter, Circuit D. 2-9. Compare the waveforms in Figure 23B and 23C with Figure 23A. The biased limiter circuit was set up to produce an output like a limiter circuit without biasing. (Refer to Figure 22.) Next, you will adjust R5 and R6 to change the biasing levels applied to circuits C and D while observing the resultant output wave forms. 2-10. Connect CH1 probe to TP7 (Circuit C output). 60

2-11. Slowly rotate R5 CW and observe the effect on the output signal. When R5 is fully CW, the output is a pure DC level at approximately 5 volts. Why?

2-12. Slowly rotate R5 CCW and observe the effect on the output signal. When R5 is fully CCW, the output is an AC signal at 5 VPP. Why?

2-13.Connect CH1 probe to TP9 (Circuit D output). Repeat Steps 11 and 12 for circuit D using R6. (Do not answer the questions again.)

2-14. Notice that with R6 fully CW, the DC voltage level is negative.

2-15. Set the POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and press the CONSOLE POWER OFF. Remove PC130-77A and return all equipment to its designed storage area.

SUMMARY

Limiter circuits are based on diode action. A positive limiter will eliminate or limit the positive alternation of a waveform. A negative limiter will eliminate or limit the negative alternation of a waveform. In the series limiter, the diode is in series with the output. In the parallel limiter, the diode is in parallel with the output. By adding bias to the diode, the output waveform can be customized. All or part of an alternation can be eliminated. A limiter can also be called a clipper.

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EXERCISES

62

63

64

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 65

Lab Session 09-A&B OBJECTIVES

1 2 3 4 Identity diode clamper schematic symbols. Describe diode clamper operating characteristics. To use a positive clamping circuit. To use a negative clamping circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Test Console PC130-77B Oscilloscope Function Generator Multimeter

INTRODUCTION
Certain applications of electronics require that a signal or waveform be fixed to a specific voltage level. In such situations, a clamper is used to clamp, or restrain, either the upper or lower peak value of a waveform to a fixed DC potential. A DC clamper can also be called a DC Restorer or Baseline Stabilizer. Clamper circuits are found in many advanced applications such as test equipment, instruments, video, radar, and sonar. The study of the clamper brings together theories from several preceding lessons. You will use information that you learned in your study of capacitors, RC time constants, diodes, and biasing. As you can readily see, each lesson is important, as it is the foundation for succeeding lessons.

What Is A Clamper?
The best way to begin is with the definition. DEFINITION DC CLAMPER - A circuit in which either the upper or lower peak of a waveform is fixed to a predetermined level. As an example, an incoming waveform is a square wave that varies from 15 volts to +15 volts. A positive DC clamper can produce an output that varies from 0 to +30 volts. There are also negative and biased clampers.

RC Time Constant
Since you have previously studied RC time constants, you need only a short review before beginning the 66

discussion of clampers. An RC time constant is the measure of the amount of time required to fully charge or discharge a capacitor. The required time is a function of the value of the resistance and capacitance. The value of one time constant is calculated by multiplying the resistance by the capacitance. Diode clamping circuit operation is based on the principle of RC time constants.

Positive Diode Clamper

Figure 1 illustrates a positive clamper circuit. The purpose of the circuit is to clamp or reference an input signal to ground (0 volts) with the entire waveform above ground. R1 provides a discharge path for C1. The value of R1 is large so that the discharge time of C1 is very large when compared to the pulse width of the input signal. The purpose of the diode is to provide a fast charge path for C1. After C1 becomes fully charged, it acts as a voltage source. If you compare the input and output waveforms, it is easy to see how a clamper functions. The illustrated circuit uses T1 through T6. T represents time. In the illustration, the input is compared to the output whenever the input changes. By using the T, we have a reference with which to compare events.

Figure 1. Positive Clamper and Waveform At T0, the 15 volt input signal appears across the diode and resistor. That is because, at the first instant, the forward biased diode places ground on the right side of the capacitor. The initial voltage across D1 and R1 causes a voltage spike in the output. Because D1 is forward biased, it has a very small resistance, resulting in C1's charge time being almost instantaneous. The 15 volts felt on the cathode of D1 and ground on the anode provides that forward bias. When the voltage drop across C1 reaches 15 volts, the value of the output voltage is 0 volts. At T1, the +15 volt input signal and the 15 volt charge of C1 are in series and aid each other. As a result, +30 volts appears across R1 and D1. The +30 volts on the cathode of D1 provides reverse bias, pushing it into cut-off. From T1 to T2, C1 discharges to about 13 volts because of the large value of R1. That causes the output to decrease to about +28 volts. At time T2, the input signal changes from +15 volts to 15 volts. The 15 volt input is now series opposing with the 13 volts across C1. That leaves about 2 volts on the cathode D1, and it goes into conduction. From T2 to T3, D1's conduction rapidly charges C1 to +15 volts, and the output changes from 2 volts to 0 volts. At T3, the charge on C1 and the input signal are again series aiding. As a result, the output voltage is +30 volts. From T3 to T4, C1 67

again discharges to 13 volts through R1. At this point, T3 to T4 is the same as T1 to T2. The operation of the circuit for each 360o cycle of the input square wave is identical. The input waveform has been changed from varying from 15 volts to +15 to varying from 0 volts to +30 volts. Except for the reference level being changed, the output is almost identical to the input. If you compare the input and output waveforms in Figure 1, you will notice several important facts. The peak-to-peak amplitude of the input signal is not changed by the clamper circuit. The shape of the output waveform is almost identical to the input waveform. The output waveform is referenced to, or clamped to, ground rather than appearing above and below ground. If the input signal amplitude changes, the negative peak remains clamped to ground. If the input amplitude decreases, the charge on C1 decreases, decreasing the output. If the input amplitude increases, C1's charge increases, increasing the output. The charge on the capacitor is dependant upon the size of the input signal.

Negative Diode Clamper

The negative clamper illustrated in Figure 2 is identical to the positive clamper, except the positive peak value of the waveform is clamped to ground, resulting in the entire waveform being negative. The components in the negative clamper circuit are identical to the positive clamper, except the diode is reversed. As can be seen from the illustration, a 50 volt peak-to-peak square wave varying around 0 volts (+25 volts to 25 volts) is applied to a negative diode clamper. The output from the circuit is a 50 volt square wave

Figure 2. Negative Clamper Circuit One point you may have noticed is that the arrow of the diode points in the direction of the circuit reference. If the arrow of the diode points up, the circuit is a positive clamper. If the arrow points down, the circuit is a negative clamper.

Biased Clampers
As with the limiter circuits, the clamper circuits may also have a bias applied. In all but one respect, a biased clamping circuit operates exactly the same way an unbiased clamper does. The exception is the addition of a DC bias voltage in series with the diode and resistor. The output clamping reference is determined by the polarity and size of the bias voltage. Since the positive clamper was discussed in detail and all clampers operate essentially the same way, from now on the discussion will be limited to input and output waveforms and configuration differences.

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Positive Clampers With Bias

Figure 5 illustrates a positive clamper with positive bias. The input wave form is a square wave that varies from +30 volts to 30 volts. A +10 volt bias is applied to the circuit at D1's anode. D1's arrow points up, indicating the circuit is a positive clamper. The bias also holds Point A to +10 volts, which tells you that the most negative the output waveform can go is +10 volts. Therefore, the output waveform is a 60 volt square wave

Figure 5. Positive Clamper with Positive Bias The effects of a positive clamper with negative bias are illustrated in Figure 6. The input wave form is a square wave that varies from +50 volts to 50 volts. A 10 volt bias is applied to the circuit at D1's anode. D1's arrow points up, indicating the circuit is a positive clamper. The bias also holds Point A to 10 volts, which tells you that the most negative the output waveform can go is 10 volts. Therefore, the output waveform is a 100 volt square wave with the negative peak clamped to 10 volts and the positive peak at +90 volts.

Figure 6. Positive Clamper with Negative Bias

Negative Clampers With Bias

Figure 9 illustrates a negative clamper with positive bias. The input waveform is a square wave that varies from +30 volts to 30 volts. A +10 volt bias is applied to the circuit at D1's anode. D1's arrow points down, indicating the circuit is a negative clamper. The bias also holds Point A to +10 volts, which tells you that the most positive the output waveform can go is +10 volts. Therefore, the output waveform is a 60 volt square wave

69

Figure 9. Negative Clamper with Positive Bias The effects of a negative clamper with negative bias are illustrated in Figure 10. The input waveform is a sawtooth wave that varies from +50 volts to 50 volts. A 10 volt bias is applied to the circuit at D1's anode. D1's arrow points down, indicating the circuit is a negative clamper. The bias also holds Point A to 10 volts, which tells you that the most positive the output waveform can go is 10 volts. Therefore, the output waveform is a 100 volt sawtooth wave with the positive peak clamped to 10 volts.

PART 1. DIODE CLAMPER OPERATION

In Part 1, you will set up unbiased and biased diode clamper circuits. Using an oscilloscope and multimeter, you will examine circuit operation. Based on experiment results, you will draw conclusions concerning diode clampers.

PART 1 PREPARATION
Examine PC130-77B closely. Using Figure 13 will help you to understand the board layout. PC130-77B contains four separate diode clamper circuits. Slide switch S1 selects either the test console's Low AC input or an input from the function generator.

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PART 1 PROCEDURE
1-1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and turn the POWER switch to ON. Insert PC130-77B into the PC1 connectors. Set PC switch S1 to position B to establish the circuit in Figure 13.

1-2.

Connect the function generator to the test console's INPUT BNC. Adjust the output of the function generator for a 1 kHz sine wave.

Unbiased DC Clamps
1-3. 1-4. 1-5. Connect the oscilloscope GROUND to PC TP1 and CH1 INPUT to TP3 (EIN). Display approximately two cycles of EIN. Adjust the output of the function generator for 5 VPP. Make sure the CH1 coupling is set to DC. Draw the resultant waveform in Figure 14A. Connect the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to the +DC CLAMPER output (TP4). Draw the resultant waveform in Figure 14B. Record the +EPEAK and EPEAK, as measured on the oscilloscope, in Figure 14B. Connect the oscilloscope CH1 INPUT to the output of the DC Clamper output (TP6). Draw the resultant waveform in Figure 14C. Record the EPEAK and + EPEAK, as measured on the oscilloscope in Figure 14C.

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 71

Notice how the sine wave was clamped to a DC value, 0V, on either the positive or negative alternation. Also, notice that the positive clamper places the negative alternation at 0.6V, not 0V; and the negative clamper places the positive alternation at +0.6V, not 0V! This is due to the voltage drop across the diode.

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1-6.

1-7. 1-8.

Set the function generator to the SQUARE WAVE function at 1 kHz. Connect the oscilloscope's CH1 INPUT to PC input (TP3). Adjust the generator's amplitude control for a 5 VPP output. MAKE SURE THE CH1 COUPLING IS SET TO DC. Display approximately 2 cycles and draw the resultant waveform in Figure 15A. Repeat Step 4 for Figure 15B. Repeat Step 5 for Figure 15C.

73

Notice that there is no difference in the clamping action between a sine wave and a square wave. 1-9. Repeat Step 6 for a generator output of a triangle wave. Record the results in Figure 16A. 1-10. Repeat Step 4 for Figure 16B. 1-11. Repeat Step 5 for Figure 16C.

74

Notice that there is no difference in the clamping action between a sine wave and a triangular wave.

1-12. Slowly increase and decrease the generator's amplitude control and observe the effects on the + an_ DC clamper outputs 1-13. Slowly increase and decrease the generator's frequency control and observe the effects on the + and DC clamper outputs.

Biased DC Clampers
1-14. Set the test console POSITIVE SUPPLY control for +5 V. 1-15. Set the test console NEGATIVE SUPPLY control for 5 V. Adjust R5 and R6 on PC130-77B fully CCW. 1-16. Set the test console PC1 DC POWER switch to ON to establish the biased

1-17. Connect CH1 probe to TP3. Select the sine wave function on the function generator and adjust for 1 kHz at 5 VPP. Draw the resultant waveform in Figure 18.

75

1-18. Connect the CH1 probe to the output of the biased positive clamper, TP8. 1-19. Slowly rotate R5 CW. Notice the effect on the output waveform and compare to Figure 18.

1-20. Connect the CH1 probe to the output of the biased negative clamper, TP10. 1-21. Slowly rotate R6 CW. Notice the effect on the output waveform and compare to Figure 18.

1-21. If you are not proceeding to Part 2, return the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF and turn the test console power to OFF. Remove PC130-77B and return all equipment to its designated storage area.

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SUMMARY
A clamping circuit clamps or fixes the upper or lower peak of a waveform. Clamping action does not change the amplitude or shape of the input waveform. A positive clamper clamps the negative peak of the input waveform to 0 volts DC. A negative clamper clamps the positive peak of the input waveform to 0 volts DC. A positive biased clamper clamps the negative peak of the input waveform to the value of the bias. A negative biased clamper clamps the positive peak of the input waveform to the value of the bias. If the arrow representing the diode's anode points up, the circuit is a positive clamper. If the arrow representing the diode's anode points down, the circuit is a negative clamper.

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EXERCISES

78

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NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 80

Lab Session 10 OBJECTIVES

To study the characteristic curve of Zener Diode & find the Zener Voltage Vz .

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Base unit for the IPES system. Power supply module PSU/EV. Module holder structure MU/EV. Individual Control Unit module SIS3/EV. Experiment module MCM3/EV. Multimeter. Oscilloscope.

BASIC THEORY
The Zener diode is a diode which is designed to be used in reverse bias, in the breakdown region. The Zener diode operates basically as follows: in FORWARD bias it behaves like a normal diode. in REVERSE bias it behaves like a normal diode until the breakdown voltage is reached (normally called the Zener voltage, Vz). At this point, the reverse current rapidly increases, while the voltage across it remains almost constant. (The term breakdown is not really appropriate for this type of diode: the diode is designed (originally by Zener) to work continually in this region, without any damage at all to the diode.)

81

Differential resistance
In a real Zener the voltage in the Breakdown region is not quite constant, but it increases slightly, as the current increases. The slope is almost vertical, and has the inverse dimensions of a resistance, known as the "differential resistance rz". The Zener diode can be represented, when biased in this normal region of operation, by a battery Vz (the Zener voltage) in series with the resistance rz (fig.B08.2). In this region of operation the Zener resistance rz is only a few ohms.

Voltage stabilizer
The basic stabilizer circuit using a Zener diode is shown in fig.B08.3. The Zener is reverse biased in the breakdown zone by the voltage Vi through the resistance R. For an ideal Zener, the voltage Vo across the load RL does not vary, and is the same as the Zener voltage, Vz. The main points of the stabilizer operation are: if the load current IL increases, the current Iz through the Zener drops. if IL drops, Iz increases if the input voltage Vi increases, Iz also increases. if Vi decreases, Iz also decreases.

Voltage stability with change of load

Refer to fig.B08.4, and assume that the Zener is ideal. The voltage V0 across the load is constant, so the supply current I is constant and is equal to:

A change in the load current IL causes an equal, but opposite change in the Zener current Iz: (the supply current I is constant, to a first approximation) 82

For a real Zener, this current change causes a small change in output voltage due to the effect of rz:

Voltage stability with change of input voltage

Refer to fig.B08.4. For an ideal Zener, as the input voltage Vi varies, the output voltage V0 stays constant, and so does the current IL through the load. A change in Vi causes a change in the supply current I, and consequently a change in Iz:

And the change in the output voltage is :

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PROCEDURE Measurement of the Zener current as a function of the input supply voltage
1 2 3 4 Connect jumpers J2, J12, J5, the ammeter and the voltmeter to produce the circuit of figure B08.5. In forward bias, measure the current through the Zener diode Z 1 as function of the voltage across it. Now reverse bias the diode by removing jumpers J2 and J5 and connecting J1 and J6. Measure (in reverse bias) the voltage across the diode as the supply voltage Vcc is varied.

SUMMARY
A zener diode is a PN junction diode that is normally biased in the reverse (high resistance) direction. When the reverse voltage applied to a zener diode exceeds the break-down voltage, the diode develops a constant voltage drop over a wide range of currents. When the reverse voltage applied to a zener diode decreases to a value less than the breakdown voltage, the diode recovers and offers the normal high resistance characteristic. The zener diode is normally used as a voltage regulator but can be used to provide a reference voltage. Zener diodes may be connected in series to produce higher voltages equal to the sum of the zener voltages. The zener diode junction can be tested with an ohmmeter the same as other diodes, but the ohmmeter cannot determine the zener voltage. Zener diodes have the same physical appearance as other junction diodes. Operating characteristics must be found in a diode manual.

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OBSERVATIONS : FORWARD MODE

S.No. VOLTAGE (Volt) D2 CURRENT (mA) D2

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OBSERVATIONS : REVERSE MODE

S.No. VOLTAGE (Volt) D2 CURRENT (mA) D2

What is the Zener voltage?_____________________________

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EXERCISES

87

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 88

Lab Session 11 OBJECTIVES

1 To identify the type of transistor ( NPN & PNP ) & find its mode of operation for different values of Vcc .

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Nida Model 130E Test Console Nida Series 130 Experiment Card: PC130-28 Multimeter

INTRODUCTION
The Transistor
The definition of the transistor is: DEFINITION TRANSISTOR - A solid-state device made from semiconductor material with connections made at three or more points where the electrical characteristics are different. It sounds complex, but it isn't. A transistor is just two PN junctions, consisting of three

Figure 1. Diode and Transistor The transistor consists of three pieces of doped semiconductor material. That gives the device three elements. As a rule, any semiconductor device that has three or more elements is classified as a transistor. The term transistor comes from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. The term was adopted because it best describes the actual operation of a transistor, the transfer of an input signal current from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance output circuit. Simply speaking, the transistor is a semiconductor device that amplifies by controlling the flow of current through its semiconductor material.

Transistor Theory
Transistors are merely an extension of diodes. A forward biased PN junction is comparable to a low resistance component because it passes a very large current for a value of voltage. With a reversed biased 89

PN junction, the comparison is a high resistance component. A small current is developed for a value of voltage. Assume for a moment that the current is constant through the transistor (emitter to collector). You can conclude that the power developed over the low resistance will be less than the power developed over 2 the high resistance. According to Ohm's Law, the formula for power is P = I R. Continuing with the assumption, if the device contained a forward biased input PN junction (low resistance) and a reversed biased output PN junction (high resistance), a low power signal could be amplified or made larger. That is the key to transistor operation, and it will be explained in detailed.

NPN Transistor
Bias is critical to transistor operation, just as it was to the diode. With the transistor, it is a little more complex, because two PN junctions are involved instead of one. The two pieces of N material in the NPN transistor have an excess of electrons, while the section of P material has an excess of holes. Each junction will have a depletion region and is affected by bias, just as it was in the diode. In order for the transistor to amplify a signal, the base-emitter junction or input section must be forward biased. That means it has a low resistance. The collector-base junction, or output section, must be reversed biased. Being

Figure 1. Forward Biased NPN Transistor

Forward-Biased Junction
An important point to remember is that the N material is more heavily doped than the P material. That means a very large number of electrons will leave the emitter and enter the base. With the base being lightly doped and small in size, there are very few holes (lack of electrons) available. A few of the electrons will fill the available holes. For each electron that fills a hole in the base (P material), another electron will leave the base, create a new hole, and enter the positive terminal of the battery.

90

Figure 2. Forward Biased Emitter-Base (EB)

Reverse-Biased Junction
The collector-base junction must be reversed biased for amplification to occur. Refer to Figure 3. The BC junction cannot be forward biased or the current flow would be from both the collector and the emitter into the base. When the CB is reversed biased, there is a small reverse current flowing from the collector to the base. The current is very small and

Operation

Figure 4. NPN Transistor Biasing and Operation

91

The bias provided to the transistor is represented by batteries. The collector battery or power supply is labeled VCC . The base battery or power supply is labeled VBB. VBB is very small, because the forward bias on the base is normally a small voltage in the range of 1 volt or less. VCC is much larger, normally around 6 to 12 volts. The large difference in the supply voltage is necessary so that current flows from the emitter to the collector. Now we will trace electron current flow through the circuit. Electrons leave the negative terminals of the VCC and VBB batteries and flow to the (N type) emitter. That movement of electrons is called emitter current (IE ). The electrons will enter the electron rich emitter and pass through to the forward biased emitter-base junction. The electron current flow passes through the junction and enters the base. Some of the electrons will fill holes, causing a small flow of electrons out of the base to VBB supply. That small base current, IB, is lost as far as collector current is concerned. The vast majority of electrons that enter the emitter pass through the base and continue on to the collector. There are several reasons why that happens: 1 2 3 VBB is much smaller than VCC. The base region is very thin. The base region is lightly doped.

Most of the electrons that enter the base come under the influence of VCC . Even through VCC , in conjunction with VBB , provides a reverse-bias to the PN junction, VCC attracts the electrons in the base and pulls them through the collector to the positive terminal of VCC . The current flow through the collector is called IC. The total current flow in an NPN transistor is through the emitter. That means IE equals 100% of the current flow in the transistor. The emitter current has to equal the base current plus the collector current.

Now, there is an important fact that we can conclude. To review, the amount of current that flows out of the emitter is caused by the EB bias. Most of the current that leaves the emitter passes through the base and reaches the collector. Base current is limited by the construction of the base. The conclusion you can draw is that a small change in EB bias will have a much greater effect on collector current than on base current. In conclusion, the small EB bias controls the large emitter collector current.

Alpha and beta are the ratios of current in a transistor. They are a measure of the transistor's efficiency. Alpha is a ratio of the collector current to the emitter current. As all of the transistor's current flows through the emitter and then divides between the base current (IB ) and the collector current (IC ), alpha is a measure of the overall efficiency. Ideally, 100% of the electrons leaving the emitter would arrive at the collector; however, due to base current, the actual figure is more likely to be only 95 - 99%. The formula is:

Beta is the collector current compared to the base current. As less than 5% of the collector current is lost to the base current, beta is always a whole number. Typical values are in the range of 50 and up. The formula is:

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Lead Identification

Figure 5. Transistor Lead Identification

EXPERIMENT

Figure 6. PC130-28 Schematic Model

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PROCEDURE
PART 1
1 Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Insert PC130-28 into the PC2 connectors. Insert the transistor into the PC130-28 Q1 socket. (See Figure 6.) Set PC switches S1, S2, S3, S5, S6, and S7 DOWN (open) and S4 UP to isolate the transistor from surrounding circuitry on the card. 2 The transistor inserted in the Q1 socket is an NPN or PNP transistor. Figure 7A and 8A indicates the Q1 schematic symbol and test points on PC130-28. Figure 7B and 8B indicates the DIODE EQUIVALENT of an NPN or PNP transistor

7A. Schematic 7B. Diode Equivalent Figure 7. Schematic and Diode Equivalent of an NPN Transistor

1 2 3

The diodes can be tested using the diode tester available in the digital Multimeter. This test will make possible to classify which transistor is NPN or PNP. In case of forward biased diode drop will be 0.7V and in case of reverse biased

8A. Schematic 8B. Diode Equivalent Figure 8. Schematic and Diode Equivalent of a PNP Transistor

7.

Identification of transistor:

2N3563 or MPS918 2N4248 or 2N4249

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PART 2
1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Insert PC130-28 into the PC2 connectors. 2. Insert the transistor into the PC130-28 Q1 NPN into the socket. 3. Set PC switches S1, S4, S5 and S6 UP (closed); S2, S3 AND S7 DOWN and S8 to NPN. 4. Set the POSITIVE SUPPLY control for a 12 V indication. Set the test console's PC2 DC POWER switch to ON to establish the circuit. 5. A transistor will not operate properly unless the internal diodes are biased with voltages of a specific polarity. 6. The EB diode must be FORWARD biased and the CB diode must be REVERSE biased. Measure the voltage on each element of the transistor at the test points indicated in Table 5. 7. Record the voltage and polarity of each measurement. Determine if the diodes are forward or reverse bias.

SUMMARY
A transistor is a solid state device with three (3) or more elements; it amplifies by controlling the flow of current that passes through it. The two basic types of transistors are the NPN and PNP. The only difference in symbology between the two transistors is the direction of the arrow on the emitter. If the arrow points in, it is a PNP transistor; if it points outward, it is an NPN transistor. NPN transistor operation is basically the action of a relatively small emitter-base bias voltage controlling a relatively large emitter-tocollector current. PNP transistor operation is essentially the same as NPN operation, except the bias polarity is reversed. Amplification is the process of increasing the strength of a signal. An amplifier is the device that provides amplification without appreciably altering the original signal. The basic transistor amplifier amplifies by producing a large change in collector current for a small change in base current. This action results in voltage amplification because the load resistor placed in series with the collector reacts to these large changes in collector current. This, in turn, results in large variations in the output voltage. Testing a transistor to determine if it is good or bad can be done with an ohmmeter or transistor tester. Precautions should be taken when working with transistors since they are susceptible to damage by electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation. Transistor lead identification plays an important part in transistor maintenance because before a transistor can be tested or replaced, the leads must be identified. 95

EXERCISES

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering

96

NED University of Engineering and Technology- Department of Electronic Engineering 97

Lab Session 12 OBJECTIVES

To find emitter , base & collector voltage & currents by applying different supply voltage and find the mode of operation.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
1. Nida Model 130E Test Console 2. Nida Series 130 Experiment Card: PC130-28 3. Multimeter

INTRODUCTION
The Transistor
The definition of the transistor is: DEFINITION TRANSISTOR - A solid-state device made from semiconductor material with connections made at three or more points where the electrical characteristics are different. It sounds complex, but it isn't. A transistor is just two PN junctions, consisting of three

Figure 1. Diode and Transistor The transistor consists of three pieces of doped semiconductor material. That gives the device three elements. As a rule, any semiconductor device that has three or more elements is classified as a transistor. The term transistor comes from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. The term was adopted because it best describes the actual operation of a transistor, the transfer of an input signal current from a low resistance circuit to a high resistance output circuit. Simply speaking, the transistor is a semiconductor device that amplifies by controlling the flow of current through its semiconductor material.

98

Transistor Theory
Transistors are merely an extension of diodes. A forward biased PN junction is comparable to a low resistance component because it passes a very large current for a value of voltage. With a reversed biased PN junction, the comparison is a high resistance component. A small current is developed for a value of voltage. Assume for a moment that the current is constant through the transistor (emitter to collector). You can conclude that the power developed over the low resistance will be less than the power developed over 2 the high resistance. According to Ohm's Law, the formula for power is P = I R. Continuing with the assumption, if the device contained a forward biased input PN junction (low resistance) and a reversed biased output PN junction (high resistance), a low power signal could be amplified or made larger. That is the key to transistor operation, and it will be explained in detailed.

NPN Transistor
Bias is critical to transistor operation, just as it was to the diode. With the transistor, it is a little more complex, because two PN junctions are involved instead of one. The two pieces of N material in the NPN transistor have an excess of electrons, while the section of P material has an excess of holes. Each junction will have a depletion region and is affected by bias, just as it was in the diode. In order for the transistor to amplify a signal, the base-emitter junction or input section must be forward biased. That means it has a low resistance. The collector-base junction, or output section, must be reversed biased. Being

Figure 1. Forward Biased NPN Transistor

Forward-Biased Junction
An important point to remember is that the N material is more heavily doped than the P material. That means a very large number of electrons will leave the emitter and enter the base. With the base being lightly doped and small in size, there are very few holes (lack of electrons) available. A few of the electrons will fill the available holes. For each electron that fills a hole in the base (P material), another electron will leave the base, create a new hole, and enter the positive terminal of the battery.

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Figure 2. Forward Biased Emitter-Base (EB)

Reverse-Biased Junction
The collector-base junction must be reversed biased for amplification to occur. Refer to Figure 3. The BC junction cannot be forward biased or the current flow would be from both the collector and the emitter into the base. When the CB is reversed biased, there is a small reverse current flowing from the collector to the base. The current is very small and

Figure 4. NPN Transistor Biasing and Operation

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Operation
The bias provided to the transistor is represented by batteries. The collector battery or power supply is labeled VCC . The base battery or power supply is labeled VBB. VBB is very small, because the forward bias on the base is normally a small voltage in the range of 1 volt or less. VCC is much larger, normally around 6 to 12 volts. The large difference in the supply voltage is necessary so that current flows from the emitter to the collector. Now we will trace electron current flow through the circuit. Electrons leave the negative terminals of the VCC and VBB batteries and flow to the (N type) emitter. That movement of electrons is called emitter current (IE ). The electrons will enter the electron rich emitter and pass through to the forward biased emitter-base junction. The electron current flow passes through the junction and enters the base. Some of the electrons will fill holes, causing a small flow of electrons out of the base to VBB supply. That small base current, IB, is lost as far as collector current is concerned. The vast majority of electrons that enter the emitter pass through the base and continue on to the collector. There are several reasons why that happens:

4 5 6

VBB is much smaller than VCC. The base region is very thin. The base region is lightly doped.

Most of the electrons that enter the base come under the influence of VCC . Even through VCC , in conjunction with VBB , provides a reverse-bias to the PN junction, VCC attracts the electrons in the base and pulls them through the collector to the positive terminal of VCC . The current flow through the collector is called IC. The total current flow in an NPN transistor is through the emitter. That means IE equals 100% of the current flow in the transistor. The emitter current has to equal the base current plus the collector current.

Now, there is an important fact that we can conclude. To review, the amount of current that flows out of the emitter is caused by the EB bias. Most of the current that leaves the emitter passes through the base and reaches the collector. Base current is limited by the construction of the base. The conclusion you can draw is that a small change in EB bias will have a much greater effect on collector current than on base current. In conclusion, the small EB bias controls the large emitter collector current.

Alpha and beta are the ratios of current in a transistor. They are a measure of the transistor's efficiency. Alpha is a ratio of the collector current to the emitter current. As all of the transistor's current flows through the emitter and then divides between the base current (IB ) and the collector current (IC ), alpha is a measure of the overall efficiency. Ideally, 100% of the electrons leaving the emitter would arrive at the collector; however, due to base current, the actual figure is more likely to be only 95 - 99%. The formula is:

Beta is the collector current compared to the base current. As less than 5% of the collector current is lost to the base current, beta is always a whole number. Typical values are in the range of 50 and up. The formula 101

is:

Lead Identification

Figure 5. Transistor Lead Identification

102

EXPERIMENT

Figure 6. PC130-28 Schematic Model

PROCEDURE
PART 1
1. Set the test console POSITIVE and NEGATIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF. Insert PC130-28 into the PC2 connectors. Insert the transistor into the PC130-28 Q1 socket. (See Figure 6.) Set PC switches S1, S2, S3, S5, S6, and S7 DOWN (open) and S4 UP to isolate the transistor from surrounding circuitry on the card. 2. The transistor inserted in the Q1 socket is an NPN or PNP transistor. Figure 7A and 8A indicates the Q1 schematic symbol and test points on PC130-28. Figure 7B and 8B indicates the DIODE EQUIVALENT of an NPN or PNP transistor

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7A. Schematic 7B. Diode Equivalent Figure 7. Schematic and Diode Equivalent of an NPN Transistor

3 4 5

The diodes can be tested using the diode tester available in the digital Multimeter. This test will make possible to classify which transistor is NPN or PNP. In case of forward biased diode drop will be 0.7V and in case of reverse biased

8A. Schematic 8B. Diode Equivalent Figure 8. Schematic and Diode Equivalent of a PNP Transistor

7.

Identification of transistor:

2N3563 or MPS918 2N4248 or 2N4249

PART 2 1. Connect an ammeter across S1 (TP2 to TP3) .Open S1 ( DOWN) and record the BASE CURRENT . Table 6 for the condition of LOW currents .Close S1(UP) and remove the emitter . 2. Connect the ammeter across S5 (TP7 to TP3).Open S5 (DOWN) and record EMMITER CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of LOW CURRENTS . Close S5 (UP) and remove the emitter . 3. Connect the ammeter across S6 (TP8 to TP9 ) . Open S6 and record the COLLECTOR CURRENT in Table for the condition of LOW CURRENTS. Close S6(UP) and remove thr ammeter . 4. Open S1 and Closed S2 . Connect the ammeter across S2 (TP2 and TP4 ). Open S2 and record the BASE CURRENT in Table 6 for the condition of MEDIUM CURRENTS .Close S2 and remove the ammeter . 5. Repeat Steps 5 & 6 for the condition of MEDIUM CURRENTS. 6. Open S2 & Closed S3 . Connect the Ammeter across S3 (TP2 TO tp5) . Open S3 and record BASE CURRENT in Table for the condition of HIGHER CURRENTS.Close S3 and remove the ammeter 104

7. Repeat Steps 5 and for the condition of HIGH CURRENTS. S.No Condition LEG currents
BASE CURRENT Is A EMITTER CURRENT Ie (MA) COLLECTOR CURRENT Ic (mA) Alpha Ic+Ie BETA Ic+Ib

1 2 3

8. For Each Condition in Table 6 ,divide IC by IE and record the result in the ALPHA column of Table 6. 9. For Each Condition of table 6, divide IC by IB and record the result in the BETA columnof the Table 6 . 10. Compare the ALPHA & BETA values for each current condition . The values should be approximately the same . 11. Return the POSITIVE & NEGITIVE SUPPLY controls to OFF . Turn the CONSOLE POWER switch to OFF . Remove the PC 130-28 card. 12. Return all equipment to its designated storage area .

SUMMARY
A transistor is a solid state device with three (3) or more elements; it amplifies by controlling the flow of current that passes through it. The two basic types of transistors are the NPN and PNP. The only difference in symbology between the two transistors is the direction of the arrow on the emitter. If the arrow points in, it is a PNP transistor; if it points outward, it is an NPN transistor. NPN transistor operation is basically the action of a relatively small emitter-base bias voltage controlling a relatively large emitter-to-collector current. PNP transistor operation is essentially the same as NPN operation, except the bias polarity is reversed. Amplification is the process of increasing the strength of a signal. An amplifier is the device that provides amplification without appreciably altering the original signal. The basic transistor amplifier amplifies by producing a large change in collector current for a small change in base current. This action results in voltage amplification because the load resistor placed in series with the collector reacts to these large changes in collector current. This, in turn, results in large variations in the output voltage. Testing a transistor to determine if it is good or bad can be done with an ohmmeter or transistor tester. Precautions should be taken when working with transistors since they are susceptible to damage by 105

electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation. Transistor lead identification plays an important part in transistor maintenance because before a transistor can be tested or replaced, the leads must be identified.

EXERCISES

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