EEM336 Microprocessors I

Introduction to the Microprocessor and Computer

Introduction
Overview of Intel microprocessors. Discussion of history of computers. Function of the microprocessor. Terms and jargon (computerese).

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Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

Converse by using appropriate computer terminology such as bit, byte, data, real memory system, protected mode memory system, Windows, DOS, I/O. Detail history of the computer and list applications performed by computer systems. Provide an overview of the various 80X86 and Pentium family members.

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Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

(cont.)

Draw the block diagram of a computer system and explain the purpose of each block. Describe the function of the microprocessor and detail its basic operation. Define the contents of the memory system in the personal computer.

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Chapter Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

(cont.)

Convert between binary, decimal, and hexadecimal numbers. Differentiate and represent numeric and alphabetic information as integers, floatingpoint, BCD, and ASCII data.

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11 A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Events leading to development of the microprocessor. 80X86, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core2 microprocessors. While not essential to understand the microprocessor, furnishes:
interesting reading historical perspective of fast-paced evolution

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The Mechanical Age

Idea of computing system is not new. Calculating with a machine dates to 500 BC. Babylonians invented the abacus.
first mechanical calculator strings of beads perform calculations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus EEM336 Microprocessors I Introduction to the Microprocessor and Computer 7

In 1642, mathematician Blaise Pascal invented a calculator constructed of gears and wheels. When moved one complete revolution, a second gear advances one place.
same principle used in automobile odometer

Basis of all mechanical calculators. PASCAL programming language is named in honor of Blaise Pascal.

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 In 1823, Charles Babbage began to create his Analytical Engine

Steam-powered mechanical computer Generated navigational tables Used punched cards Stored 1000 20-digit decimal numbers

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The Electrical Age

1800s, The advent of electric motor 1889, Herman Hollerith developed a machine that counted, sorted, and collated data stored on punched cards 1941, Z3 calculating computer by Konrad Zuse
used in aircraft and missile design

1943, Alan Turing, Colossus

broke secret German military codes generated by ENIGMA used vacuum tubes not programmable could not solve other problems
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 1946, ENIAC, University of Pennsylvania

17,000 vacuum tubes, 500 miles of wires weighted over 30 tons 100,000 operations per second The first programmable machine programmed by rewiring its circuits

1948, Development of the transistor 1958, Invention of the integrated circuit (IC) 1960s, Digital integrated circuits 1971, The first microprocessor by Intel
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Programming Advancements
Once programmable machines developed, programs and programming languages began to appear. As early practice of rewiring circuits proved too cumbersome, computer languages began to appear in order to control the computer. The first, machine language, was constructed of ones and zeros using binary codes.
stored in the computer memory system as groups of instructions called a program

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 More efficient than rewiring a machine to program it.

still time-consuming to develop a program due to sheer number of program codes required

Mathematician John von Neumann, first modern person to develop a system to accept instructions and store them in memory. Computers are often called von Neumann machines in his honor.

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Assembly language was then used to simplify entering binary code. Assembler allows programmer to use mnemonic codes
such as ADD for addition

In place of a binary number.

such as 0100 0111

Assembly language an aid to programming.

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 Since early days of programming, additional languages have appeared. Some common modern programming languages are BASIC, PASCAL, C/C++, C#, Java, and ADA.
BASIC and PASCAL languages both designed as teaching languages, but escaped the classroom.

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Scientific community uses primarily C/C++. Recent survey of embedded system developers showed C was used by 60%.
30% used assembly language remainder used BASIC and JAVA

These languages allow programmer almost complete control over the programming environment and computer system.
especially C/C++

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 Assembly language still plays important role.

many video games written almost exclusively in assembly language

Assembly also interspersed with C/C++ to perform machine control functions efficiently.
some newer parallel instructions found on Pentium and Core2 microprocessors only programmable in assembly language

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Reminder
A bit is a binary digit with a value of one or zero 4-bit-wide memory location is often called a nibble 8-bit-wide memory location is called a byte A word is a collection of 2 bytes (or 16 bits) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes = 210 Bytes(1 KB = 1024 bytes) 1 MB = 1024 KB = 220 Bytes 1 GB = 230 Bytes, 1 TB = 240 Bytes B is used for byte and b is used for bit
8 Mbps = 8 Megabits per second (ADSL speed)

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The Microprocessor Age

Worlds first microprocessor the Intel 4004. A 4-bit microprocessor-programmable controller on a chip. Addressed 4096, 4-bit-wide memory locations. The 4004 instruction set contained 45 instructions.

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The Microprocessor Age

1971, Intel 4004 and 4040
4-bit microprocessors addressed 4096 (4-bit) memory locations 45 instructions most calculators and low-end applications such as microwave ovens still use 4-bit microprocessors 8-bit microprocessor addressed 16K memory locations 48 instructions 50,000 instructions per second

1972, Intel 8008

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The Microprocessor Age

1973, Intel 8080
addressed 64K memory locations 500,000 instructions per second (2 s per instr.)

1974, Motorola 6800 1974, The first personal computer 1977, Intel 8085
769,230 instructions per second (1.3 s per instr.) internal clack generator and system controller

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The Modern Microprocessors

1978, Intel 8086 and 8088
16 bit microprocessors 400 ns. per instruction 2,5 million instructions per second addressed 1M memory locations multiply and divide instructions are added over 20,000 instruction variations
such microprocessors are called CISC (complex instruction set computers)

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The Modern Microprocessors

1983, Intel 80286
addressed 16M memory locations increased clock speed (8 MHz) some instructions took 250 ns. to be executed

1986, Intel 80386

32 bit microprocessor addressed 4GB memory

1989, Intel 80486

same as 80386 but half of its instructions are executed in one clock cycle instead of two 8 KB cache

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The Pentium Microprocessor

1993, Intel Pentium (P5 or 80586)
Introductory versions operated with a clocking frequency 60 & 66 MHz, and a speed of 110 MIPs Over-clocked versions operated on 120, 133, and 233 MHz clocking frequencies 16 KB cache Full-frame video displays at scan rates of 30 Hz or higher (which is comparable to commercial television)

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Next Microprocessors
Pentium Pro Pentium II Pentium III Pentium IV Core2 Quad Core 64-bit microprocessors
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Some Definitions

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Integrated Circuit
a.k.a. IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip Integrated Circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.

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Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a programmable digital electronic component that incorporates the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single semiconducting integrated circuit (IC). 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and 64-bit microprocessor: refers to number of bits manipulated in one operation. It requires external memory to execute programs. It cannot directly interface to I/O devices, peripheral chips are needed.
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Microcomputer and Microcontroller

A microcomputer is a computer that uses a microprocessor as its CPU. A microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip. It is a type of microprocessor emphasizing selfsufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC). The only difference between a microcontroller and a microprocessor is that a microprocessor has three parts - ALU, Control Unit and registers, while the microcontroller has additional elements like ROM, RAM, peripherals (timer, I/O ports, etc).
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THE MICROPROCESSOR-BASED PERSONAL COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computers have undergone many changes recently. Machines that once filled large areas reduced to small desktop computer systems because of the microprocessor.

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 Figure 16 shows block diagram of the personal computer. Applies to any computer system, from early mainframe computers to the latest systems. Diagram composed of three blocks interconnected by buses.
a bus is the set of common connections that carry the same type of information

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Figure 16 The block diagram of a microprocessor-based computer system.

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The Memory and I/O System

Memory structure of all Intel-based personal computers similar. Figure 17 illustrates memory map of a personal computer system. This map applies to any IBM personal computer.
also any IBM-compatible clones in existence

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Figure 17 The memory map of a personal computer.

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 Main memory system divided into three parts:

TPA (transient program area) system area XMS (extended memory system)

Type of microprocessor present determines whether an extended memory system exists. First 1M byte of memory often called the real or conventional memory system.
Intel microprocessors designed to function in this area using real mode operation

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The TPA
The transient program area (TPA) holds the DOS (disk operating system) operating system; other programs that control the computer system.
the TPA is a DOS concept and not really applicable in Windows also stores any currently active or inactive DOS application programs length of the TPA is 640K bytes

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Figure 18 The memory map of the TPA in a personal computer. (Note that this map will vary between systems.)

DOS memory map shows how areas of TPA are used for system programs, data and drivers.
also shows a large area of memory available for application programs hexadecimal number to left of each area represents the memory addresses that begin and end each data area
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The System Area

Smaller than the TPA; just as important. The system area contains programs on readonly (ROM) or flash memory, and areas of read/write (RAM) memory for data storage. Figure 19 shows the system area of a typical personal computer system. As with the map of the TPA, this map also includes the hexadecimal memory addresses of the various areas.
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Figure 19 The system area of a typical personal computer.

First area of system space contains video display RAM and video control programs on ROM or flash memory.
area starts at location A0000H and extends to C7FFFH size/amount of memory depends on type of video display adapter attached

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Windows Systems
Modern computers use a different memory map with Windows than DOS memory maps. The Windows memory map in Figure 110 has two main areas; a TPA and system area. The difference between it and the DOS memory map are sizes and locations of these areas.

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Figure 110 The memory map used by Windows XP.

TPA is first 2G bytes from locations 00000000H to 7FFFFFFFH. Every Windows program can use up to 2G bytes of memory located at linear addresses 00000000H through 7FFFFFFFH. System area is last 2G bytes from 80000000H to FFFFFFFFH.
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I/O Space
I/O devices allow the microprocessor to communicate with the outside world. I/O (input/output) space in a computer system extends from I/O port 0000H to port FFFFH.
I/O port address is similar to a memory address instead of memory, it addresses an I/O device

Figure 111 shows the I/O map found in many personal computer systems.

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Figure 111 Some I/O locations in a typical personal computer.

Access to most I/O devices should always be made through Windows, DOS, or BIOS function calls. The map shown is provided as a guide to illustrate the I/O space in the system.

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The area below I/O location 0400H is considered reserved for system devices Area available for expansion extends from I/O port 0400H through FFFFH. Generally, 0000H - 00FFH addresses main board components; 0100H - 03FFH handles devices located on plug-in cards or also on the main board. The limitation of I/O addresses between 0000 and 03FFH comes from original standards specified by IBM for the PC standard.
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The Microprocessor
Called the CPU (central processing unit). The controlling element in a computer system. Controls memory and I/O through connections called buses.
buses select an I/O or memory device, transfer data between I/O devices or memory and the microprocessor, control I/O and memory systems

Memory and I/O controlled via instructions stored in memory, executed by the microprocessor.
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Microprocessor performs three main tasks:

data transfer between itself and the memory or I/O systems simple arithmetic and logic operations program flow via simple decisions

Power of the microprocessor is capability to execute billions of millions of instructions per second from a program or software (group of instructions) stored in the memory system.
stored programs make the microprocessor and computer system very powerful devices
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 Another powerful feature is the ability to make simple decisions based upon numerical facts.
a microprocessor can decide if a number is zero, positive, and so forth

These decisions allow the microprocessor to modify the program flow, so programs appear to think through these simple decisions.

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Buses
A common group of wires that interconnect components in a computer system. Transfer address, data, & control information between microprocessor, memory and I/O. Three buses exist for this transfer of information: address, data, and control. Figure 112 shows how these buses interconnect various system components.

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Figure 112 The block diagram of a computer system showing the address, data, and control bus structure.

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The address bus requests a memory location from the memory or an I/O location from the I/O devices.
if I/O is addressed, the address bus contains a 16-bit I/O address from 0000H through FFFFH. if memory is addressed, the bus contains a memory address, varying in width by type of microprocessor.

64-bit extensions to Pentium provide 40 address pins, allowing up to 1T byte of memory to be accessed.
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 The data bus transfers information between the microprocessor and its memory and I/O address space. Data transfers vary in size, from 8 bits wide to 64 bits wide in various Intel microprocessors.
8088 has an 8-bit data bus that transfers 8 bits of data at a time 8086, 80286, 80386SL, 80386SX, and 80386EX transfer 16 bits of data 80386DX, 80486SX, and 80486DX, 32 bits Pentium through Core2 microprocessors transfer 64 bits of data
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Control bus lines select and cause memory or I/O to perform a read or write operation. In most computer systems, there are four control bus connections: MRDC (memory read control) MWTC (memory write control) IORC (I/O read control) IOWC (I/O write control). overbar indicates the control signal is activelow; (active when logic zero appears on control line)
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 The microprocessor reads a memory location by sending the memory an address through the address bus. Next, it sends a memory read control signal to cause the memory to read data. Data read from memory are passed to the microprocessor through the data bus. Whenever a memory write, I/O write, or I/O read occurs, the same sequence ensues.

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13 NUMBER SYSTEMS
Use of a microprocessor requires working knowledge of numbering systems.
binary, decimal, and hexadecimal

This section provides a background for these numbering systems. Conversions are described.
decimal and binary decimal and hexadecimal binary and hexadecimal

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Digits
Before converting numbers between bases, digits of a number system must be understood. First digit in any numbering system is always zero. A decimal (base 10) number is constructed with 10 digits: 0 through 9. A base 8 (octal) number; 8 digits: 0 through 7. A base 2 (binary) number; 2 digits: 0 and 1.
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If the base exceeds 10, additional digits use letters of the alphabet, beginning with an A.
a base 12 number contains 10 digits: 0 through 9, followed by A for 10 and B for 11

Note that a base 10 number does contain a 10 digit.

a base 8 number does not contain an 8 digit

Common systems used with computers are decimal, binary, and hexadecimal (base 16).
many years ago octal numbers were popular

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Positional Notation
Once digits are understood, larger numbers are constructed using positional notation.
position to the left of the units position is the tens position left of tens is the hundreds position, and so forth

An example is decimal number 132.

this number has 1 hundred, 3 tens, and 2 units

Exponential powers of positions are critical for understanding numbers in other systems.
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Exponential value of each position:

the units position has a weight of 100, or 1 tens position a weight of 101, or 10 hundreds position has a weight of 102, or 100

Position to the left of the radix (number base) point is always the units position in system.
called a decimal point only in the decimal system position to left of the binary point always 20, or 1 position left of the octal point is 80, or 1

Any number raised to its zero power is always one (1), or the units position.
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 Position to the left of the units position always the number base raised to the first power.
in a decimal system, this is 101, or 10 binary system, it is 21, or 2 11 decimal has a different value from 11 binary

11 decimal has different value from 11 binary.

decimal number composed of 1 ten, plus 1 unit; a value of 11 units binary number 11 is composed of 1 two, plus 1 unit: a value of 3 decimal units 11 octal has a value of 9 decimal units
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In the decimal system, positions right of the decimal point have negative powers.
first digit to the right of the decimal point has a value of 101, or 0.1.

In the binary system, the first digit to the right of the binary point has a value of 21, or 0.5. Principles applying to decimal numbers also generally apply to those in any other system. To convert a binary number to decimal, add weights of each digit to form its decimal equivalent.
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Conversion from Decimal

To convert from any number base to decimal, determine the weights or values of each position of the number. Sum the weights to form the decimal equivalent.

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Conversion to Decimal
Conversions from decimal to other number systems more difficult to accomplish. To convert the whole number portion of a number to decimal, divide by 1 radix. To convert the fractional portion, multiply by the radix.

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Whole Number Conversion from Decimal

To convert a decimal whole number to another number system, divide by the radix and save remainders as significant digits of the result. An algorithm for this conversion:
divide the decimal number by the radix (number base) save the remainder (first remainder is the least significant digit) repeat steps 1 and 2 until the quotient is zero
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To convert 10 decimal to binary, divide it by 2.

the result is 5, with a remainder of 0

First remainder is units position of the result.

in this example, a 0

Next, divide the 5 by 2; result is 2, with a remainder of 1.

the 1 is the value of the twos (21) position

Continue division until the quotient is a zero. The result is written as 10102 from the bottom to the top.
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 To convert 10 decimal to base 8, divide by 8.

a 10 decimal is a 12 octal.

For decimal to hexadecimal, divide by 16.

remainders will range in value from 0 through 15 any remainder of 10 through 15 is converted to letters A through F for the hexadecimal number decimal number 109 converts to a 6DH

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Converting from a Decimal Fraction

Conversion is accomplished with multiplication by the radix. Whole number portion of result is saved as a significant digit of the result.
fractional remainder again multiplied by the radix when the fraction remainder is zero, multiplication ends

Some numbers are never-ending (repetend).

a zero is never a remainder

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 Algorithm for conversion from a decimal fraction:

multiply the decimal fraction by the radix (number base). save the whole number portion of the result (even if zero) as a digit; first result is written immediately to the right of the radix point repeat steps 1 and 2, using the fractional part of step 2 until the fractional part of step 2 is zero

Same technique converts a decimal fraction into any number base.

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Binary-Coded Hexadecimal
Binary-coded hexadecimal (BCH) is a hexadecimal number written each digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCH code allows a binary version of a hexadecimal number to be written in a form easily converted between BCH and hexadecimal. Hexadecimal represented by converting digits to BCH code with a space between each digit.

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Complements
At times, data are stored in complement form to represent negative numbers. Two systems used to represent negative data:
radix radix 1 complement (earliest)

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14 COMPUTER DATA FORMATS

Successful programming requires a precise understanding of data formats. Commonly, data appear as ASCII, Unicode, BCD, signed and unsigned integers, and floating-point numbers (real numbers). Other forms are available but are not commonly found.

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ASCII and Unicode Data

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) data represent alphanumeric characters in computer memory. Standard ASCII code is a 7-bit code.
eighth and most significant bit used to hold parity

If used with a printer, most significant bits are 0 for alphanumeric printing; 1 for graphics. In PC, an extended ASCII character set is selected by placing 1 in the leftmost bit.
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Extended ASCII characters store:

some foreign letters and punctuation Greek & mathematical characters box-drawing & other special characters

Extended characters can vary from one printer to another. ASCII control characters perform control functions in a computer system.
clear screen, backspace, line feed, etc.

Enter control codes through the keyboard.

hold the Control key while typing a letter
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 Many Windows-based applications use the Unicode system to store alphanumeric data.
stores each character as 16-bit data

Codes 0000H00FFH are the same as standard ASCII code. Remaining codes, 0100HFFFFH, store all special characters from many character sets. Allows software for Windows to be used in many countries around the world. For complete information on Unicode, visit: http://www.unicode.org
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BCD (Binary-Coded Decimal) Data

The range of a BCD digit extends from 00002 to 10012, or 09 decimal, stored in two forms: Stored in packed form:
packed BCD data stored as two digits per byte; used for BCD addition and subtraction in the instruction set of the microprocessor

Stored in unpacked form:

unpacked BCD data stored as one digit per byte returned from a keypad or keyboard

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 Applications requiring BCD data are point-ofsales terminals.

also devices that perform a minimal amount of simple arithmetic

If a system requires complex arithmetic, BCD data are seldom used.

there is no simple and efficient method of performing complex BCD arithmetic

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Byte-Sized Data
Stored as unsigned and signed integers. Difference in these forms is the weight of the leftmost bit position.
value 128 for the unsigned integer minus 128 for the signed integer

In signed integer format, the leftmost bit represents the sign bit of the number.
also a weight of minus 128

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Figure 114 The unsigned and signed bytes illustrating the weights of each binary-bit position.

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Unsigned integers range 00H to FFH (0255) Signed integers from 128 to 0 to + 127. Negative signed numbers represented in this way are stored in the twos complement form. Evaluating a signed number by using weights of each bit position is much easier than the act of twos complementing a number to find its value.
especially true in the world of calculators designed for programmers

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Word-Sized Data
A word (16-bits) is formed with two bytes of data. The least significant byte always stored in the lowest-numbered memory location. Most significant byte is stored in the highest. This method of storing a number is called the little endian format.

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Figure 115 The storage format for a 16-bit word in (a) a register and (b) two bytes of memory.

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Figure 116 The storage format for a 32-bit word in (a) a register and (b) 4 bytes of memory.

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Alternate method is called the big endian format. Numbers are stored with the lowest location containing the most significant data. Not used with Intel microprocessors. The big endian format is used with the Motorola family of microprocessors.

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Doubleword-Sized Data
Doubleword-sized data requires four bytes of memory because it is a 32-bit number.
appears as a product after a multiplication also as a dividend before a division

Define using the assembler directive define doubleword(s), or DD.

also use the DWORD directive in place of DD

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Real Numbers
Since many high-level languages use Intel microprocessors, real numbers are often encountered. A real, or a floating-point number contains two parts:
a mantissa, significand, or fraction an exponent.

A 4-byte number is called single-precision. The 8-byte form is called double-precision.

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Figure 117 The floating-point numbers in (a) single-precision using a bias of 7FH and (b) double-precision using a bias of 3FFH.

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The assembler can be used to define real numbers in single- & double-precision forms:
use the DD directive for single-precision 32-bit numbers use define quadword(s), or DQ to define 64-bit double-precision real numbers

Optional directives are REAL4, REAL8, and REAL10.

for defining single-, double-, and extended precision real numbers

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SUMMARY
Mechanical computer age began with the advent of the abacus in 500 B.C. This first mechanical calculator remained unchanged until 1642, when Blaise Pascal improved it. An early mechanical computer system was the Analytical Engine developed by Charles Babbage in 1823.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The first electronic calculating machine was developed during World War II by Konrad Zuse, an early pioneer of digital electronics. The Z3 was used in aircraft and missile design for the German war effort. The first electronic computer, which used vacuum tubes, was placed into operation in 1943 to break secret German military codes.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The first electronic computer system, the Colossus, was invented by Alan Turing. Its only problem was that the program was fixed and could not be changed. The first general-purpose, programmable electronic computer system was developed in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania. This first modern computer was called the ENIAC (Electronics Numerical Integrator and Calculator).
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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The world's first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was a 4-bit microprocessor-a programmable controller on a chip-that was meager by today's standards. It addressed a mere 4096 4-bit memory locations. Its instruction set contained only 45 different instructions.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

Microprocessors that are common today include the 8086/8088, which were the first 16-bit microprocessors. Following these early 16-bit machines were the 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core2 processors. The architecture has changed from 16 bits to 32 bits and, with the Itanium, to 64 bits.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

With each newer version, improvements followed that increased the processor's speed and performance. From all indications, this process of speed and performance improvement will continue. Performance increases may not always come from an increased clock frequency.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

DOS-based personal computers contain memory systems that include three main areas: TPA (transient program area), system area, and extended memory. The TPA hold: application programs, the operating system, and drivers. The system area contains memory used for video display cards, disk drives, and the BIOS ROM.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The extended memory area is only available to the 80286 through the Core2 microprocessor in an AT-style or ATX-style personal computer system. The Windows-based personal computers contain memory systems that include two main areas: TPA and systems area.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

All versions of the 8086 through the Core2 microprocessors address 64K bytes of I/O address space. These I/O ports are numbered from 0000H to FFFFH with I/O ports 0000H-03FFH reserved for use by the personal computer system. The PCI bus allows ports 0400H-FFFFH.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The operating system in early personal computers was either MSDOS (Microsoft disk operating system) or PCDOS (personal computer disk operating system from IBM). The operating system performs the task of operating or controlling the computer system, along with its I/O devices. Modern computers use Microsoft Windows and similar OS in place of DOS as an operating system.
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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The microprocessor is the controlling element in a computer system. The micro-processor performs data transfers, does simple arithmetic and logic operations, and makes simple decisions. The microprocessor executes programs stored in the memory system to perform complex operations in short periods of time.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

All computer systems contain three buses to control memory and I/O. The address bus is used to request a memory location or I/O device. The data bus transfers data between the microprocessor and its memory and I/O spaces. The control bus controls the memory and I/O, and requests reading or writing of data.
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SUMMARY

(cont.)

Numbers are converted from any number base to decimal by noting the weights of each position. The weight of the position to the left of the radix point is always the units position in any number system. The position to the left of the units position is always the radix times one. Succeeding positions are determined by multiplying by the radix.
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(cont.)

The weight of the position to the right of the radix point is always deter-mined by dividing by the radix. Conversion from a whole decimal number to any other base is accomplished by dividing by the radix. Conversion from a fractional decimal number is accomplished by multiplying by the radix.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

Hexadecimal data are represented in hexadecimal form or in a code called binary-coded hexadecimal (BCH). A binary-coded hexadecimal number is one that is written with a 4-bit binary number that represents each hexadecimal digit. The ASCII code is used to store alphabetic or numeric data.

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SUMMARY

(cont.)

The ASCII code is a 7-bit code; it can have an eighth bit that is used to extend the character set from 128 codes to 256 codes. The carriage return (Enter) code returns the print head or cursor to the left margin. The line feed code moves the cursor or print head down one line. Most modern applications use Unicode, which contains ASCII at codes 0000H00FFH.
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SUMMARY

(cont.)

Binary-coded decimal (BCD) data are sometimes used in a computer system to store decimal data. These data are stored either in packed (two digits per byte) or unpacked (one digit per byte) form. Binary data are stored as a byte (8 bits), word (16 bits), or doubleword (32 bits) in a computer system. These data may be unsigned or signed.
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(cont.)

Signed negative data are always stored in the two's complement form. Data that are wider than 8 bits are always stored using the little endian format. In 32-bit Visual C++ these data are represented with char (8 bits), short (16 bits) and int (32 bits).

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SUMMARY
Floating-point data are used in computer systems to store whole, mixed, and fractional numbers. A floating-point number is composed of a sign, a mantissa, and an exponent.

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The Intel Microprocessors: 8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 Pentium, Pentium Pro Processor, Pentium II, Pentium, 4, and Core2 with 64-bit Extensions Architecture, Programming, and Interfacing, Eighth Edition Barry B. Brey Copyright 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

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