DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (UG & PG)

2 Marks Question and Answer

2. List any eight applications of DBMS. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) Banking Airlines Universities Credit card transactions Tele communication Finance Sales Manufacturing Human resources

3. What are the disadvantages of file processing system? The disadvantages of file processing systems are a) Data redundancy and inconsistency b) Difficulty in accessing data

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programs to access those data.

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1. Define database management system? DBMS is Data Base Management System, which consists of a collection of interrelated data and a set of

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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION

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Subject Code & Name: DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

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Second Year Computer Science and Engineering, 4th Semester

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c) Data isolation d) Integrity problems

e) Atomicity problems f) Concurrent access anomalies

The advantages of using a DBMS are a) Controlling redundancy b) Restricting unauthorized access c) Providing multiple user interfaces

a) Physical level

c) view level

6. Define instance and schema? Instance: Collection of data stored in the data base at a particular moment is called an Instance of the database. Schema: The overall design of the data base is called the data base schema. 7. Define the terms 1) physical schema 2) logical schema. Physical schema: The physical schema describes the database design at the physical level, which is the lowest level of abstraction describing how the data are actually stored. Logical schema: The logical schema describes the database design at the logical level, which describes what data are stored in the database and what relationship exists among the data.

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b) logical level

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5. Give the levels of data abstraction?

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e) Providing backup and recovery

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d) Enforcing integrity constraints.

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4. What are the advantages of using a DBMS?

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8. What is conceptual schema? The schemas at the view level are called sub schemas that describe different views of the database. 9. Define data model? A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data

10. What is storage manager?

11. What are the components of storage manager?

c) d)

File manager

12. What is the purpose of storage manager? The storage manager is responsible for the following a) Interaction with he file manager b) Translation of DML commands in to low level file system commands c) Storing, retrieving and updating data in the database 13. List the data structures implemented by the storage manager. The storage manager implements the following data structure a) Data files b) Data dictionary c) indices

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Buffer manager

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b)

Transaction manager

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a)

Authorization and integrity manager

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The storage manager components include

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stored in a database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.

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A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the Low level data

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semantics and consistency constraints.

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14. What is a data dictionary? A data dictionary is a data structure which stores meta data about the structure of the database ie. the schema of the database. 15. What is an entity relationship model?

16. What are attributes? Give examples.

customer street, customer city.

Example: A depositor relationship associates a customer with each account that

18. Define the terms i) ii) Entity set Relationship set

Entity set: The set of all entities of the same type is termed as an entity set. Relationship set: The set of all relationships of the same type is termed as a relationship set

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he/she has.

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A relationship is an association among several entities.

17. What is relationship? Give examples

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Example: possible attributes of customer entity are customer name, customer id,

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member of an entity set.

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An entity is represented by a set of attributes. Attributes are descriptive properties possessed by each

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those objects. An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable from other objects.

The entity relationship model is a collection of basic objects called entities and relationship among

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19. Define single valued and multivalued attributes. Single valued attributes: attributes with a single value for a particular entity are called single valued attributes.

called multivalued attributes. 20. What are stored and derived attributes?

Derived attributes: The attributes that are derived from the stored attributes are Called derived

Composite attributes can be divided in to sub parts.

know the value of an attribute for a particular entity. In these cases null value is used. 23. Define the terms i) ii) Entity type Entity set

Entity type: An entity type defines a collection of entities that have the same attributes. Entity set: The set of all entities of the same type is termed as an entity set. 24. What is meant by the degree of relationship set? The degree of relationship type is the number of participating entity types.

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In some cases a particular entity may not have an applicable value for an attribute or if we do not

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22. Define null values.

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21. What are composite attributes?

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attributes.

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Stored attributes: The attributes stored in a data base are called stored attributes.

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Multivalued attributes: Attributes with a set of value for a particular entity are

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25. Define the terms i) ii) Key attribute Value set

entity in the collection. Such an attribute is called a key attribute.

of values that may be assigned to that attribute for each individual entity. 26. Define weak and strong entity sets?

27. What does the cardinality ratio specify?

One to one

One to many Many to one Many to many 28. Explain the two types of participation constraint. Total: The participation of an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be total if every entity in E participates in at least one relationship in R. Partial: if only some entities in E participate in relationships in R, the participation of entity set E in relationship R is said to be partial. 29. Define the terms i) ii) DDL DML

DDL: Data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called a data definition language.

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associated. Mapping cardinalities must be one of the following:

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Mapping cardinalities or cardinality ratios express the number of entities to which another entity can be

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Strong entity set: Entity set that has a primary key is termed a strong entity set.

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Weak entity set: entity set that do not have key attribute of their own are called weak entity sets.

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Value set: Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a value set that specifies the set

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Key attribute: An entity type usually has an attribute whose values are distinct from each individual

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DML: A data manipulation language is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data as organized by the appropriate data model. 30. Write short notes on relational model The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships among

31. Define tuple and attribute Attributes: column headers Tuple: Row 32. Define the term relation.

Tuple variable is a variable whose domain is the set of all tuples.

35. What is a candidate key?

Minimal super keys are called candidate keys. 36. What is a primary key? Primary key is chosen by the database designer as the principal means of identifying an entity in the entity set. 37. What is a super key? A super key is a set of one or more attributes that collectively allows us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity set. 38. Define- relational algebra. The relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relation as input and produce a new relation as output. 39. What is a SELECT operation? The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate. We use the lowercase letter denote selection. to

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For each attribute there is a set of permitted values called the domain of that attribute.

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34. Define the term Domain.

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33. Define tuple variable

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Relation is a subset of a Cartesian product of list domains.

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those data. The relational model is an example of a record based model.

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40. What is a PROJECT operation? The project operation is a unary operation that returns its argument relation with certain attributes left out. Projection is denoted by pie ( ).

The tuple relational calculation is anon procedural query language. It describes the desired

Notations used:

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t r tuple t is in relation r there exists Definition for there exists (): t r(Q(t)) which means there exists a tuple t in relation r such that predicate Q(t) is true. for all Definition for for all (): t r(Q(t)) which means Q(t) is true for all tuples t in relation r. Implication

Definition for Implication (): PQ means if P is true then Q must be true.

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t[A] the value of tuple t on attribute, A

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{t P (t)} which means the set of all tuplest such that predicate P is true fort.

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A query or expression can be expressed in tuple relational calculus as

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information without giving a specific procedure for obtaining that information.

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41. Write short notes on tuple relational calculus.

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42. Write short notes on domain relational calculus The domain relational calculus uses domain variables that take on values from an attribute domain rather than values for entire tuple. 43. Define query language?

information retrieval is called a query language. 44. Write short notes on Schema diagram.

A database schema along with primary key and foreign key dependencies can be depicted pictorially by schema diagram. Each relation appears as a box with attributes listed inside it and the relation name above

A relation schema r1 derived from an ER schema may include among its attributes the primary key

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of another relation schema r2.this attribute is called a foreign key from r1 referencing r2

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45. What is foreign key?

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A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of DML that involves

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UNIT: 2: RELATIONAL MODEL 1. What are the parts of SQL language? The SQL language has several parts: data - definitition language

View definition Transaction control

2. data manipulation language 3. Data Query language 4. data control language 5. data administration statements 6. transaction control statements 3. What are the three classes of SQL expression? SQL expression consists of three clauses: Select From Where 4.Give the general form of SQL query? Select A1, A2., An From R1, R2, Rm Where P

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1. data - definitition language

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SQL commands are divided in to the following categories:

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2. What are the categories of SQL command?

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Authorization

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Integrity

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Embedded SQL

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Data manipulation language

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5. What is the use of rename operation? Rename operation is used to rename both relations and a attributes. It uses the as clause, taking the form: Old-name as new-name

Tuple variables are used for comparing two tuples in the same relation. The tuple variables are defined

1) Pattern matching Operation 2) Concatenation

8. List the set operations of SQL?

2) Intersect operation

3) The except operation 9. What is the use of Union and intersection operation? Union: The result of this operation includes all tuples that are either in r1 or in r2 or in both r1 and r2.Duplicate tuples are automatically eliminated. Intersection: The result of this relation includes all tuples that are in both r1 and r2. 10. What are aggregate functions? And list the aggregate functions supported by SQL? Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of values as input and return a single value. Aggregate functions supported by SQL are Average: avg Minimum: min Maximum: max Total: sum

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1) Union

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4) Converting between uppercase and lower case letters.

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3) Extracting character strings

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7. List the string operations supported by SQL?

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in the from clause by way of the as clause.

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6. Define tuple variable?

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Count: count 11. What is the use of group by clause? Group by clause is used to apply aggregate functions to a set of tuples.The attributes given in the group by clause are used to form groups.Tuples with the same value on all attributes in the group by

12. What is the use of sub queries?

13. What is view in SQL? How is it defined? called a view.

Any relation that is not part of the logical model, but is made visible to a user as a virtual relation is We define view in SQL by using the create view command. The form of create view command is

The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary view whose definition is available only to the query in which the with clause occurs. 15. List the table modification commands in SQL? Deletion Insertion Updates Update of a view 16. List out the statements associated with a database transaction? Commit work Rollback work 17. What is transaction? Transaction is a unit of program execution that accesses and possibly updated various data items. 18. List the SQL domain Types? SQL supports the following domain types.

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14. What is the use of with clause in SQL?

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Create view v as <query expression>

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of sub queries is to perform tests for set membership,make setcomparisions, and determine set cardinality.

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A sub query is a select-from-where expression that is nested with in another query. A common use

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clause are placed in one group.

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1) Char(n) 5) float(n)

2) varchar(n) 6) date.

3) int

4) numeric(p,d)

19. What is the use of integrity constraints? Integrity constraints ensure that changes made to the database by authorized users do not result in a loss

20. Mention the 2 forms of integrity constraints in ER model?

21. What is trigger? modification to the database. 22. What are domain constraints?

A domain is a set of values that may be assigned to an attribute .all values that appear in a

23. What are referential integrity constraints? A value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation. 24. What is assertion? Mention the forms available. An assertion is a predicate expressing a condition that we wish the database always to satisfy. Domain integrity constraints. Referential integrity constraints 25. Give the syntax of assertion? Create assertion <assertion name>check<predicate> 26. What is the need for triggers? Triggers are useful mechanisms for alerting humans or for starting certain tasks automatically when certain conditions are met. 27. List the requirements needed to design a trigger. The requirements are Specifying when a trigger is to be executed.

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column of a relation must be taken from the same domain.

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Triggers are statements that are executed automatically by the system as the side effect of a

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Form of a relationship

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Key declarations

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of data consistency. Thus integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database.

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Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes. 28. Give the forms of triggers? The triggering event can be insert or delete. For updated the trigger can specify columns.

The referencing new row as clause

29. What does database security refer to? alteration.

Database security refers to the protection from unauthorized access and malicious destruction or

Unauthorized reading of data

31. List the types of authorization. Read authorization Write authorization Update authorization Drop authorization 32. What is authorization graph? Passing of authorization from one user to another can be represented by an authorization graph. 33. List out various user authorization to modify the database schema. Index authorization Resource authorization Alteration authorization Drop authorization 34. What are audit trails? An audit trail is a log of all changes to the database along with information such as which user performed the change and when the change was performed.

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Unauthorized destruction of data.

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Unauthorized modification of data

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30. List some security violations (or) name any forms of malicious access.

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The triggers can be initiated before the event or after the event.

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The referencing old row as clause

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35. Mention the various levels in security measures. Database system Operating system Network

human 36. Name the various privileges in SQL? Delete Select

37. Mention the various user privileges.

38. Give the limitations of SQL authorization. The code for checking authorization becomes intermixed with the rest of the application code. Implementing authorization through application code rather than specifying it declaratively in SQL makes it hard to ensure the absence of loopholes. 39. Give some encryption techniques? DES AES Public key encryption 40. What does authentication refer? Authentication refers to the task of verifying the identity of a person. 41. List some authentication techniques. Challenge response scheme Digital signatures Nonrepudiation

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All privileges granted to roles that have been granted to the user or role.

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All privileges directly granted to the user or role.

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update

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Insert

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Physical

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UNIT: 3: DATABASE DESIGN 1. What is meant by normalization of data? It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their Functional Dependencies (FDs)

Minimizing insertion, deletion and updating anomalies.

schema R if in any legal relation r(R), for all pairs of tuples t1 and t2 in r such that t1 [] =t1 [], and also t1 [] =t2 [].

constraints on the set of legal relations.

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4. What is meant by computing the closure of a set of functional dependency? The closure of F denoted by F is the set of functional dependencies logically Implied by F. 5. Define Boyce codd normal form A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if, for all functional dependencies in F of the form. ->, where 6. List the disadvantages of relational database system Repetition of data Inability to represent certain information. 7. What is first normal form? The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.
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To test relations to see whether they are legal under a given set of functional dependencies. To specify

3. What are the uses of functional dependencies?

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Consider a relation schema R and C R and C R. The functional dependency holds on relational

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2. What is meant by functional dependencies?

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Minimizing redundancy

and primary key to achieve the properties

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8. Explain trivial dependency? Functional dependency of the form satisfied by all the relations. 9. What are axioms? dependencies. 10. Define canonical cover? is trivial if C . Trivial functional dependencies are

Fc logically implies all dependencies in F. Fc must have the following properties.

No functional dependency in Fc contains an extraneous attribute. 12. Explain the desirable properties of decomposition. Lossless-join decomposition Dependency preservation Repetition of information 13. What is 2NF? A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully functionally dependent on primary key.

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Each left side of a functional dependency in Fc is unique.

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Fc must have the following properties.

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11. List the properties of canonical cover.

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A canonical cover Fc for F is a set of dependencies such that F logically implies all dependencies in FC and

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Axioms or rules of inference provide a simpler technique for reasoning about functional

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UNIT 4: TRANSACTION PROCESSING 1. What is transaction? Collections of operations that form a single logical unit of work are called transactions. 2. What are the two statements regarding transaction? The two statements regarding transaction of the form: Begin transaction End transaction

3. What are the properties of transaction?

4. What is recovery management component? Ensuring durability is the responsibility of a software component of the base system called the recovery management component.
5. When is a transaction rolled back? Any changes that the aborted transaction made to the database must be undone. Once the changes caused by an aborted transaction have been undone, then the transaction has been rolled back. 6. What are the states of transaction? The states of transaction are Active Partially committed Failed

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Durability

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Isolation

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Consistency

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Atomicity

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The properties of transactions are:

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Aborted Committed Terminated 7. What is a shadow copy scheme? It is simple, but efficient, scheme called the shadow copy schemes. It is based on making copies of the database called shadow copies that one transaction is active at a time. The scheme also assumes that the

8. Give the reasons for allowing concurrency?

been submitted. 10. What are the two types of serializability? The two types of serializability is Conflict serializability View serializability

11. Define lock? Lock is the most common used to implement the requirement is to allow a transaction to access a data item only if it is currently holding a lock on that item. 12. What are the different modes of lock? The modes of lock are: Shared

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The average response time is that the average time for a transaction to be completed after it has

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9. What is average response time?

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transaction.So concurrent execution reduces the unpredictable delays in running transactions.

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have to wait for a preceding long transaction to complete, which can lead to unpredictable delays in running a

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The reasons for allowing concurrency is if the transactions run serially, a short transaction may

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database is simply a file on disk.

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Exclusive 13. Define deadlock? Neither of the transaction can ever proceed with its normal execution. This situation is called deadlock. 14. Define the phases of two phase locking protocol

Shrinking phase: a transaction may release locks but may not obtain any new locks.

It provides a mechanism for conversion from shared lock to exclusive lock is known as upgrade.

The two methods for dealing deadlock problem is deadlock detection and deadlock recovery. 18. What is a recovery scheme? An integral part of a database system is a recovery scheme that can restore the database to the consistent state that existed before the failure. 19. What are the two types of errors? The two types of errors are: Logical error System error

20. What are the storage types? The storage types are: o Volatile storage o Nonvolatile storage

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17. What are the two methods for dealing deadlock problem?

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The partial ordering implies that the set D may now be viewed as a directed acyclic graph, called a database graph.

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16. What is a database graph?

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It provides a mechanism for conversion from exclusive lock to shared lock is known as downgrade.

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15. Define upgrade and downgrade?

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Growing phase: a transaction may obtain locks but not release any lock.

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21. Define blocks? The database system resides permanently on nonvolatile storage, and is partitioned into fixed-length storage units called blocks. 22. What is meant by Physical blocks? The input and output operations are done in block units. The blocks residing on the disk are referred to as physical blocks. 23. What is meant by buffer blocks?

The blocks residing temporarily in main memory are referred to as buffer blocks.

26. What are uncommitted modifications? The immediate-modification technique allows database modifications to be output to the database while the
transaction is still in the active state. Data modifications written by active transactions are called uncommitted modifications. 27. Define shadow paging. An alternative to log-based crash recovery technique is shadow paging. This technique needs fewer disk accesses than do the log-based methods. 28. Define page. The database is partitioned into some number of fixed-length blocks, which are referred to as pages. 29. Explain current page table and shadow page table. The key idea behind the shadow paging technique is to maintain two page tables during the

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of log records, recording all the update activities in the database. There are several types of log records.

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The most widely used structures for recording database modifications is the log. The log is a sequence

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25. What is meant by log-based recovery?

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The area of memory where blocks reside temporarily is called the disk buffer.

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24. What is meant by disk buffer?

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life of the transaction: the current page table and the shadow page table. Both the page tables are identical when the transaction starts.The current page table may be changed when a transaction performs a write operation. 30. What are the drawbacks of shadow-paging technique? Commit Overhead Data fragmentation Garbage collection 30. Define garbage collection.

that transaction commits. Rigorous two phase locking protocol requires that all locks be held until the transaction commits. 33. How the time stamps are implemented Use the value of the system clock as the time stamp. That is a transactions time stamp is equal to the value of the clock when the transaction enters the system. Use a logical counter that is incremented after a new timestamp has been assigned; that is the time stamp is equal to the value of the counter. 34. What are the time stamps associated with each data item? W-timestamp (Q) denotes the largest time stamp if any transaction that executed WRITE (Q) successfully. R-timestamp (Q) denotes the largest time stamp if any transaction that executed READ (Q) successfully.

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In strict two phase locking protocol all exclusive mode locks taken by a transaction is held until

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protocol.

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32. Differentiate strict two phase locking protocol and rigorous two phase locking

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all the garbage pages and to add them to the list of free pages. This process is called garbage collection.

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Garbage may be created also as a side effect of crashes. Periodically, it is necessary to find

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UNIT 5: IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES

1. Give the measures of quality of a disk. Capacity

Seek time Data transfer rate Reliability

2. Compare sequential access devices versus random access devices with an example

Must be accessed from the beginning

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sequential access devices

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Rotational latency time.

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Access to data is much slower Cheaper than disk 3. What are the types of storage devices? Primary storage Secondary storage Tertiary storage

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Eg:- tape storage

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5. What are called jukebox systems? Jukebox systems contain a few drives and numerous disks that can be loaded into one of the drives automatically.

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random access devices It is possible to read data from any location Eg:-disk storage Access to data is faster Expensive when compared with disk

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Access time

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6. What is called remapping of bad sectors? If the controller detects that a sector is damaged when the disk is initially formatted, or when an attempt is made to write the sector, it can logically map the sector to a different physical location. 7. Define access time. Access time is the time from when a read or write request is issued to when data transfer begins. 8. Define seek time.

is called the seek time.

11. Define average latency time. The average latency time of the disk is one-half the time for a full rotation of the disk. 12. What is meant by data-transfer rate? The data-transfer rate is the rate at which data can be retrieved from or stored to the disk. 13. What is meant by mean time to failure? The mean time to failure is the amount of time that the system could run continuously without failure. 14. What are a block and a block number? A block is a contiguous sequence of sectors from a single track of one platter. Each request specifies the address on the disk to be referenced. That address is in the form of a block number. 15. What are called journaling file systems? File systems that support log disks are called journaling file systems.

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latency time.

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The time spent waiting for the sector to be accessed to appear under the head is called the rotational

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10. Define rotational latency time.

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The average seek time is the average of the seek times, measured over a sequence of random requests.

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9. Define average seek time.

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The time for repositioning the arm is called the seek time and it increases with the distance that the arm

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16. What is the use of RAID? A variety of disk-organization techniques, collectively called redundant arrays of independent disks are used to improve the performance and reliability. 17. Explain how reliability can be improved through redundancy?

The simplest approach to introducing redundancy is to duplicate every disk. This technique is called

the disk. If one of the disks fails the data can be read from the other. Data will be lost if the second disk fails

The mean time to failure is the time it takes to replace a failed disk and to restore the data on it. 20. What is called bit-level striping? Data striping consists of splitting the bits of each byte across multiple disks. This is called bit-level striping. 21. What is called block-level striping? Block level striping stripes blocks across multiple disks. It treats the array of disks as a large disk, and gives blocks logical numbers. 22. What are the two main goals of parallelism? Load balance multiple small accesses, so that the throughput of such accesses increases. Parallelize large accesses so that the response time of large accesses is Reduced

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19. What is called mean time to repair?

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called mirroring or shadowing.

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The simplest approach to introducing redundancy is to duplicate every disk. This technique is

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18. What is called mirroring?

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before the first failed disk is repaired.

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mirroring or shadowing. A logical disk then consists of two physical disks, and write is carried out on both

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23. What are the factors to be taken into account when choosing a RAID level? o Monetary cost of extra disk storage requirements. o Performance requirements in terms of number of I/O operations o Performance when a disk has failed. o Performances during rebuild.

24. What is meant by software and hardware RAID systems?

off. Hot swapping reduces the mean time to repair. 26. Which level of RAID is best? Why? RAID level 1 is the RAID level of choice for many applications with moderate storage requirements and high I/O requirements. RAID 1 follows mirroring and provides best write performance. 27. Distinguish between fixed length records and variable length records? Fixed length records Every record has the same fields and field lengths are fixed. Variable length records File records are of same type but one or more of the fields are of varying size. 28. What are the ways in which the variable-length records arise in database systems?

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Hot swapping permits the removal of faulty disks and replaces it by new ones without turning power

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25. Define hot swapping?

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are called hardware RAID systems.

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RAID implementations are called software RAID systems and the systems with special hardware support

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RAID can be implemented with no change at the hardware level, using only software modification. Such

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Storage of multiple record types in a file. Record types that allow variable lengths for one or more fields. Record types that allow repeating fields. 29. Explain the use of variable length records.

Used for storing records that has varying lengths for one or more fields.

30. What is the use of a slotted-page structure and what is the information present in the header?

The header contains the following information.

The end of free space

31. What are the two types of blocks in the fixed length representation? Define them. Anchor block: Contains the first record of a chain. Overflow block: Contains the records other than those that are the first record of a chain. 32. What is known as heap file organization? In the heap file organization, any record can be placed anywhere in the file where there is space for the record. There is no ordering of records. There is a single file for each relation. 33. What is known as sequential file organization? In the sequential file organization, the records are stored in sequential order, according to the value of a search key of each record. 34. What is hashing file organization? In the hashing file organization, a hash function is computed on some attribute of each record. The

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An array whose entries contain the location and size of each record.

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The number of record entries in the header.

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Used for storing records that allow repeating fields

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result of the hash function specifies in which block of the file the record should be placed. 35. What is known as clustering file organization? In the clustering file organization, records of several different relations are stored in the same file.

36. What is an index?

An index is a structure that helps to locate desired records of a relation quickly, without examining

37. What are the two types of ordered indices?

Ordered indices Hash indices

39. What are the techniques to be evaluated for both ordered indexing and hashing? Access types Access time Insertion time Deletion time Space overhead

40. What is known as a search key? An attribute or set of attributes used to look up records in a file is called a search key. 41. What is a primary index? A primary index is an index whose search key also defines the sequential order of the file. 42. What are called index-sequential files?

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38. What are the types of indices?

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Secondary index

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all records.

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The files that are ordered sequentially with a primary index on the search key are called indexsequential files.

43. What are the two types of indices? Dense index Sparse index

44. What are called multilevel indices?

Secondary indices. The pointers in secondary index do not point directly to the file. Instead each points to a

46. What are the disadvantages of index sequential files? The main disadvantage of the index sequential file organization is that performance degrades as the file grows. This degradation is remedied by reorganization of the file. 47. What is a B+-Tree index? A B+-Tree index takes the form of a balanced tree in which every path from the root of the root of the root of the tree to a leaf of the tree is of the same length. Draw the structure of a B+ tree and explain briefly. A node contains up to n-1 search key values and n pointers. P1 K1 P2 K2 . Pn-1 Kn-1 Pn 48. What is B-Tree? A B-tree eliminates the redundant storage of search-key values .It allows search key values to appear

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bucket that contains pointers to the file.

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Indices whose search key specifies an order different from sequential order of the file are called

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only once. 49. What is hashing? Hashing allows us to find the address of a data item directly by computing a hash function on the search key value of the desired record.

50. How do you create index in SQL? We create index by he create index command.

Create index<index name>on <relation name> (<attribute list>

Dynamic hashing allows us to modify the hash function dynamically. Dynamic hashing copes with changes in database size by splitting and coalescing buckets as the database grows and shrinks. 52. What is a hash index? A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated pointers, into a hash file structure. 53. What can be done to reduce the occurrences of bucket overflows in a hash file organization? To reduce bucket overflow the number of bucket is chosen to be (nr/fr)*(1+d). We handle bucket overflow by using Overflow chaining(closed hashing) Open hashing

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Dynamic hashing

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cannot easily accommodate databases that grow larger over time.

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Static hashing uses a hash function in which the set of bucket adders is fixed. Such hash functions

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Static hashing

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54. Differentiate open hashing and closed hashing (overflow chaining) Closed hashing (overflow chaining) If a record must be inserted in to a bucket b, and b is already full, the system provides an overflow bucket for b, and inserts the record in to the overflow bucket. If the overflow bucket is also full, the system provides another overflow bucket, and so on. All the overflow buckets of a given buckets are chained together in
linked list, overflow handling using linked list is known as closed hashing.

The set of buckets is fixed, and there are no overflow chains. Instead, if a bucket is full, the system

Query processing refers to the range of activities involved in extracting data from a database. 57. What are the steps involved in query processing? The basic steps are: parsing and translation optimization evaluation

58. What is called an evaluation primitive? A relational algebra operation annotated with instructions on how to evaluate is called an evaluation primitive. 59. What is called a query evaluation plan? A sequence of primitive operations that can be used to evaluate ba query is a query evaluation plan

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56. What is called query processing?

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bucket that has space. This is known as linear probing.

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Linear probing is a type of open hashing. If a bucket is full the system inserts records in to the next

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55. What is linear probing?

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inserts records in some other bucket in the initial set of buckets.

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Open hashing

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or a query execution plan. 60. What is called a query execution engine? The query execution engine takes a query evaluation plan, executes that plan, and returns the answers to the query. 61. How do you measure the cost of query evaluation?

The cost of a query evaluation is measured in terms of a number of different resources including

62. List out the operations involved in query processing

Aggregation 63. What are called as index scans? Search algorithms that use an index are referred to as index scans. 64. What is called as external sorting? Sorting of relations that do not fit into memory is called as external sorting. 65. Explain nested loop join? Nested loop join consists of a pair of nested for loops. Example: r|x| s r is the outer relation and s is the inner relation. 66. What is meant by block nested loop join? Block nested loop join is the variant of the nested loop join where every block of the inner relation is

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Set operations

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Projection

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Sorting.

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Join operations.

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Selection operation

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disk accesses, CPU time to execute a query, and in a distributed database system the cost of communication

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paired with every block of the outer relation. With in each pair of blocks every tuple in one block is paired with every tuple in the other blocks to generate all pairs of tuples. 67. What is meant by hash join? In the hash join algorithm a hash function h is used to implement partition tuples of both relations. 68. What is called as recursive partitioning?

The system repeats the splitting of the input until each partition of the build input fits in the memory.

69. What is called as an N-way merge?

71. Define query optimization. Query optimization refers to the process of finding the lowest cost method of evaluating a given query

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of the number of hash partitions computed.

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The number of partitions is increased by a small value called the fudge factor,which is usually 20 percent

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70. What is known as fudge factor?

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sort-merge algorithm. It merges N runs, so it is called an N-way merge.

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The merge operation is a generalization of the two-way merge used by the standard in-memory

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Such partitioning is called recursive partitioning.

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BIG Questions Unit 1 1. Explain the architecture of DBMS with a neat block diagram Storage manager Query processor Block diagram

3. Explain the design issues of ER-model Use of entity sets Vs Attribute sets Use of Entity sets Vs Relationship sets Binary Vs Nary relationship sets Placement of relationship sets 4. Explain the various relational algebra operations Select operations Project operations Union operation Set difference operations Cartesian product operations Rename operations 5. Draw an ER diagram for a banking enterprise Data requirements Entity sets Relationship sets ER diagram

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Attribute set Entity set Mapping cardinalities Relationship sets Keys

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Unit II 1. Explain nested Queries with examples Set membership Set comparison Test for empty relations

2. Explain embedded SQL and dynamic SQL in detail Explanation

3. Explain the integrity constraints supported by SQL Domain constraints Referential integrity

Need for triggers Explanations When not to use triggers

5. Explain security and authorization and Security in SQL Security violations Authorization Privileges Roles Unit-III 1. Explain the different normal forms in detail 1 normal form 2 nd normal form 3 rd normal form 4 th normal form BCNF

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4. Explain triggers with example.

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Unit-IV 1. Explain ACID in detail. Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability 2. Explain serializability Conflict serializability View serializability

3. Explain lock based protocols Shared Exclusive

4. Explain two phase locking in detail. Strict two phase locking Rigorous two phase locking 5. Explain log based recovery in detail. mmediate database modifications Deferred modification

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Unit-V 1. Explain RAID levels in detail RAID LEVEL0 RAID LEVEL1 RAID LEVEL2 RAID LEVEL3 RAID LEVEL4 RAID LEVEL5 RAID LEVEL6 2. Explain file organization in details. Sequential file organization Clustering file organization Heap file organization Hash file organization

3. Explain indexing and hashing Primary index Multilevel index Secondary index Hash functions Dynamic hashing

4. Explain B+ tree index in detail Structure Queries Updates

5. Explain Query processing in detail. Parsing and translation Optimization Evaluation

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