COM 100 NOTES

Communication Fundamentals
University of Rhode Island Spring 2014

Matt Courchaine

Introduction to Human Communication

I. Importance of studying human communication Differs from other social sciences (e.g., sociology, economics) because it has sole focus on message exchange to create meaning Communication skills are not necessarily common sense if that was true, communication would not often go awry Can be used to meet people, develop professional & personal relationships, and end dissatisfying relationships Communication interactions create image of who you are for others, and their communication also shapes your self-image

II.

What is human communication? Human communication : transactional process in which people generate meaning through the exchange of verbal & nonverbal messages in specific contexts, influenced by individual and societal forces and embedded in culture A. Components: 1. Message creation Messages : building blocks of communication o Creation of messages is the most fundamental requirement for communication to occur Encoding : process of taking ideas and converting them into messages Decoding : receiving a message and interpreting its meaning Symbol : something that represents something else and conveys meaning o o o o When communicating, 2 types of messages, verbal & nonverbal, are exchanged and encoded most are symbolic Verbal system composed of linguistic symbols (i.e., words) Nonverbal system composed of nonlinguistic symbols (e.g., smiles, laughter) Communication is symbolic

2. Meaning creation goal of exchanging symbols Content meaning : denotative (concrete/explicit) and connotative (suggested/implicit) meaning Relationship meaning : what the message conveys about the relationship between the parties involved 3. Setting : the location where communication occurs, environmental conditions, time of day/day of the week, and the proximity of the communicators 4. Participants : the people interacting during communication The more shared characteristics between participants, the easier it is to communicate The channel selected to communicate a message can affect how the message is perceived 5. Channels : the means through which a message is conveyed

6. Noise : any stimulus that can interfere with, or degrade, the quality of a message (e.g., loud music or voices) 7. Feedback : the response to a message

B. Human Communication in Society : transactional model that depicts communication as occurring when 2 or more people create meaning as they respond to each other and their environment

Communication is transactional Each communicator is a sender and receiver simultaneously Meaning is created as people communicate Communication is an ongoing process Previous communication events and relationships influence the meaning of communication

Communication is influenced by individual forces include age, race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, etc. Also includes field of experience : the education, life events, and cultural background that a communicator possesses Combination of individual forces varies by person; therefore, people communicate in unique ways

Communication is influenced by societal forces individual forces are arranged in a hierarchy in which some are more highly valued than others, which is the result of society Political, historical, economic, and social structures of a society influence this value hierarchy and affect how we view specific individual characteristics

Communication is influence by culture Culture : learned patterns of perceptions, values, and behaviors shared by a group of people

Communication is influenced by context includes setting, number of participants, and the specific occasion during which the communication occurs The tensions that exist among individual forces, societal forces, cultures, and contexts shape communication and meaning

III.

Communication ethics Communication ethics are important because they sustain professional success and are vital to personal relationships A. Defining communication ethics Ethics : standards of what is right and wrong, good and bad, moral and immoral, etc. Communication ethics : the standards of right and wrong that one applies to messages that are sent and received 1. Truthfulness fundamental role Others expect messages to be truthful Messages have consequences

2. Sharing or withholding information what information should be divulged and what information should be withheld? Withholding information could be a matter of legitimate privacy or inappropriate secrecy o Typically, it is ethical to maintain privacy, but unethical to engage in secrecy 3. Benefit and harm of messages to determine the most ethical choice, one should consider the benefit or harm associated with your messages B. Developing communication ethics 1. Absolutism vs. Relativism Absolutism : pertaining to the belief that there is a single correct moral standard that holds for everyone, everywhere, every time o Plato and Immanuel Kant conceptualized the absolutist perspective both belief that there is a rationally correct moral standard Relativism : pertaining to the belief that moral behavior varies among individuals, groups, and cultures, as well as across situations o Philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre argued that because there is no universal standard of morality, there is no rational way to decide who is correct Absolutism and relativism are opposite ends of a spectrum, and most people lie somewhere along that spectrum (not strictly on one end or the other) 2. Ethics of language use Unethical language prevents one from engaging in interactions that allow a more complex view of both the issues and the other person or group 3. Ethical responsibilities of receivers Reasoned skepticism : the balance of open-mindedness and critical attitude necessary when evaluating others messages

Healthy feedback : the honest and ethical responses receivers provide to the messages of others

C. Framework for ethical decision-making 1. Recognize an ethical issue Could this decision/situation be damaging to someone or to some group? Does it involve a choice between a good and a bad alternative, or between two goods or between two bads Is the issue about more than what is legal or what is most efficient? What are the relevant facts? What facts are unknown? What individuals or groups have an important stake in the outcome? What are the options for acting? Which option will do the most good and do the least harm? Utilitarian approach Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? Rights approach Which option treats people equally or proportionally? Justice approach Which option best serves the community as a whole, not just some members? Common Good approach Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? Virtue approach Considering all these approaches, which option best addresses the situation? If I told someone which option I chose, what would they say? How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care an attention to the concerns of all participants? How did my decision turn out and what have I learned from this specific situation 4. Make a decision and test it 2. Get the facts

3. Evaluate alternative actions

5. Act and reflect on the outcome

Communication, Perception, and Identity Development

I. What is perception Perception : the process of selection, organization, and interpretation of the information one collects through ones senses A. Selection : the process of choosing which sensory information to focus on Selective attention : consciously or unconsciously attending to just a narrow range of the full array of sensory information available Who/what one focuses on depends on: Aspects of ones identity Features of the person Ones goals

B. Organization : the process by which one recognizes what sensory input represents 1. Cognitive representation : the ability to form mental models of the world One also develops cognitive maps that shape ones perceptions of people and communication events 2. Prototypes : the most typical or representative example of a person or concept (i.e., an idealized schema)

Important because people compare specific individuals to the prototype they have, and then communicate with others based on the degree to which they perceive that the individual conforms to the prototype

3. Interpersonal script : a relatively fixed sequence of events that functions as a guide or template for communication or behavior 4. Categorization : a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information Label : a name assigned to a category based on ones perception of the category o C. Interpretation After one perceives and organizes sensory information, one assigns meaning to it Frames develop over time occurs via experience, interaction with others, and innate personality 2. Attribution theory : explanation of the processes one uses to judge ones own and others behavior Process of drawing inferences about others behavior Internal vs. External is a fundamental attribution people make about others behavior: o Internal cause would be a personality characteristic o Likely to make an internal attribution when the behavior is unexpected (something most people would not do) External cause would be situational When behavior fits expectations, one is likely to make an external attribution Attributional bias : the tendency to attribute ones own negative behavior to external causes and ones positive actions to internal states o Self-serving bias : the tendency to give ones self more credit than is due when good things happen and to accept too little responsibility for those things that go wrong o Fundamental attribution error : the tendency to attribute others negative behavior to internal causes and their positive behavior to external causes 1. Frames : a structure that shapes how people interpret their perceptions Can limit ones view of others or even oneself Stereotyping : creating schemas that overgeneralize attributes of a specific group

II.

What is identity? Identity : who a person is, composed of individual and social categories a person identifies with, as well as the categories that others identify with that person A. Identity exists at both the individual and societal levels Individual identities: Athlete Honor student Poet

Societal identities: Ethnicity Nationality Socioeconomic class

Identities are not necessarily only individual or social; can be both, depending on the situation

B. Identities are both fixed and dynamic certain aspects of ones identity do change over time C. Identities are created through interaction shaped by the relationships, experiences, and communication interactions you share with others Social identities can also change as people interact with others D. Identities must be seen in context meaning of identities can be understood only in their historical, cultural, and social contexts The meaning a specific identity has and how people respond to it depends on the situation in which people find themselves

III.

Importance of perception and identity When one communicates, one responds to their perceptions of the way they look, sound, smell, and, on occasion, feel (i.e., their identity) Features in the communication process in several ways: 1. Individuals bring their identities to each encounter; therefore, every communication interaction is affected by their identities 2. Identity plays an important role in intercultural communication, which has become increasingly common in our global, technology-based world 3. Understanding identity is useful because so much of US life is organized and geared toward specific identities 4. In identity, individual and societal forces come together to shape communication experiences

IV.

The individual, perception, and identity A. Reflected appraisals : the idea that peoples self-images arise primarily from the way in which others view them and from the many messages they have received from others about who they are Looking-glass self : the idea that self-image results from the images others reflect back to an individual Particular others : the important people in an individuals life whose opinions and behavior influence the various aspects of identity Generalized other : the collection of roles, rules, norms, beliefs, and attitudes endorsed by the community in which a person lives B. Social comparison one evaluates how desirable ones characteristics are Particular and generalized others become the basis for our understanding of which characteristics are valued

C. Self-fulfilling prophecy : when an individual expects something to occur, the expectation increases the likelihood that it will Stereotype threat : process in which reminding individuals of stereotypical expectations regarding important identities can impact their performance D. Self-concept : the understanding of ones unique characteristics as well as the similarities to, and differences from, others Self-esteem is a description of how one evaluates oneself overall lens through which you interpret reflected appraisals and social comparisons Because of self-esteem, ones self-concept may not be entirely consistent with how others perceive one

V.

The individual, perception, identity, and society A. Social identity : the specific identities an individual holds in society Include occupation, familial roles, membership in organizations The education, training, and/or socialization a person undergoes as they develop their identity influences their perceptions B. Power, perception, and identity Primary identities : identities such as race, ethnicity, and age that have a consistent and enduring impact on your life Secondary identities : identities such as occupation and marital status that are changeable over the life span and from situation to situation C. Culture, perception, and identity Sensory model : model that explains how an individual culture emphasizes a few of the five senses

VI.

The ethics of perceiving and communicating about identities A. Stereotyping not negative in and of itself, but becomes a problem when: 1. It is over-relied on, thereby causing one to fail to recognize diversity that also occurs within groups 2. When negative attribution are made about others based on little personal information B. Prejudice : experiencing aversive or negative feelings toward a group as a whole or toward an individual because she or he belongs to a group The self-esteem building function of prejudice describes the role it plays in protecting individuals sense of self-worth Prejudice also serves to support group values by allowing people to view their own value, norms, and cultural practices as appropriate and correct

VII.

Skills for improving perceptions and communication about identities Mindfulness : having a clear focus on the activity one is engaged in, with attention to as many specifics of the event as one can To become more mindful: Focus on relevant aspects of the interaction Focus on different perspectives Draw distinctions between a person/experience and its stereotypes Recognize that an individual is different from others in his/her group Note your physical responses and the comments you make to yourself Separate facts from inferences Be empathetic toward the person

Verbal Communication
I. What is verbal communication? Generally refers to the written or oral words we exchange

II.

The importance of verbal communication Important because of the role it plays in identity and relationship development

III.

Verbal communication and the individual A. Functions of language can serve at least 7 functions: 1. Instrumental : use of language to obtain what one needs or desires 2. Regulatory : use of language to control or regulate the behavior of others 3. Informative : use of language to communicate information or report facts 4. Heuristic : use of language to acquire knowledge and understanding 5. Interactional : use of language establish and define social relationships in both interpersonal and group settings 6. Personal language : use of language to express individuality and personality 7. Imaginative : use of language to obtain what one needs or desires B. Components of language: 1. Phonology : the study of sounds that compose individual languages and how those sounds communicate meaning 2. Syntax : the rules that govern word order 3. Semantics : the study of meaning Denotative meaning : the literal meaning of a word Connotative meaning : the affective or interpretive meaning attached to a word

4. Pragmatics : field of study that emphasizes how language is used in specific situations to accomplish goals

Speech act theory : branch of pragmatics that suggests that when people communicate, they do not just say things, they also do things with their words o Speech acts may be direct or indirect

Conversational rules govern the ways in which we organize conversation (e.g., turntaking) No matter what language/dialect, ones use of language varies depending on the communication situation

C. Influences on verbal communication Dialect : a variation of a language distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation Lexical choice : vocabulary preference D. Gender growing up male or female may influence the way in which you communicate, because men and women are socialized to communicate in specific ways E. Age Cohort effect : the influence of shared characteristics of a group that was born and reared in the same general period F. Ethnicity and race ethnicity can influence ones general verbal style G. Education and occupation Jargon : technical terminology associated with a specific topic

IV.

The individual, verbal communication, and society Culture and power are 2 of the biggest influences on communication: Culture impacts communication through its influence on language and perception

A. Language and perception Sapir-Whorf hypothesis : the idea that the language people speak determines how they see the word EX: the distinction between the present and the future is not as clear-cut for Japanese speakers as it is for English speakers B. Language and power Cocultural theory : explores the role of power in daily interactions uses 5 assumptions: a. In each society, a hierarchy exists that privileges certain groups of people b. Part of the privilege these groups enjoy, often subconsciously, is being able to set norms for what types of communication are acceptable c. Language maintains and reinforces the power of these dominant groups people whose speech does not conform to what is valued in society may be excluded and/or negatively stereotyped d. Society tends to value a more female communication style, and men may be critiqued for failing to communicate appropriately with their intimates e. These dominant communication structures impede the progress of persons whose communication practices do not conform to the norms

V.

Ethics and verbal communication A. Become aware of the power of language When a speaker refers to others by negative or offensive identity terms, the speaker not only causes harm, he or she also denies those labeled individuals their identities B. Become conscious of your language use Are you sending the messages you think you are sending? Are people interpreting messages the way you intend? Ask if the person to whom you are speaking if they understand what you were saying

VI.

Improving your verbal communication skills A. Supportive vs. defensive communication

Supportive communication is: Descriptive Problem-oriented Spontaneous Empathic Equality-oriented Provisional

Defensive communication is: Evaluative Controlling Strategic Neutral Superiority focused Certainty focused

Evaluative communication : messages that carry judgments of right and wrong, good or bad more likely to increase defensiveness in listener compared to more descriptive messages

Controlling communication : messages that attempt to impose ones will on another, perhaps with coercion Empathic communication : messages that convey sympathy and caring Equality-oriented communication : messages that convey sense of worth in others and their ideas, viewpoints

B. Confirming and disconfirming communication Defensive communication : comments that threaten others self-image or persona Disconfirming communication : comments that reject or invalidate a positive or negative self-image of our conversational partners Confirming communication : comments that validate positive self-images of others Generally more effective I statements allow you to express your feelings (even negative ones) by focusing on your own experiences rather than making negative, disconfirming generalizations 3 parts describing: a. The other persons behavior b. Your feelings about that behavior c. The consequences the others behavior has for you

Recent research has found that people reacted similarly to both I and you statements involving negative emotions Not always appropriate

Nonverbal Communication
I. What is nonverbal communication? Nonverbal communication : nonverbal behavior that has symbolic meaning

II.

The importance of nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication can be complex and ambiguous probably due to the fact that humans express a wide array of nonverbal cues, many of which can be quite subtle Nonverbal communication requires that you interpret behavior and assign meaning to it Nonverbal communication can affect public policy decisions

III.

Nonverbal communication and the individual Nonverbal communication does not, generally, have a single meaning Culture is one of the more important factors that influences the meaning of nonverbal communication B. Nonverbal codes : distinct, organized means of expression that consists of symbols and rules for their use 1. Kinesics : nonverbal communication sent by the body, including gestures, posture, movement, facial expressions, and eye behavior Gestures : nonverbal communication made with part of the body, including actions such as pointing, waving, or holding up a hand to direct peoples attention Illustrators : signals that accompany speech to clarify or emphasize verbal messages Emblems : gestures that stand for a specific verbal meaning Adaptors : gestures used to manage emotions Regulators : gestures used to control conversation Immediacy : how close or involved people appear to be with each other Relaxation : the degree of tension ones body displays Facial expressions communicate more than perhaps any other nonverbal behavior primary channels for transmitting emotion o Ability to accurately recognize others emotions 2. Paralinguistics : all aspects of spoken language except the words themselves; includes rate, volume, pitch, stress Voice qualities : qualities such as speed, pitch, rhythm, vocal range, and articulation that make up the music of the human voice Vocalizations : uttered sounds that do not have the structure of language Chronemics : the study of the way in which people use time as a message o For example, in the United States, lateness communicates thoughtlessness, irresponsibility, or selfishness 3. Time and space A. Influences on nonverbal communication

o o

Monochronically : engaging in one task or behavior at a time Polychronically : engaging in multiple activities simultaneously

Proxemics : the study of how people use facial cues including interpersonal distance, territoriality, and other space relationships to communicate o o o o Intimate distance (018) : the space used when interacting with those with whom one is very close Personal distance (184) : the space used when interacting with friends and acquaintances Social distance (412) : the distance most US Americans use when they interact with unfamiliar others Public distance (1225) : the distance used for public ceremonies such as lectures and performances

4. Haptics : the study of the communicative function of touch Professional/Functional touch : type of touch used by certain workers, such as dentists, hairstylists, and hospice workers, as part of their livelihood; least intimate type of touch Social-polite touch : touch that is part of daily interaction in the United States; more intimate than professional touch, but still impersonal Friendship touch : touch that is more intimate than social touch and usually conveys warmth, closeness, and caring Love-intimate touch : touch often used with ones romantic partners and family Demand touching : a type of touch used to establish dominance and power Artifacts : clothing and other accessories

5. Appearance and artifacts

IV.

The functions of nonverbal messages A. Communicating information : using nonverbal behaviors to help clarify verbal messages and reveal attitudes and moods Nonverbal communication can help individuals convey and interpret verbal messages in 5 ways: a. By repeating a message b. By highlighting or emphasizing a message c. By complimenting or reinforcing a message d. By contradicting a message e. By substituting for a message B. Regulating interaction : using nonverbal behaviors to help manage turn-taking during conversation C. Expressing and managing intimacy : using nonverbal behaviors to help convey attraction and closeness Paralinguistic cues reveal a high level of nonverbal involvement D. Establishing social control : using nonverbal behavior to exercise influence over other people

E. Signaling service-task functions : using nonverbal behavior to signal close involvement between people in impersonal relationships and contexts

V.

The individual, nonverbal communication, and society A. Nonverbal communication and power nonverbal communication and power are intricately related Although all groups use nonverbal communication to convey identity, more powerful segments of society typically define what is allowed B. Nonverbal communication, prejudice, and discrimination Ones race and ethnicity, body shape, age, or style of dress (all communicated nonverbally) can prompt prejudgment or negative stereotyping

VI.

Ethics and nonverbal communication Ethics of nonverbal communication are actually quite similar to the ethics of communication in general Guidelines for making ethical choices regarding nonverbal communication consider whether: Your nonverbal behaviors reflect your real attitudes, beliefs, and feelings Your nonverbal behaviors contradict the verbal message you are sending Your nonverbal behaviors insult, ridicule, or demean others You are using your nonverbal behavior to intimidate, coerce, or silence someone You would want anyone to observe your nonverbal behavior You would want this nonverbal behavior directed to your or a loved one

VII.

Improving your nonverbal communication skills A. Recognize that cues can be misinterpreted B. Read nonverbal behaviors as a group C. Evaluate the context in which the message occurs D. Look for congruency of behaviors Congruent : verbal and nonverbal messages that express the same meaning Contradicting : verbal and nonverbal messages that send conflicting messages

E. Ask questions about nonverbal signals F. Be mindful and practice

Listening
I. What is listening? Listening : the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages A. 4 stages: 1. Sensing : the stage of listening most people refer to as hearing; when listeners pick up the sound waves directed toward them 2. Understanding : interpreting the messages associated with sounds or what the sounds mean 3. Evaluating : assessing your reaction to a message 4. Responding : showing others how you regard their message

II.

The importance of listening Better listening skills can improve your memory and give you a broader knowledge base and an increased attention span

Good listening skills can enhance academic performance Better listening is also linked to enhanced personal relationships Business professionals have long emphasized that effective listening is a highly desirable workplace skill

III.

Listening and the individual A. Influences on listening 1. Listening style : a set of attitudes, beliefs, and predispositions about the how, where, when, who, and what of the information receiving and encoding process Action-oriented listening style : listening style that reflects a preference for error-free and well-organized speaking o Informational listening : listening skills that are useful in situations requiring attention to content To improve informational listening skills: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Attend to what the speaker is saying Dont judge the speaker prematurely Paraphrase Clarify Review and summarize

Content-oriented listening style : a listening style that reflects an interest in detailed and complex information, simply for the content itself o Critical listening : listening skills that are useful in a wide variety of situations particularly those involving persuasive speaking To improve critical listening skills: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Consider the speakers credibility Are the words and the body language consistent What conclusions can be drawn from what is being said? Where is it leading? Weigh the evidence Periodically review and summarize

People-oriented listening style : a listening style that is associated with friendly, open communication and an interest in establishing ties with others o o Particularly useful in informal personal situations Supportive listening : listening skills focused not only on understanding information but also listening to others feelings to improve supportive listening: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Put the other person at ease Remove distractions Empathize with the other person Be patient Watch your own emotions

Time-oriented listening style : a listening style that prefers, brief concise speech

2. Gender many scholars think that, generally, men and women not only differ in their listening styles, but that women tend to be better listeners than men Male listening stereotypes: o o o o o o o o o o o o o Logical Judgmental Interrupting Inattentive Self-centered Impatient Emotional Non-interrupting Attentive Empathetic Other-centered Responsive Patient

Female listening stereotypes:

There do seem to be a few gender differences in listening behaviors, but both men and women can demonstrate feminine and masculine listening behaviors

3. Age potential for effective listening seems to increase as we grow into adulthood 4. Nationality In western cultures, good listening is demonstrated by eye contact, head nods, and some back-channeling vocalizations In countries like Vietnam & Thailand, good listening behavior (listening respectfully) involves avoiding eye contact In Japan, good listening may involve a lot of head nods, back channeling, and even saying yes, yes

B. Barriers to listening 1. Physical and physiological barriers Physical barriers can include a noisy environment, physical discomfort, or tiredness An example of a physiological barrier is a hearing disability Common psychological barriers are boredom and preoccupation Emotion also functions as a psychological barrier Prejudices also function as psychological barriers

2. Psychological barriers

3. Conflicting objectives how people understand and react to others communicative attempts depends in part on their objectives for the conversation

4. Poor listening habits can be avoided by becoming more aware of our own listening behavior and to focus on the speaker rather than our own thoughts, feelings, and what were going to say next

IV.

The individual, listening, and society Listening is affected by 3 levels of societal forces: A. Social hierarchy 1. Social status people higher up the social ladder tend to, to an extent, ignore those of a lower class 2. Physical appearance people set norms for physical attractiveness, and ignore those who dont conform to them B. Listening in context listening with empathy is important, because it enables people to understand others and get the job done C. Listening and community Soundscapes : the everyday sounds in our environment

V.

Ethics and listening Choices one can make to become a more ethical listener: 1. The choice to cut ourselves off from listening to our immediate environemtns 2. The choice to listen selectively 3. The choice not to listen 4. The choice to listen together

VI.

Improving your listening skills A. Become aware B. Identify poor habits C. Strive for mindful listening requires 3 elements: 1. The desire to get the whole message 2. The ability to eliminate the noisy barriers discussed earlier 3. The willingness to place your agenda lower on the priority list than the speakers