Ain Shams University – Faculty of Engineering

Credit Hour Engineering Program

Communication Systems

Life on Mars

By: Nader Sherif

Ahmed Magdy

Magdy Hani

John Reda Fahmy

Noura Hussein

Dalia Galal

Sara Essam

Nada Khaled

Mariam Rafik

Supervised By: Dr. Abdel Wahab El-Ghandour

December 2008
ABSTRACT 

The idea of life on Mars was first popularized by an American astronomer called Percival
Lowell, in the 1890s. There was global obsession with life on Mars since that day. It
wasn't until 1964, when NASA sent the probe (Appendix A1) "Mariner 4" to fly by Mars
and photograph it.
Mars seemed to be a dead planet. It wasn't until years later, during the 70s, when the
astronomers saw that the image of Mars as a dead planet wasn't quite right. By accurate
study and research, it was found that Mars contained all the basic ingredients for life. It
was also found that there were some microbes, which could mean that life may exist on
Mars.
Mars has several volcanoes that surpass the scale of the largest terrestrial volcanoes.
Scientists believe that those volcanoes caused the extinction of life on Mars. After that
mass extinction on the Martian surface, life can be created after applying some changes on
the climate, surface and other properties of Mars. By applying those changes, Mars can be
habitable by humans and other terrestrial life; and thus providing the possibility of safe
and sustainable colonization of the large areas of the planet.
Some scientist have speculated that Mars might one day be transformed so as to allow a
wide variety of living things, including humans, to survive unaided on Mars' surface.
Others make a variety of objections to doing so, some relating to technical feasibility, and
others to desirability. Of course this isn't right, as there are some required changes, in order
to transfer Mars' differences into an earth like circumstances. The two major changes are
building up the atmosphere and keeping it hot.
Mars has the potential capacity to host human and other organic life. With an environment
suitable for colonization, and potential for alteration into a stable ecosystem in the far
future, Mars is considered by most scientists as the ideal planet for future colonization and
renewal of life. The colonization of Mars is a thought-provoking subject that captures the
imagination of many people in science and science-fiction. The project of colonizing Mars
provides a useful thought experiment for contemplating the future of humanity.

i
 Table of Contents 
 
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... iii 
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... iii 
1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Purpose of the Report....................................................................................................... 1 
1.2 Background of the Report ................................................................................................ 1 
1.3 Scope of the Report .......................................................................................................... 1 
2.0 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 2 
2.1 Early speculation .............................................................................................................. 2 
3.0 MISSIONS TO MARS ......................................................................................................... 3 
3.1 Mariner 4 (1964) .............................................................................................................. 3 
3.2 Viking Program (1983) .................................................................................................... 4 
3.3 Mars Odyssey (2001) ....................................................................................................... 5 
3.4 Mars Exploration Rover (2003) ....................................................................................... 6 
3.5 Phoenix Lander (2008) .................................................................................................... 7 
4.0 MICROBIAL LIFE ON MARS ........................................................................................... 8 
4.1 Existence of frozen microbes ........................................................................................... 8 
4.2 Proof of microbial life existence ...................................................................................... 8 
4.3 Methane gas indicating microbial life on Mars ............................................................... 9 
4.4 New claims..................................................................................................................... 10 
5.0 CREATING NEW LIFE .................................................................................................... 11 
5.1 Terraforming of Mars .................................................................................................... 11 
5.1.1 Reasons for terraformin ........................................................................................ 11
5.1.2 Required changes .................................................................................................. 13
5.2 Colonization of Mars ..................................................................................................... 16
5.2.1 Getting there.......................................................................................................... 16
5.2.2 Possible locations for colonies .............................................................................. 18
5.2.3 Building small stations on the moon..................................................................... 19
5.2.4 Problems facing colonization................................................................................ 19
6.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 20 
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 21 

ii
List of figures

Figure 2-1 Percival Lowell, observing Mars from his telescope. ............................................... 2
Figure 2-2 Percival Lowell’s first Martian map ......................................................................... 2 
Figure 3-1 Mariner 4 ................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 3-2 Mars Craters .............................................................................................................. 3 
Figure 3-3 Viking Orbiter ........................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3-4 Viking Lander ........................................................................................................... 4
Figure 3-5 2001 Mars odyssey .................................................................................................... 5 
Figure 3-6 Mars Exploration Rover ............................................................................................ 6 
Figure 3-7 Phoenix Lander ......................................................................................................... 7 
Figure 4-1 Nakhla meteorite ALH 84001 ................................................................................. 10 
Figure 4-2 Martian fossil microbe on meteorite ALH 84001 ................................................... 10
Figure 5-1 Artist's conception of the process of Mars terraforming ......................................... 11
Figure 5-2 Orbits of earth and Mars ......................................................................................... 16
Figure 5-3 The Basic Orion design ........................................................................................... 17
Figure 5-4 Eagle Crater, as seen from Opportunity .................................................................. 18 
Figure 5-5 Building a base on the moon to go to Mars ............................................................ 19 

List of Tables

Table 1. Relative similarities between Earth and Mars ............................................................ 12 

Table 2. Relative differences between Earth and Mars ............................................................ 13

iii
1.0 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Purpose of the Report 

This report illustrates the latest discoveries done by NASA in the past few years
concerning the planet Mars. Additionally, it studies the facts on which we can postulate
the existence of life on Mars. Since the universe is vast, nearly 880 x1024 meters diameter,
and 13.73 ± 0.12 billion years old [1], it is more likely to prove that the theory of finding
life elsewhere in the universe is true. The study of life on Mars can prove that theory. It
has to be mentioned that if life has arisen independently on the planet just next to us, that
means that life existed twice in our solar system. Therefore, the chances must be that life
could be everywhere in the universe.

Scientific observations show a huge growth in Earth’s population at the present time which
creates Earth’s first problem. The Earth will be over populated in the near future, possibly
a hundred years from now, and there will be no places for constructing new habitations
except on water surfaces. The second problem is that the sun will eventually grow too hot
for Earth to sustain life. Therefore, humans will have no other choice but to go another
planet which will have a cooler temperature. To solve these problems, Studies showed that
we can transform a new planet, such as Mars, to be suitable for life and creating new
habitations. Therefore, studies on Mars are in progress today to show the possibility of
Terraforming and colonization of Mars as shown in this report.

1.2 Background of the Report 

Ever since people looked up into the night sky, there has been a question that bothered us
all, are we alone in the Universe? For that reason, many NASA probes were launched.
They were sent to Mars to carry out the most detailed analysis ever of the planet’s surface.
This search for life elsewhere in the universe is a difficult job. In order to do that, we have
to travel to all the distant worlds and scoop up samples. Unfortunately, the worlds that we
can travel to are the other planets in our solar system and none of them are very good in
terms of prospecting for biology. The best one is probably Mars.

The reason Mars is important is because it is close by, just 60 million kilometers away. Its
surface conditions and the availability of water make it arguably the most hospitable of the
planets in this solar system, other than Earth. This is why Mars has obsessed scientists.

1.3 Scope of the Report 
This report provides technical background on the early speculations of Mars, the missions
sent there, some proofs that made scientist believe that Mars is alive, and the Terraforming
of Mars followed by the possibility of colonization.

1
2.0 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND 

2.1 Early speculation 

In 1854, William Whewell, a fellow of

Trinity College, Cambridge, who
popularized the word scientist, theorized
that Mars had seas, land and possibly life
forms. Speculation about life on Mars
exploded in the late 19th century, following
telescopic observation by some observers of
apparent Martian canals — which were
however soon found to be optical illusions.
Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer
Percival Lowell published his book Mars,
followed by Mars and its Canals in 1906, Figure 2-1 Percival Lowell, observing Mars from his old
proposing that the canals were the work of a telescope.
long-gone civilization [2]. Lowell starred at Source: http://www.creationism.org/books/TaylorInMind
Mars for months and kept studying it, he sMen/ TaylorIMMgjPercivalLowellM.jpg
drew what he saw from his telescope (figure
2-1) and created the first Martian map
(figure 2-2).

Mars' polar ice caps were observed as

early as the mid-17th century, and
they were first proven to grow and
shrink alternately, in the summer and
winter of each hemisphere. By the
mid-19th century, astronomers knew
that Mars had certain other
similarities to Earth (section 5.1.2.1).
These observations led to the increase
in speculation that the darker albedo
(Appendix A1) features were water,
Figure 2-2 Percival Lowell’s first Martian map
and brighter ones were land. It was Source: http://www.msss.com/http/ps/life/schia.gif
therefore natural to suppose that Mars
may be inhabited by some form of life.

Spectroscopic analysis of Mars' atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U.S.

astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen was present
in the Martian atmosphere [3]. By 1909, better telescopes and the best perihelic opposition
of Mars since 1877 conclusively put an end to the canal theory.
Scientists became more obsessed with Mars, and it wasn’t easy to study it by telescopes
only. Therefore, NASA lunched several missions to the red planet in order to search for
signs of life. See section 3.0

2
3.0 MISSIONS TO MARS

3.1 Mariner 4 (1964) 
 
Overview 

Mariner 4 (figure 3-1) was the fourth in a series of

spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a
flyby mode and performed the first successful
flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures
of the Martian surface. It captured the first images
of another planet ever returned from deep space;
their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world
shook the scientific community [4].
  Figure 3-1 Mariner 4
Objectives  Source: zebu.uoregon.edu/~probs/mech/grav/geo/
geo.gif

Mariner 4 objectives were to:

• Conduct close up scientific observations of Mars

• Transmit these observations to Earth.
• Perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of
Mars
• Provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities for
interplanetary flights of long duration.
Results 

All experiments operated successfully, the images returned showed a Moon-like cratered
terrain (figure 3-2). Later mission then showed that
this was not typical for Mars.

The images of craters and measurements of a thin

atmosphere, indicating a relatively inactive planet
exposed to the harshness of space, generally
dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on Mars.
Life there had been the subject of speculation and
science fiction for centuries. If there was life on Figure 3-2 Mars Craters
Mars, after Mariner 4, most concluded it would Source: www.psrd.hawaii.edu/WebImg/Mars_craters
.gif
probably be smaller, simpler forms.

Mariner 4 may have concluded the gradual change, in science fiction, from describing
intelligent aliens as dwellers on other planets in our Solar System, to describing them as
living on planets circling distant stars

3
3.2 Viking Program (1983) 
 
Overview 

NASA's Viking program consisted of a pair of space probes sent to Mars, Viking one and
Viking two. Each vehicle was composed of two main parts, an orbiter designed to photograph
the surface of Mars from orbit, and a Lander designed to study the planet from the surface. The
orbiters also served as communication relays for the Landers once they touched down.

Orbiters 

The primary objectives of the Viking orbiters (figure 3-

3) were to transport the Landers to Mars, perform
reconnaissance to locate and certify landing sites, act as
a communications relays for the Landers, and to
perform their own scientific investigations.
 
Landers  Figure 3-3 Viking orbiter
Source: ebu.uoregon.edu/~probs/mech/grav/geo.gif
Each Lander (as shown in figure 3-4) was covered over
from launch until Martian atmospheric entry with an
aero-shell heat shield designed to slow the Lander
down during the entry phase, and also to prevent
contamination of the Martian surface with Earthly
microbial life that can survive the harsh conditions of
deep space. The Lander carried instruments to achieve
the primary scientific objectives of the Lander mission:
to study the biology, chemical composition, magnetic Figure 3-4 Viking Lander
properties, and physical properties of Mars and Source: www.psrd.hawaii.edu/WebImg/Mars_crat
atmosphere. ers.gif
 

Results of the biological experiments 

The Viking Landers conducted biological experiments designed to detect life in the Martian
soil. The results were initially positive but, based on the results of another test that failed to
reveal any organic molecules in the soil.

Mission end 

Although there is general consensus that the Viking Lander results demonstrated a lack of
robust microorganism biota in soils at the two landing sites, the test results and their
limitations are still under assessment. The validity of the positive 'Labeled Release' (LR)
results hinged entirely on the absence of an oxidative agent in the Martian soil, but one was
recently discovered by the Phoenix Lander (section 3.5) in the form of perchlorate salts. In
conclusion, the question of microbial life on Mars remained unresolved [5].

4
3.3 Mars Odyssey (2001) 

The 2001 Mars Odyssey is a robotic spacecraft

orbiting the planet Mars (figure 3-5). The
mission was named after the movie 2001: A
Space Odyssey, and refers to the differences
between the movie and real life by the year 2001.

Overview

Odyssey was launched April 7, 2001 on a Delta

II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
and reached Mars on 24th October 2001. The Figure 3-5 2001 Mars odyssey
spacecraft's main engine fired to break the Source: marsweb.jpl.nasa.gov./hires/mars-odyssey.jpg
spacecraft's speed and allowed it to be captured
into orbit around Mars.

Odyssey used a technique called "aero-braking" that gradually brought the spacecraft
closer to Mars with each orbit. Aero-braking ended in January, and Odyssey began its
science mapping mission on February 19, 2002.

Objectives

The main objective of Mars Odyssey is to search for water. If water is found, then this
proves the existence of:

• Life on Mars whether it was in the past or nowadays.

• Atmosphere and its relationship to Earth's climate changes processes.
• Mars Resources as a solid planet and the study of how it evolved.

Achievements

• About 85 % of images and other data from NASA's twin Mars rovers (Appendix A1),
Spirit and Opportunity, have reached Earth via communications relay by Odyssey,
which receives transmissions from both rovers every day.
• The orbiter helped analyze potential landing sites for the rovers and performed the
same task for NASA's Phoenix mission (section 3.5).
• Odyssey aided NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which reached Mars in March
2006, by monitoring atmospheric conditions during months when the newly arrived
orbiter used aero-braking to alter its orbit into the desired shape[5].

5
3.4 Mars Exploration Rover (2003) 

NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (Figure 3-6) Mission

is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that
began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers; Spirit
and Opportunity to explore the Martian surface and
geology (Appendix A1).

Overview

Primary among the mission's scientific goals is to Figure 3-6 Mars Exploration Rover
Source: http://www.planetary.org/image/PIA04413_
search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and mars-exploration-rover_art.jpg>
soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars.

Objectives

The objectives of the rovers, Spirit and opportunity, were to:

• Search for rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity.
• Determine the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding
the landing sites.
• Determine what geologic processes have shaped the local terrain and influenced the
chemistry.
• Search for iron-containing minerals, identify and quantify relative amounts of specific
mineral types that contain water or were formed in water, such as iron-bearing
carbonates.

Achievements

• Opportunity discovered jarosite which indicates the presence of micro-organisms.

• Spirit and Opportunity reached the summit of Husband Hill, Colombia Hills, Gusev
Crater and Meridiani planum. Spirit and Opportunity had lasted over five years on the
Martian surface [5].

6
3.5 Phoenix Lander (2008) 

Phoenix was a robotic spacecraft on a space

exploration mission on Mars under the Mars Scout
Program (figure 3-7). Mission scientists used
instruments aboard the Phoenix Lander to search for
environments suitable for microbial life on Mars,
and to research the history of water there.

Overview
Figure 3-7 Phoenix Lander
The mission had two goals. The first was to study Source: http://media.shinyplastic.com/prodimg/mars
the geologic history of water, the key to unlocking -phoenix-lander.jpg
the story of past climate change. The second was
evaluating past or potential planetary habitability in the ice-soil boundary.

Objectives

The main surface mission for the Lander is to sample the Martian soil for ice.

Achievements

• The Lander was designed to last 90 days, and had been running on bonus time
since the successful end of its primary mission in August 2008[5].
• On July 31, 2008, NASA announced that Phoenix confirmed the presence of water
ice on Mars, as predicted on 2002 by the Mars Odyssey orbiter. At last, Phoenix
was able to prove that the conditions on mars were suitable for microbial life.

Mission end

On November 10, Phoenix Mission Control reported the loss of contact with the Phoenix
Lander (the last signal was received on November 2).[6] Immediately prior, Phoenix sent
its final message: "Triumph" in binary.[6] The demise of the craft occurred three weeks
earlier than expected, as a result of a dust storm that reduced power generation even
further.[6] The spacecraft's computer has a safe mode that, theoretically, will attempt to
reestablish communications when the Lander can recharge its batteries next spring.
However, its landing location is in an area that is usually part of the north polar ice cap
during the Martian winter, meaning the spacecraft will likely be encased in dry ice. It is
considered unlikely that the spacecraft will survive this condition [7].

7
4.0 MICROBIAL LIFE ON MARS 
Genetic studies have shown that microbes living in these extreme environments are most
closely related to the first forms of terrestrial life.

Thus, if life is found on Mars, it will certainly be microbes. In fact for most of Earth's
history, all the life was on Earth was microbes. And so going to Mars and even finding the
smallest, organism that will be very important because it will confirm that life in our own
solar system started twice. Microbes are tough (they can live under conditions of very high
temperature, acid, and salt). Consequently, microbes literally define the limits and the
potential of life.

The search for tiny microbes would not be easy. Mars is 6,700 kilometers wide and it has
the same land mass as Earth.

4.1 Existence of frozen microbes 

Micro-organisms were found in the permafrost in the end of 19th century. It was
discovered that bacteria can survive in the permafrost for far longer than anyone had
thought possible. In 2001, they found bacteria which may turn out to have been at -20°C
for more than 10 million years. Bacteria have been buried alive here at Earth in the frozen
ground since before the beginning of human evolution [8].

If life can survive in Antarctica for 15 million years, then something could be waiting to be
revived on Mars

4.2 Proof of microbial life existence 

The arrival Mariner 4 in 1964, provided evidence of liquid water on Mars in the recent
past. This has led to speculation about whether simple forms of life, like bacteria, might
exist on Mars.

The thin atmosphere of Mars does little to block out damaging radiation from the sun, and
the surface of Mars seems to be sterilized by caustic chemicals like hydrogen peroxide, but
scientists still hold out hope that life on Mars could survive protected below the surface.
Mixtures of water and hydrogen peroxide freeze at much lower temperatures than water
alone. The researchers theorize that microbes might be able to use hydrogen peroxide to
survive at lower temperatures. The idea is based on Earth microbes that use salts. In a
similar way, they can be provided with “antifreeze" that keeps them alive in cold
environments. If microbes on Mars adapted to use hydrogen peroxide in a similar way, it
may mean that the Viking results need to be reinterpreted.

Signatures, that indicate microbes, were identified by testing the Martian soil with TEGA
instrument (Appendix A2), identify signatures that indicated microbes. Specific chemicals
that can be detected by TEGA can now serve as biomarkers for possible life on Mars [8].

Jarosite is a yellowish-brown sulfate mineral containing iron, potassium and hydroxide. It

is found in places around the world such as southern California beaches and volcanic
8
fields in New Zealand. It forms only in the presence of highly acidic water. In 2004,
Jarosite was found on Mars by Opportunity, one of NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers
(section 3.4). It was a clear evidence for past water on the red planet. But there is
something else about Jarosite that makes it interesting. One of the steps in its formation
involves combining pyrite (ferrous sulfide) with oxygen. This oxidation reaction can be
performed by certain "rock-eating" microorganisms.

The rate of the Jarosite formation would be extremely slow without microbes and the
presence of water, whether Jarosite can form without the assistance of these microbes is
very difficult to prove, since every corner of Earth is occupied by little bugs of some sort
or another.

4.3 Methane gas indicating microbial life on Mars 

Amounts of methane were first reported in Mars' atmosphere with a concentration of about
10 ppb by volume [9]. The presence of methane on Mars is very intriguing, since as an
unstable gas it indicates that there must be a source of the gas on the planet. It is estimated
that Mars must produce 270 ton/year of methane [10], but asteroid (Appendix A2) impacts
account for only 0.8% of the total methane production. The geologic sources of methane
are possible, but the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity and hotspots are not
favorable for geologic methane. The existence of life in the form of micro-organisms, such
as methanogens which produce methane in anoxic conditions (a total decrease in the level
of oxygen), are among possible.

The European Space Agency (ESA) found that the concentration of methane in the
Martian atmosphere was not even, but rather that it coincided with the presence of water
vapor. In the upper atmosphere these two gasses are uniformly distributed, but near the
surface they concentrate in three equatorial regions, namely Arabia Terra, Elysium
Planitia, and Arcadia Memnonia.

Ultimately, to prove an organic nature for the methane, a future probe or Lander hosting a
mass spectrometer will be needed, since the isotopic proportions of C12 to C14 can clearly
distinguish between an inorganic and an organic (biologic, e.g. bacterial decay) origin of
the methane[11]. In 2010, the Mars Science Laboratory rover will measure such isotopes
in CO2 and methane [12].

9
4.4 New claims 

Sensational new claims about life on Mars were made

by US scientists. Some of the researchers claimed, in
1996, to have found evidence for past life in a Martian
meteorite; it was claimed that an unusual structures in
a meteorite called ALH84001 (figure 4-1) looked like
fossilized bacteria.

The new evidence comes from a study of the so-called

Nakhla meteorite that fell at Nakhla, Egypt, in 1911. It
broke up into many pieces, and years later, a detailed
analysis of the rock revealed it to be one of only 13
Figure 4-1 Nakhla meteorite ALH 84001
known meteorites from the planet Mars. It is estimated Source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/meteoritre
to be about 1.37 billion years old and was thrown into ALH84001.jpg
space when a giant asteroid slammed into Mars
hundreds of millions of years ago.

Examination of the Nakhla meteorite, using an optical and a more powerful scanning
electron microscope (SEM), has revealed rounded particles of a limited size range. The
researchers suggest that these structures are the mineralized remnants of bacteria that once
lived on Mars. They say that their size is similar to bacteria found on Earth [13].

It has to be mentioned that by looking closely at the

alleged fossilized bacterial colonies, scientists say they
are reminded of microbes undergoing the process of
division. One of the structures may even have an
extension like a fibril sometimes seen in Earth
bacteria. They even go onto to say that they believe the
Nakhla meteorite may have been colonized by two
generations of bacteria.

It was also mentioned that another meteorite from

Mars, called Shergotty, may also contain the bacterial Figure 4-2 Martian fossil microbe on
fossils (figure 4-2). For most scientists, though, curious meteorite ALH 84001
and minute shapes in meteorites are not enough to Source: http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-
make them believe that bacteria once lived on Mars. media/28/75428-004-84C3C5C1.jpg
They say it is all too easy to be fooled by the shapes of
mineral grains, especially if viewed with an eye
looking for organic shapes [5].

10
5.0 CREATING NEW LIFE 
Transforming Mars into a planet suitable for life is not a science fictional story, but the
whole transformation is based on scientific studies. The planet can now be transformed so
as to allow a wide variety of living things, including humans, to survive unaided on Mars'
surface [14].

5.1 Terraforming of Mars 

Terraforming of Mars is a hypothetical process by which the

climate, surface and known properties of Mars would be
deliberately changed with the goal of making it habitable by
humans and other terrestrial life; and thus providing the
possibility of safe and sustainable colonization of the large areas
of the planet. (Figure 5-1 shows an artist’s conception of the
process of terraforming), see appendix for further illustrations.

5.1.1 Reasons for Terraforming 

In the near future, population growth and demand for resources

may create pressure for humans to colonize new habitats such as
the surface of the Earth's oceans, the sea floor, and nearby
planets, as well as mine the solar system for energy and materials
[15]. Thinking far into the future (in the order of hundreds of
millions of years), some scientists point out that the Sun will
eventually grow too hot for Earth to sustain life, even before it
becomes a red giant star, because all main sequence stars brighten
slowly throughout their lifetimes. When this happens, it will
become imperative for humans to migrate away to areas farther
from the sun if they have any hope of surviving.

It has to be mentioned that through terraforming, humans could

make Mars habitable long before this “deadline”. Mars could then
be in the habitable zone for a while, giving humanity some
thousand additional years to develop further space technology to
settle on the outer rim of the solar system, before Mars becomes
uninhabitable due to the sun's increasing heat.

Figure 5-1 Artist's

conception of the process of
Mars terraforming.
Source:http://upload.wikimedia.o
rg/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Mars
TransitionV.jpg

11
 5.1.1.1 Relative Similarities and Differences to Earth 

Progressive studies should be taken in consideration first; if a planet is to be terraformed,

then it must have similarities to Earth according to the following points:

• Total number of the hours in a day.

• Axial tilt which has a huge role in the duration of the seasons (i.e. summer,
winter,...etc.)
• Surface area that can be habitable.
• Atmosphere and amount of water present.

 
Relative similarities 

Table 1 shows the relative similarities between Earth and Mars:

Table 1. Relative similarities between Earth and Mars

Earth Mars

Day time 24 24:39:35

(HH:MM:SS)

Axial Tilt (Degree) 23.44 25.19

Equilateral Radius
3 396.2 6,378.1
(km)
148,940,000 Land
Surface Area (Km2) 144,798,500
361,132,000 Water
Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Atmospheric
Argon, Carbon dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen (N2), Argon,
components
and, water vapor Oxygen, and water
Iced water were found
Water 71% of its area is liquid water
only
 

Source: <http://upload.wikimedia.org/earth.html>

12
 Relative differences 

Table 2 shows the relative similarities between Earth and Mars:

Table 2. Relative differences between Earth and Mars

Earth Mars

Orbit around the sun (days) 365.25 685.18

Surface Gravity (g) 0.997 0.376

Temperature (Kelvin) 287 227

Liquid water Exists Doesn’t exist

Surface Pressure (kPa) 101.3 0.7 : 0.9

78.08% N2
95% CO2
20.95% O2
Atmospheric components percentages 3% N2
0.93% Argon
1.6% Argon
1% water vapor
[appendix]
Magnetosphere Relatively stronger Weak

Source: <http://upload.wikimedia.org/earth.html>

5.1.2. Required changes 

In order to transform Mars’ differences into an earth like circumstances, there are some
changes required to be done first. Terraforming Mars would entail two major interlaced
changes: building up the atmosphere and keeping it warm. The atmosphere of Mars is
relatively thin and, since it consists mainly of CO2, a known greenhouse gas. Once the
planet begins to heat; more CO2 enters the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the
poles, adding to the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the
atmosphere and heating it would augment one another, favoring terraforming. However,
on a large scale, controlled application of certain techniques (explained in the next two
pages) over enough time to achieve sustainable changes, would be required to make this
theory a reality.

13
5.1.2.1. Building the atmosphere 

Using Chlorofluorocarbons 

Chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) are the most likely candidates for artificial insertion into
the Martian atmosphere because of their strong effect as a greenhouse gas. This can
conceivably be done relatively cheaply by sending rockets with a payload of compressed
CFCs on a collision course with Mars [16]. When the rocket crashes onto the surface it
releases its payload into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these "CFC rockets" would
need to be sustained for a little more than a decade while the planet changes chemically
and becomes warmer.

As the planet becomes warmer, the CO2 on the polar caps sublimes into the atmosphere
and contributes to the warming effect. The tremendous air currents generated by the
moving gasses would create large, sustained dust storms, which would also contribute to
the warming of the planet by directly heating (through absorbing solar radiation) the
molecules in the atmosphere. Eventually Mars would be warm enough that CO2 could not
solidify on the poles, but liquid water would still not develop because the pressure would
be too low.

After the heavy dust-storms subside, the warmer planet could conceivably be habitable to
some forms of terrestrial life. Certain forms of algae and bacteria that are able to live in the
Antarctic would be prime candidates. By filling a few rockets with algae spores and
crashing them in the polar areas where there would still be water-ice, they could not only
grow but even thrive in the no-competition, high-radiation, high CO2 environment.

If the algae are successful in propagating themselves around parts of the planet, this would
have the effect of darkening the surface and reducing the albedo of the planet. By
absorbing more sunlight, the ground will warm the atmosphere even more, and the
atmosphere will have a new small oxygen contribution from the algae. This is still not
enough oxygen for humans to breathe, but it's a step in the right direction. If the
atmosphere grows denser, the atmospheric surface pressure may rise and approximate that
of Earth. At first, until there is enough oxygen in the atmosphere, humans will probably
need nothing more than a breathing mask and a small tank of oxygen that they carry
around with them. To contribute to the oxygen content of the air, factories could be
produced that reduce the metals in the soil, effectively resulting in desired crude metals
and oxygen as a byproduct. Also, by bringing plants with them (along with the microbial
life inherent in fertile topsoil), humans could propagate plant life on Mars, which would
create a sustainable oxygen supply to the atmosphere.

Using Ammonia 

Another, more intricate method, uses ammonia as a powerful greenhouse gas (as it is
possible that nature has stockpiled large amounts of it in frozen form on asteroidal objects
orbiting in the outer solar system), it may be possible to move these (for example, by using
very large nuclear bombs to blast them in the right direction) and send them into Mars's
atmosphere. Since ammonia (NH3) is high in nitrogen it might also take care of the
problem of needing a buffer gas in the atmosphere. Sustained smaller impacts will also
contribute to increases in the temperature and mass of the atmosphere.

14
The need for a buffer gas is a challenge that will face any potential atmosphere builders.
On Earth, nitrogen is the primary atmospheric component making up 77% of the
atmosphere. Mars would require a similar buffer gas component although not necessarily
as much. Still, obtaining significant quantities of nitrogen, argon or some other
comparatively inert gas could prove difficult.

Hydrogen importation could also be done for atmospheric and hydrospheric engineering.
Depending on the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, importation and reaction of
hydrogen would produce heat, water and graphite via the Bosch reaction (Appendix A2).
Adding water and heat to the environment will be the key for making the dry, cold world
suitable for life. Alternatively, reacting hydrogen with the carbon dioxide atmosphere via a
certain reaction would yield methane and water. The methane could be vented into the
atmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect.

5.1.2.2. Adding heat 

Adding heat and conserving heat present is a particularly important stage of this process,
as heat from the Sun is the primary driver of planetary climate. Since long term climate
stability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially
powerful greenhouse gases possibly including halocarbons such as CFCs and PFCs has
been suggested. A proposal to mine fluorine-containing minerals as a source of these gases
is supported by the belief that since the quantities present are expected to be at least as
common on Mars as on Earth, this process could sustain the production of sufficient
quantities of optimal greenhouse compounds (CF3SCF3, CF3OCF2OCF3, CF3SCF2SCF3,
CF3OCF2NFCF3) to maintain Mars at 'comfortable' temperatures, as a method of
maintaining an Earth-like atmosphere produced previously by some other means [16].

Another way to increase the temperature could be to direct small cosmic bodies asteroids
onto the Martian surface (Appendix A1); the impact energy would be released as heat and
could evaporate Martian water ice to steam, which is also a greenhouse gas.

5.1.2.3. Solar radiation 

Mars has no global geomagnetic field comparable to Earth's. Combined with a thin
atmosphere, this permits a significant amount of ionizing radiation to reach the Martian
surface. The Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE) found that radiation
levels in orbit above Mars are 2.5 times higher than at the International Space Station. A
three year exposure to such levels would be close to the safety limits currently adopted by
NASA. Levels at the Martian surface would be somewhat lower and might vary
significantly at different locations depending on altitude and local magnetic fields.
Occasional solar proton events (SPEs) produce much higher doses. Some SPEs were
observed by MARIE that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact that SPEs are
directional. This would imply that a network of spacecraft in orbit around the Sun might
be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected.

15
5.2 Colonization of Mars 

Mars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human
colonization. The Moon has been proposed as the first location for human colonization,
but unlike Earth's moon, Mars has the potential capacity to host human and other organic
life. With an environment suitable for colonization, and potential for alteration into a
stable ecosystem in the far future, Mars is considered by most scientists, including Stephen
Hawking [14], as the ideal planet for future colonization and renewal of life. The
colonization of Mars is a thought-provoking subject that captures the imagination of many
people in science and science-fiction. The project of colonizing Mars provides a useful
thought experiment for contemplating the future of humanity.

5.2.1 Getting there 
Earth and Mars are circling the sun in different speeds and different orbits (figure 5-2).
The Mars craft was set course for a moving target
travelling millions of kilometers. This critical task is
being studied by the European space agency. Their job is
to help decide the spaceship trajectory.

There are two choices:

1) Choice one is to go to Mars when it is closest to

the Earth (56 million kilometers away). This
option requires the least fuel so less weight. But Figure 5-2 Orbits of earth and Mars
the minus side is that astronauts can only come Source: www.wikipedia.com
home when the two planets are close together once more which would be only after
18 months. They have to live 18 months on the isolated deadly planet.
2) Choice two, which is riskier, is, on coming back, a short stay mission. The space
ship swings by Venus and uses the planet’s gravity as a slim shot that saves fuel.
But the time range to reach Venus is short, if they miss it, the astronauts will not
come home.

The safest of all is to go to Mars and return back directly in the shortest time and by using
less fuel. The best fuel that can be used is nuclear energy [17].

5.2.1.1 Psychological and Physical effects 
The human factor is one of the greatest risks of the voyage to Mars. Can any 6 people live
together for a year in a spaceship the size of an apartment without someone cracking up?

Psychological effects

Crew members would be expected to remain in space under conditions of confinement and
microgravity for months to years. Furthermore, a relatively large number of individuals
would interact around complicated tasks that may be different. The ability of these of crew
members to work together in space over long periods of time has not been studied
adequately.
An astronaut, Jerry Linenger, spent 5 months above a Russian space ship. He can’t
imagine the impact of a two and a half year mission to Mars. He says, “I can’t imagine
16
how I was isolated and cut off and how vulnerable I was. I felt some serious psychological
problems developing.” The journey to Mars is an exercise on boredom, slipping days,
aerobic exercises, and dehydrated meals. There is very little to do and nowhere to escape.
 

Physical effects

The psychological anguish is only one problem; the physical effects are much more
serious. Bones and muscles weaken radically at zero gravity and NASA still doesn't have
solutions. Jerry spent 132 consecutive days in space, that's lee than one third of the travel
time to Mars and back. He lost 65% of his strength level and lost about 13-14% of the
bone mass [17].

5.2.1.2 Nuclear power: 
Rockets are chemical powered, they require millions of pounds of fuel, and in space travel,
weight is the enemy. One of NASA's engineers has an answer, which is "A nuclear
efficient propulsion system”. The benefits of nuclear power are that it has higher gas
mileage, which is twice that of the chemical rockets. That means that we would have fewer
number of heavy-lift launch vehicles. Scientists were convinced that chemical rockets,
with their limited payloads and high cost, represented the wrong approach to space travel.
Orion, they argued, was simple, capacious, and above all affordable. Furthermore, it is
faster and decreases the time of the trip from 18 to 2 months, which is the aim of such
rocket. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by matter-antimatter pulse
units would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity up to 50% of
the speed of light [15].

The birth of Orion

Project Orion shown in (figure 5-3) was an advanced rocket design

explored in the 1960s. Orion was designed to replace the Space Shuttle and
eventually return to the Moon. Missions that were designed for an Orion
vehicle in the original project included single stage (i.e., directly from
Earth's surface) to Mars and back.

The 1960s Project Orion examined the feasibility of building a nuclear-

pulse rocket powered by nuclear fission. The scientists, Ulam and Everett,
suggested releasing atomic bombs behind a spacecraft, followed by disks
made of solid propellant. The bombs would explode, vaporizing the
material of the disks and converting it into hot plasma. As this plasma
rushed out in all directions, some of it would catch up with the spacecraft, Figure 5-3 The
impinge upon a pusher plate, and so drive the vehicle forward [15]. basic Orion design
Source:http://media.s
hinyplastic.com

17
Later modifications and developments
Ulam and Everett's idea was modified by de Hoffman so that instead of propellant disks,
the propellant and bomb were combined into a single pulse unit. The effective specific
impulse could theoretically be as high as 10,000 to one million seconds. A series of abrupt
jolts would be experienced by the pusher plate and a shock absorbing system was devised
so that the impulse energy delivered to the plate could be stored and then gradually
released to the vehicle as a whole.

This called for a 40-million-ton spacecraft to be powered by the sequential release of ten
million bombs, each designed to explode roughly 60 m to the vehicle's back. In the more
immediate future, Orion was envisaged as a means of transporting large expeditions to the
Moon, Mars, and Saturn [17].

5.2.2 Possible locations for colonies 

The selection of location in which a colony is to be formed is not an easy task. Scientists
have studied several locations on the surface of Mars, for example, as seen in (figure 5-4),
and chose the following locations [18]:

• Polar Regions: Mars' north and south poles have seasonally-varying polar ice caps
have long been observed by telescope from Earth. The largest concentration of water
was found near the North Pole.

• Equatorial Regions: Mars Odyssey found

natural caves near the volcano Arsia Mons.
Water ice and geothermal energy were
suspected on the ground of the caves.
Colonists could possibly benefit from both
shelters from radiation and ice reservoirs.

• Midlands: The two Mars Exploration

Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have
encountered very different soil and rock Figure 5-4 Eagle Crater, as seen from Opportunity
characteristics. This suggests that the Source: http://media.shinyplastic.com/prodimg/mars-
Martian landscape is quite varied and the phoe nix-lander.jpg
ideal location for a colony would be better
determined when more data become available.

• Valles Marineris: Valles Marineris, the "Grand Canyon" of Mars, is over 3,000 km
long and averages 8 km deep. Atmospheric pressure at the bottom would be some
25% higher than the surface average. The canyon runs roughly east-west, so shadows
from its walls should not interfere too badly with solar power collection. River
channels lead to the canyon, indicating it was once flooded.

18
5.2.3 Building small stations on the moon 
Overview 

NASA announces plans to build a moon base that

would house a new generation of lunar explorers. The
plan calls for a return to the moon by 2020, with a
rudimentary base camp established by 2024. But the
ambitious plan faces some stiff technical and political
challenges. For that aim, NASA has been designing
rockets that it calls Apollo on steroids.
A lunar base would look something like a dusty trailer
park in Antarctica during winter. It would need to have
a landing pad, and possibly a parking lot for a rover. Figure 5-5 Building a base on the moon to go
(Figure 5-5) to Mars
Source: http://media.shinyplastic.com/prodimg/
Using our moon to practice life on Mars moon-station.jpg

The Moon is also viewed as a place where the basic principles can be tested for the first time.
Although the lunar and Martian environments differ in detail, there are important similarities.
Many subsystems such as electrolysis cells, gas liquefaction systems, life support, operational
autonomy, surface mobility, and storage and handling systems, will be common for the Moon
and Mars. In addition, the Moon can be an important location for the study of the long-term
effects on humans and human activity in less than 1-g environments. This understanding is
critical to the safety of the first astronauts who will spend extensive time traveling to and
exploring the surface of Mars.

The lunar surface has a unique record of the first billion years of impact history and records
the chronology of inner-solar-system evolution in a cumulative form. The Martian time scale
is thought to be similar to that of the Moon, although the rate of collisions at Mars' impact
history might be higher due to its close proximity to the asteroid belt.

5.2.4 Problems facing colonization 
5.2.4.1 Communication 

Communications with Earth are relatively straightforward during the half-sol when the Earth is
above the Martian horizon. NASA included communications relay equipment in several of the
Mars orbiters, so Mars already has communications satellites. But, additional orbiters with
communication relay capability are likely to be launched before any colonization expeditions
are mounted. It has to be mentioned that the main problem is the one-way communication
delay due to the speed of light ranges approximately from about 3 to 22 minutes. Telephone
conversations or Internet Relay Chat between Earth and Mars would be highly impractical due
to the long time lags involved. NASA has found that direct communication can be blocked for
about two weeks every synodic period, around the time of superior conjunction when the Sun
is directly between Mars and Earth. A satellite at either of the Earth-Sun L4/L5 Lagrange
points could serve as a relay during this period to solve the problem, or even a constellation of
communications satellites, which would be a minor expense in the context of a full-blown
Mars colonization program [17].

19
 6.0 CONCLUSION
• The American astronomer Percival Lowell popularized the idea of life on Mars when
he saw the lines crossing Mars’s surface, which he thought to be canals liking Martian
cities.

• For Lowell’s theory, many spacecrafts were sent to Mars. Mariner 4 was one of the
spacecrafts intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode and retuned the first
pictures of the Martian surface. The Viking program formed most of the database of
information about Mars. The Viking Lander carried instruments to achieve the
primary scientific objectives of the Lander mission. Odyssey was then sent to
understand the potential for life elsewhere in the Universe and understand the
relationship to Earth’s climate change processes. Odyssey was followed by Mars
Exploration Rover and its aim was to explore the Martian surface and geology.
Finally, the Phoenix Lander was launched and it was able to find ice caps on the
Martian surface.

• The beginning of the search for life on Mars was to search for microbial life as
microbes were the first living organisms on Earth, millions of years before the
existence of humans. As the temperature on Mars is extremely cold, Antarctica is the
most similar place on Earth to Mars, and truly microbes were able to survive under
such conditions. So scientists believed that life can be created after applying some
changes on the climate, surface, and other properties of Mars.

• Colonization of Mars would require extreme actions. Colonization needs transforming

the entire planet into an artificial Earth. This involves creating more oxygen and
raising the temperature of the atmosphere. Once this is done, then we can assume that
water exists in a free form on the Martian surface, and it again will create rivers, lakes
and oceans, which will be used for the survival of living creatures.

• After Mars is terraformed, it can be habitable by human. But scientists have to think
about the means of transportation. For spacecrafts to go to mars and come back again,
it would take 18 months. The proposed solution is to use nuclear energy as a fuel as it
can decrease the time needed from 18 to 2 months. After the time of the trip is
decreased, almost all the problem facing life on Mars are solved. So, life can truly
start on Mars.

• Mars is our new world. One day, millions of people will live there. What language
will they speak? What values and traditions will they cherish as they move from there
to the solar system and beyond? When they look back on our time, will any of our
other actions compare in value with what we do now to bring their society into being?
Today we have the opportunity to be the parents, the founders, the shapers of a new
branch of the human family. By doing that, we will put our stamp on the future. It is a
privilege not to be disdained lightly.

20
References 

[1] C.Kenneth, "Gauging Age of Universe Becomes More Precise," New York Times,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Universe, Retrieved on September 24, 2008.
[2] P. Lowell, "Mars and its canals," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars.
[3] C. Paul, "Life on Mars; The Complete Story," London, 1999,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars.
[4] V. McGregor, "Phoenix Mission Status Report," Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif, October
29, 2008, http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2008-200.
[5] C. Mckay, W. Boynton, Life on Mars. 48 min. BBC Learning Channel, 2003.(DVD)
[6] http://twitter.com/MarsPhoenix/status/999393608.
[7] A.J.S. Rayl, "Sun Sets on Phoenix, NASA Declares End of Mission," Planetary News, Retrieved on
November 11, 2008, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_lander#cite_ref-56.
[8] Is it Real Life on Mars. 47 min. National Geographic, 2002.(DVD)
[9] M. Mumma, "Mars Methane Boosts Chances for Life,
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#cite_note-repeat1-8, Retrieved on 2007.
[10] V. Krasnopolsky, "Some problems related to the origin of methane on Mars," Icarus, vol. 180, no. 2,
pp. 359–367, February 2005, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WGF-
4HTCW362&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&vers
ion=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a614a9e35a422b94cc2611ccdc4bf180.
[11] M. Nicholas, "Missions to Mars during the Third Millennium," NASA,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#cite_note-nasa-15.
[12] T. David, "Making Sense of Mars Methane, " Astrobiology Magazine," June 9, 2008,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#cite_note-16, Retrieved on October 8, 2008.
[13] B. Maxwell, NS-Life on Mars. 47 min. (DVD) No date.
[14] Z. Robert, "Touchstone," 1996, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars#cite_note-8.
[15] N. Savage, T. Marshall," The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps", 1994,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars#cite_note-0.
[16] P. Ahrens, "Keeping Mars warm with new super greenhouse gases,
"http://www.pnas.org/content/98/5/2154.full.
[17] Mars Rising ep.1 – Journey to the Red Planet. 45 min. Discovery Channel, 2004. (DVD)
[18] D. Shiga, "Stephen Hawking calls for Moon and Mars colonies," April 2008,
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13748?feedId=online-news_rss20.

21
Appendix 
Physical characteristics of Mars 
Soil 
Martian soil is slightly alkaline and containing vital nutrients such as magnesium, sodium,
potassium and chloride, all of which are necessary for living things to grow. The martian pH
soil test discovered traces of the salt perchlorate. Its presence, make the soil more exotic than
previously believed.
Hydrology 
Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure,
except at the lowest elevations for short period, but water ice is in no short supply, with two
polar ice caps made largely of ice. Higher resolution observations from spacecraft like Mars
Global Surveyor also revealed at least a few hundred features along crater and canyon walls
that appear similar to terrestrial seepage gullies.
Magnetosphere 
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, so the solar wind interacts directly with the
Martian ionosphere, keeping the atmosphere thinner than it would otherwise be by stripping
away atoms from the outer layer.
Climate 
Mars's seasons are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational
axes. However, the lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's, as Mars’
greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years in length.
Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about 133°K (−140 °C) during the polar
winters to highs of up to 293 °K (20 °C) in summers.
Moons 
Mars has two tiny natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit very close to the planet and
are thought to be captured asteroids.
NASA probes  
A space probe is a scientific space exploration mission in which a robotic spacecraft leaves the
gravity well of Earth and approaches the Moon or enters interplanetary or interstellar space;
approximately twenty are currently extant. The space agencies of the USSR (now Russia and
Ukraine), the United States, the European Union, Japan, India and China have in the aggregate
launched probes to several planets and moons of the solar system as well as to a number of
asteroids and comets.

Albedo Feature  
An albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet (or other solar system body) which
shows a contrast in brightness or darkness (albedo) with adjacent areas.

Historically, albedo features were the very first (and usually only) features to be seen and
named on Mars and Mercury. Early classical maps (such as those of Schiaparelli and
Antoniadi) showed only albedo features, and it was not until the arrival of space probes that
other surface features such as craters could be seen.

The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major on Mars in the 17th
century.

22
A1
Today, thanks to space probes, very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and
Mercury are available, and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen
somewhat into disuse. It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur
astronomers.

MARS EXPLORATION ROVERS 
Rover stands 1.5 m (4.9 ft) high, 2.3 m (7.5 ft) wide and 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long. They weigh 180
kg (400 lb), 35 kg (80 lb) of which is the wheel and suspension system. The rover has a top
speed on flat hard ground of 50 mm/s (2 in/s).

When fully illuminated, the rover triple-junction solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to
four hours per sol. The rover needs about 100 watts to drive. Its power system includes two
rechargeable lithium ion batteries that provide energy when the sun is not shining.

The NASA team uses actual video game applications called SAP to view images collected
from the rover, and to plan its daily activities. There is a version available to the public called
Maestro [5].

The TEGA instrument 

The Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer (TEGA) is a scientific instrument aboard the Phoenix
spacecraft. TEGA's design is based on experience gained from the failed Mars Polar Lander.
Soil samples taken from the Martian surface by the robot arm are eventually delivered to the
TEGA, where they are heated in an oven to about 1,000°C. This heat causes the volatile
compounds to be given off as gases which are sent to a mass spectrometer for analysis. This
spectrometer is adjusted to measure particularly the isotope ratios for oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
and heavier gases. Detection values as low as 10 parts per billion. The Phoenix TEGA has 8
ovens, which are enough for 8 samples [6].

Asteroids 

Sometimes called minor planets or planetoids, are bodies—primarily of the inner Solar
System—that are smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids, but exclude comets. The
distinction between asteroids and comets is made on visual appearance when discovered:
Comets show a perceptible coma while asteroids do not.

Bosch reaction 

Is a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon
(graphite), water and a 10% return of invested heat. This reaction requires the introduction of
iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees.

23
A2