Chapter 11: Access Networks

TOPICS
ADSL-based access networks Cable-based access networks ATM Passive Optical Networks (APON)

Optical Networks- Harry Perros

Access network architectures

xDSL (telephone lines) Cable-base (DOCSIS) Passive Optical Networks (PON) Ethernet Wireless Satellites
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The ADSL-based access network

ADSL is one of the access technologies that can be used to convert the telephone line into a high-speed digital link. It is part of a family of technologies called the x-type digital subscriber line (xDSL).

Optical Networks- Harry Perros

xDSL data rates

Name ADSL HDSL SDSL ISDL VDSL Meaning Asymmetric DSL High data rate DSL Symmetric DSL ISDN DSL Very high data rate DLS Data rate (Down/Up) 8 Mbps/ 800 Kbps 1.544 Mbps/2.048 Mbps 2.3 Mbps/2.3 Mbps 144 Kbps 52 Mbps/6 Mbps Use Data T1/E1 replacement Data Data Video/data

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VDSL data rates

Data Rates
52 Mbps /6.4 Mbps up to 1,000 feet. 26 Mbps/26 Mbps up to 1,000 feet. 13 Mbps/1.6 Mbps up to 5,000

Services:
Video, Internet access and regular telephone services. Delivered from a cabinet in the street which is connected to an APON.
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ADSL data rates

Downstream:
1.5 or 2 Mbps up to 18,000 ft 6.1 Mbps up to 12,000 ft 8 Mbps up to 9,000 ft

Upstream
64 Kbps to 800 Kbps

New ADSL standards:

ADSL2 and ADLS2+
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Deployment of ADSL at the customers premise

Filter

Telephone wires Telephone wire ATU-R PC

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The ADSL access multiplexer (DSLAM)

POTS

ATM switch

ATU-C

ATU-C

ADSL access multiplexer

POTS

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The discrete multi-tone (DMT) technique

The twisted pairs bandwidth extends to 1.1 MHz, and it is divided to 256 sub-channels, each occupying 4.3125 KHz, known as tones. Sub-channels 1 through 6 are reserved for the voiceband region and it is used to provide basic telephone services. The remaining sub-channels are used by ADSL

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In ADSL both the upstream and downstream data is sent over the same twisted pair. This can be implemented using:
frequency division multiplexing (FDM) or echo cancellation.

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 Frequency division multiplexing

Up to 32 upstream sub-channels (i.e., from the user to the network) occupying the frequencies immediately above the voiceband region. Also, there are up to 218 downstream subchannels (i.e., from the network to the user) occupying the frequencies above the upstream sub-channels.

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Echo cancellation:
An alternative solution is to let the upstream and downstream sub-channels use the same frequencies, and separate them using echo cancellation.

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The DMT symbol

Transmission is achieved by dividing time into fixed-sized intervals. Within each interval, DMT transmits a data frame. Each data frame consists of a fixed number of bits.

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The bits in a data frame are divided into groups and each group is transmitted over a different subchannel using the quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) technique The number of bits sent over each sub-channel can be varied depending upon the signal and noise level in each sub-channel. The signals from all the sub-channels are added and sent to the twisted pair. This signal resulting from each data frame is known as the DMT symbol.
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Bearer channels
The information transported by ADSL is organized into 7 independent logical bearer channels.
Four unidirectional simplex bearer channels, designated as AS0, AS1, AS2, and AS3. 3 bidirectional duplex bearer channels designated as LS0, LS1, LS2.
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Data rates for bearer channels (multiples of 32 Kbps)

Bearer channel Lowest multiple Largest multiple highest data rate

AS0 AS1 AS2 AS3 LS0

LS1 LS2

1 1 1 1 1
1 1

192 144 96 48 20
20 20

6144 Kbps 4608 Kbps 3072 Kbps 1536 Kbps 640 Kbps
640 Kbps 640 Kbps

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 STM traffic is mapped in bearer channels AS0 and LS0 in the downstream direction, and in LS0 in the upstream direction. ATM traffic is mapped in the downstream direction in bearer channel AS0 and in LS0 in the upstream direction. Other bearer channels can also be provisioned.
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Fast and interleaved paths

ASO AS1 AS2 AS3 LS0 LS1 LS2 NTR

Fast path CRC MUX/ Sync control CRC Scram/ FEC D M T

Scram/ Interleaved FEC buffer Interleaved path

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The super frame

Super frame (every 17 mec)
0 1 2

...

34

35

...

67

synch

Data frame
fast byte

. . . fast

FEC byte byte

...

FEC byte

Interleaved data bytes

Fast data buffer

interleaved data buffer

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The ADSL reference model architecture

NSPs
Context provider
ATU-C ATU-C ATU-R

ISP Regional public network Access backbone Network access server (NAS)

DSLAM

ATU-R

Corporate network

ATU-R ATU-C ATU-C

ROC

DSLAM

ATU-R

Public backbone

Access network

Customer premises

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Network access server (NAS)

It is used to provide connectivity between the ATU-Rs and the network service providers (NSP) An ATU-R is connected to the NAS via a PVC. NAS maintains a single PVC to each NSP.

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PPP
ADSL users get IP connectivity to an NSP using PPP. PPP functions:
Transport of different layer-3 protocols Authentication, IP address assignment Domain name auto-configuration Encryption, Compression Billing
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PPP over AAL 5

PPP frames are mapped into AAL 5 PDUs using
VC-multiplexed PPP
A PPP frame is directly carried in AAL 5 PDUs

LLC encapsulated PPP scheme

A PPP frame is encapsulated with a 2-byte LLC header and a 1-byte network layer protocol identifier, and then it is carried in an AAL PDU.

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The L2TP access aggregation scheme

PPP PPP over ATM (PVC) IP PPP L2TP UDP, FR, ATM, etc L2TP UDP, FR, ATM, etc PHY L2TP network server (LNS) PPP PPP IP

AAL 5 ATM PHY PHY ATM ADSL

AAL 5 ATM ADSL

Customer premise

L2TP access concentrator (LAC)

DSLAM

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Layer 2 Tunneling protocol (L2TP)

A L2TP tunnel is not an actual connection, in the sense of an ATM connection. Rather, it is a logical connection between two L2TP peers. It can carry multiple PPP sessions

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L2TP utilizes two types of messages;

Control messages
Used to establish, maintain, and clear tunnels. Messages are transported reliably. Errored or lost packets are recovered by retransmission.

Data messages
Used to carry PPP frames over the tunnel

Control and data L2TP messages are encapsulated using a common L2TP header.
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The PPP terminated aggregation scheme

IP IP PPP over ATM (PVC)

IP ATM FDDI Ethernet

IP PPP FR, ATM, etc PHY FR, ATM, etc PHY AAL 5 ATM ATM PHY ADSL

IP PPP AAL 5 ATM ADSL

Customer premises

PHY
Router

PHY

Broadband access server (BAS)

DSLAM

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ADSL2
ADSL2 adds new features and functionality to ADSL Standardized by ITU-T in 2002 ADSL2 achieves a maximum downstream data rate of 12 Mbps and a maximum upstream data rate of 1 Mbps. It also extends the reach of ADSL by 600 feet.
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 Features
Rate and reach improvement Diagnostics Low power/Sleep mode Rate adaptation Bonding for higher data rates

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Channelized Voice over DSL (CVoDSL).

POTS Upstream Downstream

...

...

...

KHz 64 Kbps DS0

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CVoDSL, VoATM, VoIP

Network VoIP IP PPP AAL2 ATM AAL5 IP PPP AAL5 ATM AAL2

VoATM

ADSL Physical layer POTS

Baseband POTS

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ADSL2+
ADSL2+ was standardized by ITU-T in 2003. It doubles the downstream bandwidth of ADSL and ADSL 2. For instance, it can achieve 26 Mbps at 1,000 feet, and 20 Mbps at 5,000 feet.

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POTS

Upstream

Downstream ADSL2+

ADSL2

...

...

...

...

KHz 0.14 MHz 1.1 MHz 2.2 MHz

The ADSL2+ downstream bandwidth

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Cable-based access networks

Cable TV headend Coaxial cable

Optical fiber

ONU

Due to the combination of fiber optics and coaxial cables, this cable network architecture is known as the hybrid fiber coaxial (HFC) architecture.

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DOCSIS
High-speed access to the home is provided over an HFC plant using the data-over-cable service interface specification (DOCSIS). This specification was developed by Cable Television Laboratories (CableLabs) for the cable industry in North America, Europe and other regions
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Basic features..
Bi-directional transfer of IP traffic between the cables headend and the home. This is realized using a cable modem termination system (CMTS) at the headend, and a cable modem (CM) at each home. The maximum distance between the CMTS and a CM is 100 miles, but it is typically limited to 10 to 15 miles
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 The cable network is a shared-medium tree-like network with analog two-way transmission. In the downstream direction, the cable network operates in the range of 50 to 864 MHz. The data is modulated onto a carrier and then multiplexed with the television and other signals.
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In the upstream direction, the cable network operates in the range of 5 to 42 MHz.
Each CM transmits IP packets towards the CMTS modulated on a carrier within the range of 5 to 42 MHz. The DOCSIS MAC assures that there are no collisions in the upstream direction.
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The DOCSIS reference architecture

Video Video Data

MAN/WAN network

CMTS Data

Tx Fiber Rx
ONU

CM

Coax

CM

CM

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The protocol stack on CMTS and CM

CMTS IP Bridge Data link layer 802.2 LLC Link security DOCSIS MAC (DS) (US) TC Cable Cable PMD PMD 802.2 LLC Link security DOCSIS MAC (DS) TC Cable network Cable PMD (US) Cable PMD CM stack IP Bridge 802.2 LLC 802.3 MAC 802.3 10Base-T

PHY layer

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The physical layer-Upstream

The upstream PMD sublayer uses the FDMA/TDMA mode. Access to the slots, referred to in DOCSIS as mini-slots, is controlled by the DOCSIS MAC protocol. A mini-slot is a power-of-two multiple of 6.25 s, i.e., it is equal to Tx6.25 s, where T=2n and n=0,1,,7. That is, T=1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128.
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CDMA can also be used which permits multiple user to transmit at the same time in the same mini-slot. Upstream speeds can be up to 10 Mbps, though it is typically limited in the range of 500 Kbps to 2.5 Mbps.

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The physical layer-Downstream

The downstream PMD uses a 6-MHz channel in the range of 91 to 857 MHz frequencies. The transmission speed in the downstream direction, can reach 27 Mbps, though it is typically limited in the range of 1 to 3 Mbps
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Downstream TC sublayer
The downstream TC sub-layer was defined in order to provide a common receiving hardware at the CM for data and future video services. This permits future video services to be offered in addition to the data services. The TC sub-layer receives MAC frames from the DOCSIS MAC layer and produces a continuous bit-stream of 188-byte MPEG packets.

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The MPEG packet format

MPEG header (4 bytes) Pointer_field (1 byte) DOCSIS payload (183 or 184 bytes)

MPEG header (four bytes): It comprises of various fields, such as a 1-bit payload_unit_start_indicator (PUSI) used to indicate the presence of a pointer_field in the first byte of the DOCSIS payload.
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MPEG header (4 bytes)

Pointer_field (1 byte)

DOCSIS payload (183 or 184 bytes)

DOCSIS payload: This field carries DOCSIS MAC frames. It may or may not contain a pointer_field. If it contains a pointer_field, then the DOCSIS payload is 183 bytes, otherwise it is 184 bytes. A DOCSIS MAC frame may begin anywhere within an MPEG packet payload and it may span several MPEG packets. Also, several DOCSIS MAC frames maybe contained within the same MPEG payload.
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The DOCSIS Mac frame format

The DOCSIS MAC protocol controls the upstream transmission of the CMs, and it provides quality-of-service and other features. The DOCSIS MAC frame consists of header followed by an optional data PDU.

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The MAC header

FC MAC_PARM LEN(SID) EHDR (Optional) HCS

FC_TYPE

FC_PARM

EHDR_ON

Frame control (FC)

FC_TYPE: This 2-bit field specifies one of the following four possible MAC frame formats: MAC header with packet PDU, MAC header with ATM cells, MAC header reserved for future PDU types, and MAC header used for specific control functions. FC_PARM: A 5-bit field that contains parameters dependent on the value of the FC_TYPE. EHDR_ON: A 1-bit field indicating whether an extended header is present or not.
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 MAC-PARM: This 1-byte field contains parameters whose use depend on the value of the FC field. LEN (SID): A 2-byte field that gives the length of the extended header (if present) plus the number of bytes that follow after the HCS field. Extended header (EHDR): This is a variable size extended header, that is used optionally. Header check sequence (HCS): The integrity of the MAC header is ensured by a CRC. The HCS is a 2-byte field that contains the FCS obtained using the pattern x16+x12+x5+1. The HCS cover the entire header, i.e. starting from the FC field and including the extended header.
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The MAC header with packet PDU is used to transport Ethernet packets. In this case, the MAC header is followed by a data PDU with the following fields:
Destination address (DA): A 48-bit field populated with the destination address. Source address (SA): A 48-bit field populated with the source address. Type/len: A 16-bit Ethernet type length field. User data: A variable-length field that contains userdata of up to 1500 bytes. CRC: This 32-bit field contains the FCS.
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MAC Headers
The following MAC headers are used for specific control functions:
MAC header for timing MAC header for requesting bandwidth MAC management header MAC header for fragmentation MAC header for concatenation
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The DOCSIS MAC protocol

The upstream channel is divided into mini-slots, the access of which is controlled by the CMTS through the MAP management message. The CMTS continuously issues MAP messages to describe how groups of mini-slots are to be used.

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An example of MAP messages

MAP 1, 2, 3 describe how a set of contiguous mini-slots n1, n2, n3 are to be used by the CMs.

n1 mini-slots Mini-slots mapped by MAP 1 CMTS t1 MAP 1 CMs t2 t3 t4 MAP 2 t5 t6

n2 mini-slots MAP 2 t7 MAP 3 t8 t9

n3 mini-slots MAP 3

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Intervals: The group of mini-slots mapped in a MAP message is divided into intervals of consecutive mini-slots. Each interval is designated by the CMTS for different type of use, such as:
Bandwidth requests Data Request to join the access network.

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 In an interval:
CMs can start transmitting at any mini-slot, with the possibility of collisions. Alternatively, each CM transmits over a number of consecutive mini-slots allocated to it by the CMTS, based on requests for bandwidth received from the CMs.

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Information Elements (IE)

The different intervals and how they can be accessed are described in the MAP message by different information elements (IE). The following are some of the IEs defined:
The request IE The request/data IE The initial maintenance IE The station maintenance IE The short and long data grants IE Data acknowledge IE
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An example of the upstream transmission scheme

Slots mapped by first MAP CMTS t1 MAP t2 t4 t3 t5 t6 Request t7 MAP t8 t9 Data PDU t10 Second MAP t11

CM

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Quality of service
In the MAC protocol, a QoS scheme has been defined which provides different priorities for the transport of different flows of packets across the cable network. The QoS scheme uses the concept of service flow, a unidirectional flow of packets from a CM to the CMTS, or from the CMTS to a CM
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ATM Passive Optical Networks (APONs)

Components of APONs: Optical line terminators (OLT) residing in a CO The optical distribution network (ODN), and the Optical network units (ONU). The ONUs are connected to the OLT via the optical distribution network

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The optical distribution network consists of optical fibers in the form of a tree. The signal is passively split between multiple fibers, each leading to a different ONU. Passive splitters are made by twisting and heating several optical fibers until the power output is evenly distributed. Low cost of passive splitters.
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Upstream/downstream ATM data transfer

C B A A
ONU A

C B A OLT A B C

C B A B C B A C

ONU B

ONU C

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Optical Line Terminator (OLT)

ATM interfaces ODN interfaces

. . .

ATM switch

. . .

To the network

To the home

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The G.983.1 network architecture

FTTH Fiber ONT

O L T

FTTB/C Fiber ONU Copper/VDSL ONT

FTTCab Fiber ONU Copper/VDSL ONT

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FTTH/B/C/Cab
Depending on the location of the ONU we have the following configurations:
Fiber to the home (FTTH) - ONU is in the home, and it is referred to as optical network terminator (ONT). Fiber-to-the-basement/curb (FTTB/C) - ONU is in a building/curb. Distribution to the house is done over copper using ADSL/VDSL. Fiber-to-the Cabinet (FTTCab) - ONU is in a cabinet. Distribution to the house is done over copper using ADSL/VDSL.
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Transmission characteristics
Downstream transmission: (1480-1580 nm band)
lamda1=1490 nm, for ATM data lamda2=1559 nm, for video

Upstream transmission: (1260-1580 nm band)

lamda=1310 nm. Wavelength is shared by all the ONUs using a TDMA protocol for the multipoint-to-point shared medium connection.

G.983.1, the APON standard, permits also the use of two unidirectional fibers, operating at 1310 nm.
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Bit Rates:
Symmetric for FTTCab/C/B/H : 155.52 Mbps Asymmetric for FTTCab/C/B: 155.52 Mbps upstream, and 622.08 Mbps downstream

Maximum fiber distance from an ONU to an OLT: 20 km. Minimum supported split ratio with passive splitters is 1:16 or 1:32. Minimum number of ONUs is 64.

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APON Services
The APON, as its name implies, supports the ATM architecture. It can provide high-speed access for
Internet traffic, voice over ATM, voice over IP, and video services

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APON deployment
APON can be deployed in new neighborhoods and municipalities. Municipalities have an interest in providing highspeed connectivity to their residents, and they can easily deploy APONs by passing the fiber through existing underground conduits that lead close to the homes. Also, power companies can deploy the fiber using the existing poles that support the electrical cables!
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Frame structure-downstream
The downstream interface structure for both 155.52 Mbps and 622.08 Mbps consists of a continuous stream of time slots. Each time slot contains either an ATM cell (53 bytes) or a 53-byte physical layer OAM (PLOAM) cell. Every 28th time slot contains a PLOAM cell. Groups of time slots are organized into frames.

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Frame for 155.52 Mbps : 56 time slots, 2 PLOAM cells, 54 ATM cells

PLOAM 1

Cell 1

...

Cell 27

PLOAM 2

Cell 28

...

Cell 54

56 time slots

Frame for 622 Mbps : 224 time slots, 8 PLOAMs, 216 ATM cells
PLOAM 1 Cell 1

...

Cell 27

...

PLOAM 8 Cell 190

...

Cell 216

224 time slots

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Frame structure-upstream
Cell 1 Cell 1

...

Cell 53

3 bytes 53 time slots

The upstream frame consists of 53 slots Each slot consists of 56 bytes, of which the first 3 bytes are used for overheads and the remaining 53 bytes carry either an ATM cell or a PLOAM cell, or a divided-slots cell.
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Upstream overhead bytes:

Guard time: provides enough distance between two consecutive cells or mini-slots in a dividedslots cell to avoid collisions. Minimum guard time is 4 bits Preamble Delimiter: A unique pattern used to indicate the start of the ATM cell or a mini-slot in a dividedslots. It is used to acquire bit synchronization.
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Frame structure for symmetric 155.52/155.52 Mbps PON

PLOAM 1

Cell 1

...

Cell 27 PLOAM 2 Cell 28

...

Cell 54

56 time slots

Cell 1

Cell 1

...
53 time slots

Cell 53

Downstream and upstream frames as described previously. The upstream and downstream frames are synchronized in the OLT. Upstream cells are aligned to the frame using the ranging procedure.

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Frame structure for asymmetric 622.08/155.52 Mbps PON

PLOAM 1

Cell 1

...

Cell 27

...

PLOAM 2 Cell 190

. . . Cell 216

224 time slots

Cell 1 Cell 1

...
53 time slots

Cell 53

The downstream rate is four times the upstream rate. The upstream frame and the downstream frame are synchronized in the OLT. Upstream cells are aligned to the frame using the ranging procedure.

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The PLOAM cell

It is used to convey physical layer OAM messages in the downstream and upstream direction. In addition, the downstream PLOAM cells carry grants which are used by the ONUs for upstream transmission.
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Downstream structure of the PLOAM cell

Byte
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Description
IDENT SYNC 1 SYNC 2 GRANT 1 GRANT 2 GRANT 3 GRANT 4 GRANT 5 GRANT 6 GRANT 7 CRC GRANT 8 GRANT 9 GRANT 10 GRANT 11 GRANT 12 GRANT 13 GRANT 14 CRC GRANT 15 GRANT 16 GRANT 17 GRANT 18 GRANT 19

Byte
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Description
GRANT 20 GRANT 21 CRC GRANT 22 GRANT 23 GRANT 24 GRANT 25 GRANT 26 GRANT 27 CRC MESSAGE_PON_ID MESSAGE_ID MESSAGE_FIELD 1 MESSAGE_FIELD 2 MESSAGE_FIELD 3 MESSAGE_FIELD 4 MESSAGE_FIELD 5 MESSAGE_FIELD 6 MESSAGE_FIELD 7 MESSAGE_FIELD 8 MESSAGE_FIELD 9 MESSAGE_FIELD 10 CRC BIP

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 IDENT byte: Bits 1-7 are set to 0 Bit 8=1 for the first PLOAM cell of a downstream frame, =0 for the other PLOAM cells in the frame. SYNC 1, SYNC 2 bytes: A 1 KHz reference signal provided by OLT is transported to the ONUS over these two bytes. It is used by the ONUs to synchronize to the downstream frame. GRANT fields: Used by the ONUs for access on the upstream frame MESSAGE fields: Used to transport alarms and threshold-crossing alerts BIP (bit interleaved parity):
Used for monitoring the BER on the downstream link.

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Grants
Each PLOAM cell contains 27 grants. Per frame, only 53 grants are needed. These grants are mapped on the first two PLOAM cells of the downstream frame. The first 53 grants are non-idle grants. The last one as well as all the grants in the remaining PLOAM cells for the asymmetric case are idle grants. Groups of 7 grants are protected by CRC with a pattern: x8+x2+x+1. No error correction is done.
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Grant types
Data grant: Indicates an upstream ONU. The ONU can send an ATM cell or an idle cell if it has no data in the next frame. PLOAM grant: Indicates an upstream ONU. The ONU sends a PLOAM cell in the next frame. Divided-slots grant: It indicates a group of upstream ONUs. Each ONU in the group sends a mini-slot in the next frame. Reserved grants: Ranging grants: Used in the ranging protocol. Unassigned grants: Indicates an unused upstream slot. Idle grant: These grants are ignored.

OLT can address 32 (optionally 64) ONUs at the same time.

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Message field
MESSAGE_PON_ID:
It contains an ID number (PON_ID) which is associated with a particular ONU. During the ranging protocol, the ONU is assigned a PON_ID number from 0 to 63. The field can also be set to 0x40 for broadcasting to all ONUs.

MESSAGE_ID:
It indicates the type of message.

MESSAGE_field:
It contains the message.

CRC:
Same pattern. Protects the message fields. No error recovery

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Upstream structure of the PLOAM cell

Byte
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Description
IDENT MESSAGE_PON_ID MESSAGE_ID MESSAGE_FIELD 1 MESSAGE_FIELD 2 MESSAGE_FIELD 3 MESSAGE_FIELD 4 MESSAGE_FIELD 5 MESSAGE_FIELD 6 MESSAGE_FIELD 7 MESSAGE_FIELD 8 MESSAGE_FIELD 9 MESSAGE_FIELD 10 CRC LCF 1 LCF 2 LCF 3 LCF 4 LCF 5 LCF 6 LCF 7 LCF 8 LCF 9 LCF 10

Byte
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Description
LCF 11 LCF 12 LCF 13 LCF 14 LCF 15 LCF 16 LCF 17 RXCF 1 RXCF 2 RXCF 3 RXCF 4 RXCF 5 RXCF 6 RXCF 7 RXCF 8 RXCF 9 RXCF 10 RXCF 11 RXCF 12 RXCF 13 RXCF 14 RXCF 15 RXCF 16 BIP

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IDENT byte: Bits 1-8 all set to 0 MESSAGE_PON_ID, MESSAGE_ID, MESSAGE_FIELD: As defined previously CRC:
As defined previously

BIP(bit interleaved parity): As defined previously LCF (laser control field) and RXCF (receiver control field) :
Used in physical layer

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Divided-slots cell (optional)

Upstream slot

ONUx

...

ONUy

...

Mini-slot payload 1 to 53 bytes 3-byte overhead

It contains a number of mini-slots coming from a set of ONUs. The OLT assigns one divided-slots grant per group of ONUs The three-byte overhead is the same as defined previously A mini-slot may contain information such as the queue-size which is used by the MAC protocol.
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Churning
Downstream cells are churned (scrambled) at the TC layer with a churning key sent upstream by the ONU. The churning key is updated at the rate of at least 1 update/second per ONU. A new churn key is sent to OLT by the ONU using the new_churn_key message. Additional security can be provided using encryption at a higher layer.
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The MAC protocol

This is used by the OLT to allocate upstream bandwidth at the PON among the ONUs Each ONU maps the upstream queue-length in its mini-slot in the divided-slots cell, requested by the OLT with a divided-slots cell grant.

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The MAC protocol has not been standardized In the literature, several MAC protocols have been studied, where the bandwidth allocated to each transmitter depends on some performance measure such as the mean queue length, averaged over a short period of time.

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Ranging
In an APON, the ONUs may be at different distances from the OLT. These distances may vary from 0 to 20 km. Because of this, it is possible that in the upstream transmission, cells transmitted by different ONTs may overlap partially, and consequently collide.
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To avoid collisions, each ONU is placed at the same virtual distance from the OLT. The process that measures the distance between the OLT and each ONU, and places each ONU in the same virtual distance is known as ranging.
Each ONU is given an equalization delay which is used by the ONU to adjust its time of transmission.
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APON access networks

Satellite Broadcast video

Local broadcast

ISP Internet NSP

Metro WDM ring

VoATM ONU VoIP Internet

Access G/W Voice G/W DS-3 PSTN Class 5 switch

Regional ATM net.

OLT

ODN

. . .

Video

VoATM ONU VoIP Internet Video

Optical Networks- Harry Perros

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