UNDERSTANDING POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Michael J . Basler
Electrical Engineering Manager
Basler Electric Company
12570 State Route 143
Highland, IL 62249 USA

Richard C. Schaefer
Senior Application Specialist
Basler Electric Company
12570 State Route 143
Highland, IL 62249 USA


Abstract The term, power system stability has
become increasingly popular in generation and
transmission. The increasing requirement for power
system stabilizers has created confusion about their
applicability, purpose, and benefit to the system. This
paper discusses power system instability and the
importance of fast fault clearing performance to aid in
reliable production of power. Explanation is provided
regarding small signal stability, high impedance
transmission lines, line loading, and high gain, fast
acting excitation systems. Transient stability is
discussed, including synchronizing and damping
torques. The power angle curve is used to illustrate
how fault clearing time and high initial response
excitation systems can affect transient stability.

Index TermsStability, voltage regulator, pole slip,
excitation, synchronous machine, transient stability
I. INTRODUCTION
In the 1950s and into the 1960s, many power
generating plants were equipped with continuously acting
automatic voltage regulators. As the number of power
plants with automatic voltage regulators grew, it became
apparent that the higher performance of these voltage
regulators had a destabilizing effect on the power system.
Power oscillations of small magnitude and low frequency
often persisted for long periods of time. In some cases,
this presented a limitation on the amount of power able to
be transmitted within the system. Power system stabilizers
were developed to aid in damping of these power
oscillations by modulating the excitation supplied to the
synchronous machine.
This paper will discuss the various types of power
system instability. It will cover the effects of system
impedance and excitation on stability. Synchronizing
torque and damping torque will be discussed and a
justification will be made for the need for supplemental
stabilization.
II. BASIS FOR STEADY-STATE STABILITY
In an interconnected power system, the rotors of each
synchronous machine in the system rotate at the same
average electrical speed. The power delivered by the
generator to the power system is equal to the mechanical
power applied by the prime mover, neglecting losses.
During steady state operation, the electrical power out
balances the mechanical power in. The mechanical power
input to the shaft from the prime mover is the product of
torque and speed, P
M
=T
M
e. The mechanical torque is in
the direction of rotation. An electrical torque is applied to
the shaft by the generator and is in a direction opposite of
rotation as seen in Figure 1 below.

Where: P
M
= Mechanical power
e =speed
Te =Electrical torque

Fig. 1. Mechanical and Electrical Torque Applied to the Shaft

When the system is disturbed due to a fault or the load is
changed quickly, the electrical power out of the machine
changes. The electrical power out of the machine can
change rapidly, but the mechanical power into the machine
is relatively slow to change. Because of this difference in
speed of response, there exists a temporary difference in
the balance of power. This power unbalance causes a
difference in torque applied to the shaft, which causes it to
accelerate or decelerate, depending on the direction of the
unbalance. As the rotor changes speed, the relative rotor
angle changes. Figure 2 shows the relationship between
the rotor (torque) angle, o, the stator magnetomotive force
(MMF), F
1
, and the rotor MMF, F
2
. The torque angle, o, is
the angle between the rotor MMF, F
2
, and the resultant of
the vector addition of the rotor and stator MMFs, R, as
seen in Figure 2 below.

2


Fig. 2. Stator, Rotor, and Resultant MMFs and Torque Angle

Figure 3 is a circuit representation of a synchronous
generator connected through a transmission system to an
infinite bus.


Where: ET =Generator terminal voltage
Xg =Generator internal reactance
E
g
=Internal generator voltage
E
HV
=High side voltage of generator step
transformer
E
O
=System voltage
X
E
=External impedance

Fig. 3. Synchronous machine tied to infinite bus
The synchronous machine is modeled by an ideal
voltage source, Eg, in series with an impedance, Xg. The
terminal voltage of the machine, E
T
is increased to
transmission system levels through a Generator Step-Up
(GSU) transformer, which is represented by an
impedance, X
T
. The high voltage side of the GSU is
connected to the infinite bus via a transmission line
represented by reactance, X
L
. The real (MW) power output
from the generator on a steady state basis is governed by
equation:
o sin
g
T g
e
X
E E
P = (1)
Where o is the angle between the generator terminal
voltage and the internal voltage of the machine. As the
power transfer increases, the angle o increases. A fault in
the system can result in a change in electrical power flow,
resulting in a change in the power angle, o. This can be
seen graphically in Figure 4.

IX
E
E
E
IX
I
g
j
j
g
T
0
E


Fig. 4. Phasor Diagram, Generator tied to infinite bus
If a fault causes the current, I, to increase and the
terminal voltage to decrease, the electrical power out of
the machine will decrease, since the impedance seen by
the generator is now mainly inductive. This disturbance
causes the rotor angle to increase, perhaps beyond the
limits of generator synchronous operation. The resulting
variations in power flow as the rotor accelerates will cause
a well-designed loss of synchronism protective relaying
(78 function) to isolate that generator from the rest of the
system. The disturbance on the remaining system, due to
the loss of generation may result in additional units tripping
off line, and potentially a cascading outage.
III. TRANSIENT STABILITY
Generators are connected to each other by a network that
behaves much like weights interconnected by rubber
bands (see Figure 5). The weights represent the rotating
inertia of the turbine generators and the rubber bands are
analogous to the inductance of the transmission lines. By
pulling on a weight and letting go, an oscillation is setup
with several of the weights that are interconnected by the
rubber bands. The result of disturbing just one weight will
result in all the weights oscillating. Eventually the system
will come to rest, based on its damping characteristics.
The frequency of oscillation depends on the mass of the
weights and the springiness of the rubber bands. Likewise,
a transient disturbance to the generator/ network can be
expected to cause some oscillations due to the inability of
the mechanical torque to instantaneously balance out the
transient variation in electrical torque.

3


Fig. 5. Rubber Band Analogy
The synchronous machines electrical power output can
be resolved into an electrical torque, T
e
multiplied by the
speed, e. Following a disturbance, the change in electrical
torque can further resolved into two components:

e o A + A = A
D s e
K K T (2)

Where:
K
s
Ao =the component of torque that is in phase with the
rotor angle change. This is known as the synchronizing
torque.
K
D
Ae =the component of torque that is in phase with the
speed change. This is known as the damping torque.

Both components of torque act on each generator in
the system. A lack of sufficient synchronizing torque will
result in loss of synchronism. Such loss of synchronism
can only be prevented if sufficient magnetic flux can be
developed when a transient change in electrical torque
occurs. This is facilitated by a high initial response
excitation system (an excitation system that will cause a
change from the input to output within .1 seconds) having
sufficient field forcing capability and sufficiently fast
response to resist the accelerating or decelerating rotor. In
order to be effective for both accelerating and decelerating
rotor response, the excitation system must be capable of
field forcing both positively and negatively, particularly on
generators with rotating exciters. When the rotor is
accelerating with respect to the stator flux, the rotor angle
is increasing due to mechanical torque higher than
electrical torque. The exciter system must increase
excitation by applying a high positive voltage to the
alternator field as quickly as possible. Conversely, when
the rotor angle is decreasing due to mechanical torque
less than electrical torque, the exciter system must
decrease excitation by applying a high negative voltage to
the alternator field as quickly as possible.
Transient stability is primarily concerned with the
immediate effects of a transmission line fault on generator
synchronism. Figure 6 illustrates the typical behavior of a
generator in response to a fault condition.

Fault
1
4 1
2
V
G
V
S

(a) System
Faulted
System
Post-faulted System
Pre-faulted System
stable
Unstable
machine loses
sysnchronism
P
M
Turbine
Power
P
MAX
Power
Power Angle, o
1
2
3
4
o
o
90
o
180
o

(b)Power-angle Curve
Fig. 6. Transient Stability Illustration
Starting from the initial operating condition (point 1), a
close-in transmission fault causes the generator electrical
output power Pe to be drastically reduced. The resultant
difference between electrical power and the mechanical
turbine power causes the generator rotor to accelerate
with respect to the system, increasing the power angle
(point 2). When the fault is cleared, the electrical power is
restored to a level corresponding to the appropriate point
on the power angle curve (point 3). Clearing the fault
necessarily removes one or more transmission elements
from service and at least temporarily weakens the
transmission system. After clearing the fault, the electrical
power out of the generator becomes greater than the
turbine power. This causes the unit to decelerate (point 4),
reducing the momentum the rotor gained during the fault. If
there is enough retarding torque after fault clearing to
make up for the acceleration during the fault, the generator
will be transiently stable on the first swing and will move
back toward its operating point. If the retarding torque is
insufficient, the power angle will continue to increase until
synchronism with the power system is lost.
Power system stability depends on the clearing time for
a fault on the transmission system. Comparing the two
examples in Figure 7 illustrates this point. In the example
of slower fault clearing (a), the time duration of the fault
allows the rotor to accelerate so far along the curve of PE,
that the decelerating torque comes right to the limit of
4

maintaining the rotor in synchronism. The shorter fault
clearing time (b) stops the acceleration of the rotor much
sooner, assuring that sufficient synchronizing torque is
available to recover with a large safety margin. This effect
is the demand placed on protection engineers to install the
fastest available relaying equipment to protect the
transmission system.
Faulted
System
Post-faulted System
Pre-faulted System
Breaker
clears faults
Power
Power Angle, o
o
o
90
o
180
o
Equal Area has
no margin
Fault
P
MAX

(a) Slow fault clearing time
Faulted
System
Post-faulted System
Pre-faulted System
Breaker
clears faults
P
M
Fault
P
MAX
Power
Power Angle, o
o
o
90
o
180
o
Equal Area has
substantial margin
o
ss

(b) Fast fault clearing time
Fig. 7. Effect of Fault Clearing Time
IV. EFFECT OF THE EXCITATION SYSTEM
ON STABILITY
Maintaining power system stability depends on speed
of fault clearing, excitation system speed of response and
forcing capacity. Increasing forcing capability and
decreasing response time increases the margin of stability.
This effect is illustrated in Figure 8, where the lower curve,
A, represents the power angle curve of a lower forcing,
slower response excitation system. Comparing the area
under the curve for acceleration when the electrical load is
less than the mechanical load to the area under curve A
for deceleration clearly shows that a machine under the
example condition will lose synchronism. For curve B
representing a faster, higher forcing exciter, the area under
the curve where electrical power exceeds mechanical
power is much greater, sufficient to allow the generator to
recover from this swing. This effect is the source of the
demand placed on generation engineers to install the
fastest available excitation equipment with very high levels
of positive and negative forcing to secure the highest level
of immunity to transient loss of synchronism.


Fig. 8. Effect of High Initial Response Excitation System
While fast excitation systems help improve the transient
stability following large impact disturbances to the system,
the benefit may be outweighed by the impact of the
excitation system on damping the oscillations that follow
the first swing after the disturbance. In fact, the fast
responding excitation system can contribute a significant
amount of negative damping to oscillations because it can
reduce damping torque. Thus an excitation system has the
potential to contribute to small signal instability of power
systems. With the very old electromechanical excitation
systems, the transient response was relatively slow
compared to systems introduced today. This slow
response has minimal effect in reducing the damping
torque.
V. SMALL-SIGNAL STABILITY
Small signal stability is defined as the ability of the
power system to remain stable in the presence of small
disturbances. These disturbances could be minor
variations in load or generation on the system. If sufficient
damping torque doesnt exist, the result can be rotor angle
oscillations of increasing amplitude. Generators connected
to the grid utilizing high gain automatic voltage regulators
can experience insufficient damping to system oscillations.
To further understand the difference between the good
effect of high performance excitation systems and the
side-effect of reduced damping torque, recalling the
equation (1) we discussed earlier that breaks down the
change in electrical torque, ATe, into the two components
of synchronizing torque and damping torque. The
synchronizing torque increases the pull between rotor and
stator flux, decreasing the angle o, and reducing the risk of
pulling out of step. The damping torque, on the other hand,
results from the phase lag or lead of the excitation current.
Like the timing of pushes to a swing, the excitation current
acting to improve synchronizing torque normally is time
delayed by the characteristics of the excitation system, the
5

time delay of the alternator field, and the time delay of the
exciter field (if used). These time delays cause the effect of
a high initial response excitation system to cause negative
damping, resulting in loss of small-signal stability. Loss of
small-signal stability results in one or more of the types of
oscillations listed below, involving rotor swings that may
grow without bound or may take a long time to dampen.
Three types of oscillations that have been experienced
with interconnected generators and transmission networks
(shown in Figures 9 through 11) include:


Fig. 9. Inter-unit Oscillations

A. Inter-Unit Oscillations
These oscillations involve typically two or more
synchronous machines at a power plant or nearby power
plants. The machines swing against each other, with the
frequency of the power oscillation ranging between 1.5 to
3 Hertz.


Fig. 10. Local Mode Oscillations

B. Local Mode Oscillations
These oscillations generally involve one or more
synchronous machines at a power station swinging
together against a comparatively large power system or
load center. The frequency of oscillation is in the range of
0.7 Hertz to 2 Hertz. These oscillations become
troublesome when the plant is at high load with a high
reactance transmission system.


Fig. 11. Inter-area Oscillations
C. Inter-Area Oscillations
These oscillations usually involve combinations of
many machines on one part of a power system swinging
against machines on another part of the power system.
Inter-area oscillations are normally in the frequency range
of less than 0.5 Hertz.
New fast excitation systems that are installed to aid in
improving transient stability can be a source of these types
of oscillations. These systems recognize a change in
voltage due to load change up to 10 times faster than older
excitation systems. Thus, small oscillations of the unit
cause the excitation system to correct immediately.
Because of the high inductance in the generator field
winding however, the field current rate of change is limited.
This introduces considerable lag in the control function.
Thus from the time of recognition of a desired excitation
change to its partial fulfillment, there is an unavoidable
time delay. During this delay time, the state of the
oscillating system will change, causing a new excitation
adjustment to be started. The net result is the excitation
system tends to lag behind the need for a change, aiding
the inherent oscillatory behavior of the generators
interconnected by transmission lines. The excitation
system acts to introduce energy into the oscillatory cycle at
the wrong time.
Positive synchronizing torque can be provided to
restore the rotor back to the steady state operating point if
the excitation system can be made to appropriately
accelerate or decelerate the rotor. Positive damping torque
damps out the rotor oscillations of the torque angle loop to
return the system back to normal. For most power
systems, the configuration of the network and the
generator control systems maintains stable damping
forces that restore equilibrium to the power system. In
some system configurations however, unstable oscillations
can result from the introduction of negative damping
torques caused by a fast responding excitation system.
This can occur when the system is connected to a high
impedance transmission system as compared to one
connected to a low impedance transmission system.
One solution to improve the dynamic performance of
this system and large scale systems in general would be to
add more parallel transmission lines to reduce the
reactance between the generator and load center. This
solution is well known, but usually it is not acceptable due
to the high cost of building transmission lines. An
alternative solution adds a power system stabilizer (PSS)
acting through the voltage regulator. Working together, the
excitation output is modulated to provide positive damping
torque to the system.
VI. POWER SYSTEM STABILIZERS
The Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is a device that
improves the damping of generator electromechanical
oscillations. Stabilizers have been employed on large
generators for several decades, permitting utilities to
improve stability-constrained operating limits. In order to
describe the application of the PSS, it is necessary to
6

introduce general concepts of power system stability and
synchronous generator operation.
When disturbed by a sudden change in operating
conditions, the generator speed and electrical power will
vary around their steady-state operating points. The
relationship between these quantities can be expressed in
a simplified form of the swing equation:

e m
o
T T
dt
d H
=
2
2
2 o
e
(3)
Where:
o =rotor angle, in radians
e
O
= angular speed of rotor (the base or rated value
e
O
= 377 rad/s)
T
m
= mechanical torque in per-unit
T
e
= electrical torque in per-unit
H = combined turbogenerator inertia constant
expressed in MW-s/MVA

For small deviations in rotor speed, the mechanical and
electrical torques are approximately equal to the
respective per unit power values. The base value of power
is selected to be equal to the generator nameplate MVA.
The swing equation dictates that, when disturbed from
equilibrium, the rotor accelerates at a rate that is
proportional to the net torque acting on the rotor divided by
the machines inertia constant.

Equation 3 can be rewritten in terms of small changes
about an operating point:

e o A + A = A
D s e
K K T (4)

Where the expression for electrical-torque-deviation has
been expanded into its synchronizing and damping
components:
K
S
=synchronizing coefficient
K
D
=damping coefficient
Ao = rotor angle change
e

= angular speed of rotor
A = change
From Equation 4, it can be seen that for positive values
of K
S
, the synchronizing torque component opposes
changes in the rotor angle from the equilibrium point (i.e.
an increase in rotor angle will lead to a net decelerating
torque, causing the unit to slow down relative to the power
system, until the rotor angle is restored to its equilibrium
point, Ao =0). Similarly, for positive values of K
D
, the
damping torque component opposes changes in the rotor
speed from the steady-state operating point. A generator
will remain stable as long as there are sufficient positive
synchronizing and damping torques acting on its rotor for
all operating conditions.
A. Damping of Electromechanical Oscillations
For positive values of the damping coefficient, and
constant input power, the rotor angles response to small
disturbances (i.e. the solution of Equation 3) will take the
form of a damped sinusoid. The relationship between rotor
speed and electrical power following small disturbances is
illustrated in Figure 12.


Fig. 12. Response of Speed and Angle to Small Disturbances
A number of factors can influence the damping
coefficient of a synchronous generator, including the
generators design, the strength of the machines
interconnection to the grid, and the setting of the excitation
system. While many units have adequate damping
coefficients for normal operating conditions, they may
experience a significant reduction in the value of K
D

following transmission outages, leading to unacceptably
low damping ratios. In extreme situations, the damping
coefficient may become negative, causing the
electromechanical oscillations to grow, and eventually
causing loss of synchronism. This form of instability is
normally referred to as dynamic, small-signal or oscillatory
instability to differentiate it from the steady-state stability
and transient stability.
By adding a power system stabilizer to a high initial
response excitation system, the benefit of higher
synchronizing torque is available and the possibility of
decreased damping torque can be corrected. The function
of the power system stabilizer is to counter any oscillations
by signaling to change excitation at just the right time to
dampen the oscillations. The source of reduced damping
is the phase lags due to the field time constants and the
lags in the normal voltage regulation loop. Thus, the pss
(power system stabilizer) uses phase compensation to
adjust the timing of its correction signal to oppose the
oscillations it detects in the generator rotor.
A power system stabilizer can increase a generators
damping coefficient, thus allowing a unit to operate under
conditions where there is insufficient natural damping.


7

VII. PSS THEORY OF OPERATION
Modulation of generator excitation can produce
transient changes in the generators electrical output
power. Fast-responding exciters equipped with high-gain
automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) use their speed and
forcing to increase a generators synchronizing torque
coefficient (K
S
), resulting in improved steady-state and
transient stability limits. Unfortunately improvements in
synchronizing torque are often achieved at the expense of
damping torque, resulting in reduced levels of oscillatory or
small-signal stability. To counteract this effect, many units
that utilize high-gain AVRs are also equipped with power
system stabilizers to increase the damping coefficient (K
D
)
and improve oscillatory stability. See Figure 13.



Fig. 13. Block Diagram of Excitation System and PSS

Fig. 14. Speed-based Stabilizer

VII. SPEED BASED STABILIZERS
To supplement the units natural damping after a
disturbance, the power system stabilizer must produce
a component of electrical torque that opposes changes
in rotor speed. One method of accomplishing this is to
introduce a signal proportional to measured rotor
speed deviation into the voltage regulator input, as
depicted in Figure 15.
Figure 14 illustrates the steps used within the
speed-based stabilizer to generate the output signal.
These steps are summarized below:
Measure shaft speed using a magnetic-probe and
8

gear-wheel arrangement.
Convert the measured speed signal into a dc
voltage proportional to the speed.
High-pass filter the resulting signal to remove the
average speed level, producing a change-in-
speed signal; this ensures that the stabilizer
reacts only to changes in speed and does not
permanently alter the generator terminal voltage
reference.
Apply phase lead to the resulting signal to
compensate for the phase lag in the closed-loop
voltage regulator.
Adjust the gain of the final signal applied to the
AVR input.

With some minor variations, many of the early
power system stabilizers were constructed using this
basic structure.
VIII. DUAL INPUT STABILIZERS
While speed-based stabilizers have proven to be
extremely effective, it is frequently difficult to produce a
noise-free speed signal that does not contain other
components of shaft motion such as lateral shaft run-
out (hydroelectric units) or torsional oscillations
(steam-driven turbogenerators). The presence of these
components in the input of a speed-based stabilizer
can result in excessive modulation of the generators
excitation and, for the case of torsional components, in
the production of potentially damaging electrical torque
variations. These electrical torque variations led to the
investigation of stabilizer designs based upon
measured power.
Figure 15 illustrates a 2% voltage step change
introduced into the voltage regulator summing point
that causes the generator voltage to change by 2%.
Here, a speed type power system stabilizer provides
damping after the small signal disturbance to resolve
the momentary MW oscillation after the disturbance.
Note that the PSS Out changes abruptly during the
disturbance to provide damping, but a constant
modulation that is being applied into the excitation
system even during normal operation is also observed.


Fig. 15. On-line Step Response,
Frequency Type PSS
Ks=6, 92MW Hydro Turbine Generator
Although field voltage has not been recorded, one
can conclude that the field voltage is also moving
aggressively in response to the PSS Out driving the
voltage regulator. The reason for the constant
changing is the high noise content at the input of the
speed type stabilizer. For years, the constant changes
in the field voltage have alarmed operators using this
type of power system stabilizer. Notice in the example
that, while the generator active power is oscillatory for
a few cycles after the disturbance, the terminal voltage
and reactive power are very constant.
Incremental improvements were made to the power
system stabilizer by manipulating the swing equation
shown in Equation 4 to derive a better method of
improving the damping signal input.
( )
acc e m
T
H
T T
H dt
d
2
1
2
1
= = Ae (5)
The simplified swing equation can be rearranged to
reveal the principle of operation of early power-based
stabilizers. Based on Equation 5, it is apparent that a
speed deviation signal can be derived from the net
accelerating power acting on the rotor; i.e., the
difference between applied mechanical power and
generated electrical power. Early attempts at
constructing power-based stabilizers used the above
relationship to substitute measured electrical and
mechanical power signals for the input speed. The
electrical power signal was measured directly using an
9

instantaneous watt transducer. The mechanical power
could not be measured directly, and instead was
estimated based on the measurement of valve or gate
positions. The relationship between these physical
measurements and the actual mechanical power
varies based on the turbine design and other factors,
resulting in a high degree of customization and
complexity.
This approach was abandoned in favor of an indirect
method that employed the two available signals,
electrical power and speed. The goal was to eliminate
the undesirable components from the speed signal
while avoiding a reliance on the difficult to measure
mechanical power signal. To accomplish this, the
relationship of Equation 2 was rearranged to obtain a
derived integral-of-mechanical power signal from
electrical power and speed:
| |
} }
A A = A dt T dt T
H
e m
2
1
e (6)
Since mechanical power normally changes slowly
relative to the electromechanical oscillation
frequencies, the derived mechanical power signal can
be band-limited using a low-pass filter. The low-pass
filter attenuates high-frequency components (e.g.
torsional components, measurement noise) from the
incoming signal while maintaining a reasonable
representation of mechanical power changes. The
resulting band-limited derived signal is then used in
place of the real mechanical power in The Swing
Equation to derive a change-in-speed signal with
special properties.
The Swing Equation has been written in the
frequency domain using the Laplace operator s, to
represent complex frequency. The final derived speed
signal is derived from both a band-limited, measured
speed signal and a high-pass filtered integral-of-
electrical power signal. At lower frequencies the
measured speed signal dominates this expression
while at higher frequencies the output is determined
primarily by the electrical power input.
The integral-of-accelerating-power arrangement is
illustrated in the block diagram of Figure 16.


Fig.16. Block Diagram of Dual-Input Power System Stabilizer
IX. SPEED SIGNAL
For the frequency or speed stabilizer, shaft speed
was measured either directly or derived from the
frequency of a compensated voltage signal obtained
from the generator terminal VT and CT secondary
voltages and currents. If directly measured, shaft
speed is normally obtained from a magnetic-probe and
gear-wheel arrangement. On horizontal turbo-
generators, operating at 1800 RPM or 3600 RPM,
there are normally several gear wheels already
provided for the purpose of speed measurement or
governing. The shaft location is not critical as long as it
is directly coupled to the main turbo-generator shaft.
On vertical turbogenerators (hydraulic) the direct
measurement of shaft speed is considerably more
difficult, particularly when the shaft is subjected to
large amounts of lateral movement (shaft run-out)
during normal operation. On these units, speed is
almost always derived from a compensated frequency
signal. In either type of generator, the speed signal is
plagued by noise, masking the desired speed change
information.


Fig. 17. Speed derived from VT and CT signals
The derivation of shaft speed from the frequency of
a voltage phasor and a current phasor is depicted
graphically in Figure 18. The internal voltage phasor is
obtained by adding the voltage drop associated with a
q-axis impedance (Note: For salient pole machines,
the synchronous impedance provides the required
compensation.) to the generator terminal voltage
phasor. The magnitude of the internal phasor is
proportional to field excitation and its position is tied to
the quadrature axis. Therefore, shifts in the internal
voltage phasor position correspond with shifts in the
generator rotor position. The frequency derived from
10

the compensated phasor corresponds to shaft speed
and can be used in place of a physical measurement.
On round-rotor machines, the selection of the correct
compensating impedance is somewhat more
complicated; simulations and site tests are normally
performed to confirm this setting.
In either case, the resulting signal must be
converted to a constant level, proportional to speed
(frequency). Two high-pass filter stages are applied to
the resulting signal to remove the average speed level,
producing a speed deviation signal; this ensures that
the stabilizer reacts only to changes in speed and
does not permanently alter the generator terminal
voltage reference.
Figure 18 shows the high-pass filter transfer
function blocks in frequency domain form (the letter s
is used to represent the complex frequency or Laplace
operator).


Fig. 18. Accelerating-Power Design (Speed Input)
X. GENERATOR ELECTRICAL POWER
SIGNAL
The generator electrical power output is derived
from the generator VT secondary voltages and CT
secondary currents. The power output is high-pass
filtered to produce the required power deviation signal.
This signal then is integrated and scaled, using the
generator inertia constant (2H) for combination with
the speed signal. Figure 19 depicts the operations
performed on the power input signal to produce the
integral-of-electrical power deviation signal.


Fig. 19. Integral of Electrical Power Block Diagram
XI. DERIVED MECHANICAL
POWER SIGNAL
As previously described, the speed deviation and
integral-of-electrical power deviation signals are
combined to produce a derived integral-of-mechanical
power signal. This signal is then low-pass filtered, as
depicted in the block diagram of Figure 20.



Fig. 20. Filter Configurations for Derived Mechanical
Power Signal
A low-pass filter can be configured to take on one
of the following two forms:
The first filter, a simple four-pole low-pass filter,
was used to provide attenuation of torsional
components appearing in the speed. For thermal
units, a time constant can be selected to provide
attenuation at the lowest torsional frequency of
the turbogenerator set. Unfortunately, this design
requirement conflicts with the production of a
reasonably derived mechanical power signal
which can follow changes in the actual prime
mover output. This is particularly problematic on
hydroelectric units where rates of mechanical
power change can easily exceed 10 percent per
second. Excessive band-limiting of the
mechanical power signal can lead to excessive
stabilizer output signal variations during loading
and unloading of the unit.
The second low-pass filter configuration deals
with this problem. This filter, referred to as a
ramp-tracking filter, produces a zero steady-
state error to ramp changes in the input integral-
of-electrical power signal. This limits the stabilizer
output variation to very low levels for the rates-of-
change of mechanical power that are normally
encountered during operation of utility-scale
generators.

XII. STABILIZING SIGNAL SELECTION
AND PHASE COMPENSATION

As depicted in the simplified block diagram of
Figure 16, the derived speed signal is modified before
it is applied to the voltage regulator input. The signal is
filtered to provide phase lead at the electromechanical
frequencies of interest i.e., 0.1 Hz to 5.0 Hz. The
phase lead requirement is site-specific, and is required
to compensate for phase lag introduced by the closed-
loop voltage regulator.
11


Fig. 21. Output stage of PSS to AVR
The diagram of Figure 21 depicts the phase
compensation portion of the digital stabilizer. The
transfer function for each stage of phase
compensation is a simple pole-zero combination
where the lead and lag time constants are adjustable.
Tests are performed to determine the amount of
compensation required for the generator/excitation
system by applying a low frequency signal into the
voltage regulator auxiliary summing point input and
then by comparing to the generator output for phase
shift and gain over the frequency range applied. These
tests are normally performed with the generator at
10% MW load. Figure 22 illustrates the results of a
typical test performed to determine the phase lag of
the voltage regulator/generator interconnected to the
system without the power system stabilizer.
Compensation is then provided through the lead and
lag of the power system stabilizer to ensure that the
voltage regulator will be responsive to the frequency
range desired. Here, phase lead is needed above 1
Hertz as shown by the solid line in Figure 22.


Fig.22. Phase Compensation denoted with and without the
Power System Stabilizer
XIII. TERMINAL VOLTAGE LIMITER
Since the Power System Stabilizer operates by
modulating the excitation, it may counteract the
voltage regulators attempts to maintain terminal
voltage within a tolerance band. To avoid producing an
overvoltage condition, the PSS may be equipped with
a terminal voltage limiter that reduces the upper output
limit to zero when the generator terminal voltage
exceeds the set point.
The level is normally selected such that the limiter
will operate to eliminate any contribution from the PSS
before the generators time delayed overvoltage or
V/Hz protection operates.
The limiter will reduce the stabilizers upper limit at
a fixed rate until zero is reached, or the overvoltage is
no longer present. The limiter does not reduce the
AVR reference below its normal level; it will not
interfere with system voltage control during
disturbance conditions. The error signal (terminal
voltage minus limit start point) is processed through a
conventional low-pass filter to reduce the effect of
measurement noise.
XIV. CASE STUDIES
A small turbine generator was experiencing
potentially damaging power oscillations when the unit
load was increased to more than 0.5 pu, with
oscillations triggered by small changes in load or
terminal voltage. The oscillations could be triggered by
a step change in unit terminal voltage. The waveforms
in Figure 23 illustrate the test results indicating that the
oscillations under the test condition were damped, but
with significant duration. This condition occurred after
the unit was upgraded from manual control to a
modern static exciter system with high initial response
characteristic.

Fig. 23. Hydro Generator without PSS
When the PSS, a dual input type power system
stabilizer, was implemented, the response of the
turbine generator was substantially improved, showing
12

much greater damping capability compared to the
performance in Figure 23. In operation, with the
settings of the PSS set as indicated in Figure 24, the
unit was able to deliver rated load once again, with no
danger from power oscillations threatening to damage
the machine. This is an example of a local area
oscillation. The combination of high performance
excitation and the compensation of the PSS provides
the best combination of performance benefits for this
hydro turbine installation.

Fig. 24. Hydro Generator with PSS
The benefits of a newly installed dual-input type
power system stabilizer (Figure 25) versus those of the
existing single input power system stabilizer (Figure
15) for the same machine can be seen in the on-line
step response of a 92MW turbine generator to system
oscillations. The speed-based stabilizer produces a
significant amount of noise in the stabilizing signal.
This noise limits the maximum Ks gain to 6.2. With the
dual-input type, the noise is considerably less, allowing
higher gain, Ks=7.5s and more effective damping as
illustrated in Figure 25.



Fig. 25. On-line Step Response, Basler PSS-100
Ks=7.5, 92MW Hydro Turbine Generator
XV. CHANGING TIMES FOR
POWER SYSTEM STABILIZER
IMPLEMENTATION
Since the blackouts in the Northwest in the late 90s
and the more recent blackout in the Northeast, the
frailty of the transmission system has become
apparent. NERC (North American Reliability Council)
has issued guidelines mandating testing to verify
hardware to improve the reliability of the transmission
system. These tests include verification of excitation
models with excitation system performance and
verification of excitation limiters and protective relays
to ensure coordination. Today, use of power system
stabilizers is being mandated in the Western portion of
the country for all machines 35 MVA and above or
groups of machines in a plant that total 75 MVA. To
help improve the reliability of the transmission system,
power system stabilizers have proven to dampen
oscillations, and new innovations in power system
stabilizer technology continue to make them more
user-friendly in regard to commissioning and
implementation. Old potentiometer-type stabilizer
adjustments are obsolete with new commissioning
software to reduce time for commissioning. See Figure
26.
Additional features provided in stabilizers, such as
multiple setting groups, have made them more flexible
to speed commissioning and accommodate a wide
range of application needs. Here, reduced PSS gains
may be required as the turbine generator is moving
13

through its rough zones during machine loading.
Without another set of gains in the power system
stabilizer, the voltage regulator could become
excessively aggressive and result in poor power
system performance.


Fig. 26. Setup Screen for Power System Stabilizer Tuning
XVI. CONCLUSION
In 2006, the Energy Act was passed with legislation
that requires conformance to performance audits by
the American Electric Reliability Council that is
specifically defined by the regional council. In the
Northwest, WECC requires all generators, 35MVA, or
group of machines totaling 75MVA to include a power
system stabilizer.
XVII. REFERENCES

[1] J . Hurley , IEEE Tutorial Course Power
System Stabilizer Via Excitation Control
Chapter II- Overview of Power System
Stability Concepts.
[2] F. R. Scheif, R. K. Feeley, W. H. Philips, and
R. W. Torluemke, A Power System Stabilizer
application with Local Mode Oscillations,
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and
Systems, Vol. Pas-98, May/J une 1979, pp.
1054-1059.
[3] O. W. Hansen, C. J . Goodwin, and P. L.
Dandeno, Influence of Excitation and Speed
Control Parameters in Stabilizing Intersystem
Oscillations, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol.Pas-87, May
1968, pp. 1306-1313.
[4] C. Concordia, Effect of Prime-Mover Speed
Control Characteristics on electric Power
Systems Performance, IEEE Transactions
on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. Pas-
88, May 1969, pp . 752-756.
[5] F. P. De Mello and C. Concordia, Concepts
of Synchronous Machine Stability as Affected
by Excitation Control IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. Pas-88
Apr. 1969, pp. 316-329.
[6] NERC Policies Affecting the Power Industry,
IEEE Pulp and Paper, J une 2003. D. Kral,
Excel Energy, R. Schaefer, Basler Electric
Company.
If you have any questions or need
additional information, please contact
Basler Electric Company
12570 State Route 143, Highland, Illinois U.S.A. 62249-1074
Tel +1 618.654.2341 Fax +1 618.654.2351
e-mail: [email protected]
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