QQM1023 Managerial Mathematics

2 5 1

0 7 9

6 3 8

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX

Example 1:
A manufacturer produces 3 types of products; A, B and C. The units of
labor and material used to produce each product were shown in the
table below:
Product A Product B Product C
Labor 15 7 3
Material 20 5 1

The numerical information in the table can be arranged into a

rectangular block called matrix.

15 7 3
 20 5 1  Row


Column

MATRIX is a rectangular array of numbers (elements) arranged in a form

of rows and column.
• Row – horizontal arrangement
• Column – vertical arrangement

EXERCISE 1
For each matrix, identify the number of rows and columns.

1 5 4 2 − 1 3 8 3  4
a)  3 2 1  b) 0 1 1
   
c)
5 7  d)
5
   
2 1 0 0 0 5
e) [− 3 0 0 0]

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MATRIX is a collection of elements (numbers) arranged

in rows and columns to form a rectangular array and
enclosed by square bracket or parentheses.

Symbolically, we shall use capital letters such as A, B, C etcetera to

represent a matrix.

 a11 a12 a13 L a1n 

a a22 a23 L a2n 
 21 
For example, A =  a31 a32 a33 L a3n 
 
 M M M M M 
am1 am 2 am3 L amn 
• Each number in the matrix is also known as entry or element.
• To denote arbitrary entries in a matrix, we may use a single letter
along with appropriate double subscripts to indicate position.
• Therefore, the entry at the first row and second column of matrix

A will be denote as a12 (reads “a sub one-two”), where the first

subscript specifies the row and the second subscript specify the
column in which the entry appears.

• Generalizing, we say that the symbol aij denotes the entry in the

ith row and jth column, where i = 1,2,..., m and j = 1,2,..., n .

Therefore, we can represent the matrix from example 1(page 1), with
capital letter B

15 7 3
B= 
20 5 1

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whereby the element on the first row and column of matrix B or

b11 = 15 , b12 = 7 . How about other elements, b13 , b21 , b22 , b23 ?

ORDER OF A MATRIX

A rectangular array of numbers consisting of m

horizontal rows and n vertical columns is called an
m × n matrix or a matrix of order m × n

For instance, in example 1,

15 7 3
B= 
20 5 1
the matrix B have 2 rows and 3 columns. Therefore we called it a matrix
of order 2 x 3.

Order of a matrix = m×n

m – number of rows
n – number of columns

• For brevity, an m × n matrix can be denoted by the symbol

[a ]
ij mxn where the order is understood to be which is

appropriate for the given context.

• This notation merely indicates what types of symbols we are using
to denote the general entry.

• In the case of matrix B, we can denote it as

[b ]
ij 2 x 3

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EXERCISE 2
For each matrix, specify the
i) Number of rows
ii) Number of columns
iii) Order of the matrix

 3 1 6 
a)
 6 2
  b) [− 1 5 8] c)
9 
 
− 1 0 4

1.2 SPECIAL TYPES OF MATRICES

1.2.1 SQUARE MATRIX

A matrix having the same number of rows and columns

is called a square matrix.

1 2
For example,   is a square matrix of order 2 x 2, and
3 4 
 4 1 3
 5 7 2 is a square matrix of order 3 x 3.
 
− 1 6 0

EXERCISE 3
Write an example of a square matrix of
a) 1x1 b) 2x2 c) 3x3

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1.2.2 COLUMN MATRIX/ COLUMN VECTOR

A matrix that has exactly one column is called

column matrix or column vector.

1 
For example, 
− 2
is a column matrix of order 3 x 1
 
 3 

1.2.3 ROW MATRIX/ ROW VECTOR

A matrix consisting of a single row is called

row matrix or row vector.

For example, [− 1 0 2] is a row matrix of order 1 x 3

EXERCISE 4
Identify the type and order of each matrix.

6  6 
a)
9 b) [9 8 − 3] c) 8 
   
0

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0
1.2.4 DIAGONAL MATRIX 0

A matrix [ ]m×n
A = aij where aij = 0 for

i≠ j is called a diagonal matrix. In other

words, a diagonal matrix is

• a square matrix
• with all the entries that are on the main
diagonal are non-zeroes.

 2 0 0
• For example, A = 0 − 1 0
 
0 0 3
Each elements in this matrix are zero EXCEPT for the element that
lie on the “main” diagonal extending from the upper left corner

to the lower right corner (called the main-diagonal entries) a11,

a22 and a33. This matrix is called diagonal matrix of order 3x3.

0
1.2.5 UPPER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

An upper triangular matrix is a:

a) square matrix
b) elements at the position where (row > column) = 0
c) elements at the position where (row ≤ column ) ≠ 0

In other words we can say, a square matrix is said to be an upper

triangular matrix if all entries below the main diagonal are zero.
Or sometimes is denote by:

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[a ]ij = aij = 0; for i > j

aij ≠ 0; for i ≤ j

1 6 5 
1 4  
For example,   , 0 3 7 
 0 2  0 0 − 2 
 

0
1.2.6 LOWER TRIANGULAR MATRIX

A lower triangular matrix is a:

a) square matrix
b) elements at the position where (row < column) = 0
c) elements at the position where (row ≥ column ) ≠ 0

In other words we can say, a square matrix is said to be a lower

triangular matrix if all entries above the main diagonal are zero.
Or sometimes is denote by:

[a ]ij = aij = 0; for i < j

aij ≠ 0; for i ≥ j

7 0 0 
3 0 
  , 9 2 0
For example, 2 4
8 4 3

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1.2.7 IDENTITY ( I )

An Identity is a square matrix where the elements on the

main diagonal are 1 and the other elements are all zero.

Identity is denoted by the capital letter, I.

1 0 
I
a) An identity of the order 2 x 2: 2×2 =  
0 1 
1 0 0
b) An identity of the order 3 x 3: I3×3 = 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 

1.2.8 NULL MATRIX ( O )

A null matrix is a matrix where all the elements are

zero and denoted by O.

For example,

0 0 0 
O2×3 =   is a null matrix of the order 2 x 3.
0 0 0 

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EXERCISE 5
For each matrix, determine the types and order:

1 7 3  − 1
a) A = 0 5 2  b) B =  0  c) C = [0 5 3]
   
3 0 − 1  0 

 − 2 0 3
1 0
d) D =  0 4 0 e) E= 
  0 2 
 1 0 6

 − 1 0 0
f) F =
 2 3 0
 
 1 0 5

1.3 EQUALITY OF MATRICES

Two matrices, ( )m×n and B = (bij )p×q is equal, and can

A = aij

be written as A = B if;

i. The order of each matrix A and B is equal, where m = p and

n=q
ii. The corresponding elements are equal, where aij = bij for all i
& j.

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For example,
Both matrices have
 4 0  4 0 the same order and
2 1 = 2 1 corresponding
elements.
   
a) 5 6 5 6
3× 2 3×2

5 7  Both matrices
0 4  ≠  5 0 6  have a different
order
  7 4 3 
b)
6 3  
2×3
3×2

EXERCISE 6
1. Determine whether the pair of matrices below are equal
or not

 1 1 2 
 5  5 0.5  2 5   0.5 0.4
2 , 3
a)
 1  0
b)
 1 3 , 0.25 0.3
0 1   2    
 2  4 10 

2. Given

3 6 1  9
A =  , B =   , C = [3 7 ], D =  ,
7
   3 5   49 

6 3  2 × 3 30 
E= , F = 2 × 3 5 
 1 5   
 2 
Name two matrices that are equal.

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Example 2:
x y 6 3
a) Given the matrices A=  and B=  . If
4 0   z 0
A = B , determine the value of x , y and z .

 3 q q + 1  3 q 5 
b) If
 q − 1 2r = determine the value of
 p + 1 r 2r q − 4
p, q and r.

Solution:

 x y  6 3
As A = B , therefore
 4 0  =  z 0 . By matching each
   
element to their corresponding element aij and bij , we know

that:

1.4 TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX

If A is a matrix, the matrix formed from A by interchanging its rows with

its column is called the transpose of A .

The transpose of an m x n matrix A, denoted AT,

is the n x m matrix whose ith row is the ith
column of A.

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Example 3:
10 6 − 2 3  2 4
Given A=  , B=
− 1 and C =
7 1  .
 6 3 8     
Determine the order of A , B and C . Find AT , BT , C T and the
order of each transposition.

1.5 OPERATION OF A MATRIX

1.5.1 MATRIX ADDITION

Two or more matrices can only be added if and only if each
matrix has the same order/level.

For instance,

MATRIX ADDITION

 a11 a12 L a1n   b11 b12 L b1n 

a a22 L a2n  b b22 L b2n 
21 21
A= , B =  
 M M M M   M M M M 
   
am1 am 2 L amn  bm1 bm 2 L bmn 

So,

 a11 + b11 a12 + b12 L a1n + b1n 

a +b a22 + b22 L a2n + b2n 
21 21
A+ B =  
 M M M M 
 
am1 + bm1 am 2 + bm 2 L amn + bmn 

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If A = [aij] and B=[bij] are both mxn matrices,

then the sum A+B is the mxn matrix obtained
by adding corresponding entries of A and B;
that is, A+B = [aij + bij].

Example 4:
Calculate the sum of both matrices below:

1 4  4 − 2
A= , B =
2 − 1 3  Answer:
i)
3  
2 1 5  − 3 2 4
ii) C = 7 4 − 1, D =  0 7 1 Answer:
   
1 6 8  − 4 − 2 3

iii) E = [3 4 0 14], F = [− 4 1 2 0] Answer:

1.5.2 MATRIX SUBTRACTION

Two or more matrices can only be subtracted if and only if each
matrix has the same order/level.
For instance:

 a11 − b11 a12 − b12 L a1n − b1n 

a −b a22 − b22 L a2n − b2n 
21 21
A− B =  
 M M M M 
 
am1 − bm1 am 2 − bm 2 L amn − bmn 

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EXERCISE 7
Get the subtraction for both matrices:

4 7 
i) G = 5  , H = 1 
   
ii) J = [− 1 5 4], K = [0 1 2]

1.5.3 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX ADDITION/SUBTRACTION

i) Matrix addition is commutative Æ A+ B = B+ A

ii) Matrix subtraction is NOT commutative Æ

A− B ≠ B− A
iii) Matrix addition is associative Æ

( A + B ) + C = A + (B + C )
iv) Matrix subtraction is NOT associativeÆ

( A − B ) − C ≠ A − (B − C )
v) Matrix addition has the identity propertyÆ

A+O =O+ A= A
vi) Matrix subtraction is NOT identicalÆ

A−O ≠ O− A

1.5.4 MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

a) Scalar Multiplication

IfA is an mxn matrix and k is a real number (also called a

scalar), then, by k A , we denote the mxn matrix obtained by

multiplying each entry in A by k . This operation is called scalar

multiplication, and k A is called a scalar multiple of A .

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For example, if

 5 1 3
A = − 2 9 4 , find the scalar multiple of A ( kA ) where
 
 6 0 7 
k = 2.

Solution:

1.5.5 PROPERTIES OF SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

i) k ( A + B ) = kA + kB
ii) (k1 + k2 )A = k1A + k2 A
iii) k1(k2 A) = (k1k2 ) A
iii) OA = O
iv) kO = O

b) Multiplication of two matrices

Let A be a mxn matrix and B be a nxp matrix. Then

the product AB is the mxp matrix (we called it C)
whose entry cij in row i and column j is obtained as
follows:
Sum of the products Æ formed by multiplying (in
order), each entry (that is, first, second, etc.)
in row i of A by the “corresponding” entry (that is,
first, second, etc.) in column j of B.

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3 conditions of matrix multiplication (AB):

• the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows

of B.
• the product will be a matrix of order mxp it will have as
many rows as A and as many columns as B.

• the definition refers to the product AB, in that order; A is

the left factor and B is the right factor.

A multiply B = AB
Level : mx n n xp mxp

Must be the same size of product

Example 5:

b11 b12 b13 

a
A =  11
a12 a13 
B = b21 b22 b23 
Given matrix
a 21 a 22 a 23  and
b31 b32 b33 
Find the product AB.

Solution
i. Determine whether operation is possible. If possible, determine
the size of the product.
Matrix A has size 2x3 and matrix B has size 3x3. The number of

columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B. Therefore, the

operation is possible, and the product will be a 2x3 matrix.

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ii. Calculate each entry in the AB matrix.

Let say the product of AB multiplication is matrix C, therefore

matrix C is defined as;

 c11 c12 c13 

C= 
c 21 c 22 c 23 

The entry c11 is obtained by summing the product of each

entry in row 1 of A by the “corresponding” entry in column 1 of B.
Thus,
Entries in the 1st row of A a11 a12 a13 
 .... .... .... 


C1 1 = (a11 )(b11 ) + (a12 )(b21 ) + (a13 )(b31 )

Entries in the 1st column of B

b11 .... ....
b .... .... 
 21 
continue with other entries;
b31 .... ....

c12 =
c13 =
c21 =
c22 =
c23 =

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Example 6:
1 4  2 3
Given A= , B = 7 5 . Find AB .
 0 2   
Solution:

Example 7:
 3 − 2
0 − 2 4  
   0 1 
Compute 3
 1 − 3
− 1 0 

Example 8:

 2 5 − 3
 4 0 2   2 6
Compute   9 1 
4 8 − 7  

1.5.6 PROPERTIES FOR MULTIPLICATION OF TWO MATRICES

i) A(BC ) = ( AB )C
ii) A(B + C ) = AB + AC and

( A + B )C = AC + BC
iii) AB ≠ BA
iv) AI = IA = A

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1.6 DETERMINANT, SUBMATRIX, MINOR, COFACTOR, ADJOIN

1.6.1 DETERMINANT
9 Determinant can only be obtained from a square matrix and is

denoted as A.
9 The determinant will determine whether a matrix is invertible or not.

• Determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix
FORMULA:

 a11 a12 
If A= .
a a
 21 22 
Therefore the determinant of A is

A = a11a22 − a12 a21

Example 9:
Find A :

5 − 3
a)
A= 
2 2 
Solution:

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EXERCISE 8
Calculate the determinant (|A|) for each matrix:
2 1
 0 3  4
A = 3
A=  3
 − 3 2
a) b)
2 
 4

 p − 3  0.5 − 4
c)
A=  d)
A= 
q 2  0.25 2 
• Determinant for a 3 x 3 matrix
FORMULA:

 a11 a12 a13 

A = a21 a22 a23  .
If  
 a31 a32 a33 
Therefore the determinant for A is;

a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22

A = a11 − a12 + a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
= a11(a22a33 − a23a32 ) − a12 (a21a33 − a23a31 )
+ a13 (a21a32 − a22a31 )

Example 10:
Get the determinant for matrix A:
2 0 1
A = − 2 3 6
 0 − 1 4

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Solution:

EXERCISE 9:
Find the determinant for each matrix:
0 0 1 
A = [5] B = 2 − 4 3
i) ii)
0 − 1 4

 1 
5 1   12 − 2 0 
2
C = − 1 0 2 D =  1 9 1 
iii)   iv)
2 1 − 4 − 2 18 − 1
 

1.6.1 SUB MATRIX

Sub matrix is a matrix obtained when we exclude entries in

a certain row and column. The sub matrix for the entry aij
is obtained by excluding the entries in the i th row and the j th
column from the original matrix A .Thus, if a matrix consists of n entries,
therefore the number of sub matrix that can be obtained from the
matrix is n.

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1.6.2 MINOR

Minor, is the determinant of a sub matrix. Minor mij , means

the determinant for a sub matrix that is obtained when the

entries in i th row and j th column are excluded from the

original matrix.

Example 11:
 a11 a12 a13 

Given a matrix A = a21 a22 a23  , get the sub matrix and minor
 
 a31 a32 a33 
for the a11 and a12

Solution:

a a23 
a11 =  22
a33 
Sub matrix
 a32
a a23 = a22 a33 − a32 a23
Minor m11 = 22
a32 a33
m11 is minor for the entry a11, which is a 2 × 2 determinant obtained
by excluding the first row and first column of the original matrix.

a21 a23 
Sub matrix a12 =  
 a31 a33 
a21 a23 = a 21a33 − a31a 23
Minor m12 =
a31 a33

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Continue with,

m13 m31
m21 m32
m22 m33
m23

Minor matrix is obtained when all the minors are collected into one
single matrix. Thus,

 m11 m12 m13 

m m23 
Minor
( A ) =
 21
m22

 m31 m32 m33 

EXERCISE 10:

1 2 3 
If A = 1 3 5  , Find the minor matrix for A
 
1 5 12 

1.6.3 COFACTOR

Cofactor, K ij = (− 1)i + j mij

( )
1+1
a
K11for the entry 11 ⇒ −1 m11 = m11
K12 for the entry a12 ⇒ ( −1)
1+ 2
m12 = − m12
Continue with other cofactor entry

K13 , K 21, K 22 , K 23 , K 31, K 32 , K 33

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Therefore

 K11 K12 K13   + m11 −m12 + m13 

  
Cof ( A) = K 21 K 22 K 23  =  −m21 + m22 − m23 
 
 K 31 K 32 K 33   + m31 −m32 + m33 

1.6.3 ADJOIN

Adjoin = (Cofactor)T

Adjoin is the transposed of cofactor

EXERCISE 11:

1 2 3 
If A = 1 3 5  , find the cofactor and adjoin for A .
 
1 5 12 

1.7 INVERSE OF A MATRIX (A-1)

Properties:
9 Can only be obtained from square matrix.

9 The inverse of A is denoted A−1

9 If A = 0 , (determinant of A equal to zero) therefore the matrix
A is not invertible.
9 The product of A A−1 is the identity, I
AA−1 = A−1 A = I

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1.7.1 INVERSE OF A 2 X 2 MATRIX

a a 
Given A =  11 12  thus
a21 a22 

−1 1  a22 − a12 
A = 
A − a21 a11 

where A = a11a22 − a12 a21

EXERCISE 12:
Find the inverse for each matrix below (if exist):
 2 4 0.5 3 
A=  B= 
 − 3 − 18
i) ii)
3 5

1.7.2 INVERSE OF A 3 X 3 MATRIX

 a11 a12 a13 

Given a matrix A = a21 a22 a23  therefore
 
 a31 a32 a33 

1
A = (adj ) A
−1

where A is the determinant for A

and (adj )A = [ cof( A )] T

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EXERCISE 13:
1 2 3 
Find the inverse of A (if exist): A = 1 3 5 
 
1 5 12 

1.8 SOLVING SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATION

A system of linear equation with 2 unknown is normally written as
follow:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1 
 (1)
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2 
To solve the systems using matrix, the systems need to be rewritten
in a form of a matrix equation:

AX = B
 a11 a12   x1   b1 
a =
 21 a22   x2  b2 
A X B
coefficients unknowns constants

Systems of linear equation with 3 unknowns

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 


a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2  (2)
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3 

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The system (2) can also be written in matrix form AX = B

 a11 a12 a13   x1   b1 
a a22 a23   x2  = b2 
 21    
 a31 a32 a33   x3   b3 
A X B
There are two common methods to solve the systems of linear equation
using matrix:
‰ Using the inverse to solve a systems
‰ Using the Cramer’s Rule

1.8.1 USING THE INVERSE TO SOLVE A SYSTEMS

By multiplying both side of the equation AX = B with A−1

A−1 AX = A−1B
we will find that

IX = A−1B
Where IX = X
So,

X = A−1B

 x
Where X =  for a 2 x 2 matrix of A
 y

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 x
and X =  y  for a 3x3 matrix of A .
 
 z 

Example 11:
Find the value of x and y for the systems of linear equation:

2x + y = 4
− x + y =1

Solution

• Write in the form of matrix AX = B

• Find A −1 ,

-1
• Find the value of x and y Æ X = A .B

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EXERCISE 13:
Solve the following systems of linear equation using the inverse method:
a)

1
x+ y=5
2
3x = 20 + y

x + 2 y + 3z = 1
b) x + 3 y + 5z = 2
x + 5 y + 12 z = 3

1.8.2 CRAMER’s RULE

Given a matrix equation,

 a11 a12 L a1n   x1   b1 

a a22 L a2n   x2  b2 
 21   =  
 M M M M  M   M 
    
am1 am 2 L amn   xn  bn 
A X B
Using the CRAMER’s RULE:

• Find the determinant for A Æ A

• Form a Cramer matrix Ai by replacing the entries in the i th column

of A with entries in B (constants):

For example

A1 is obtained by replacing the entries in the 1st column by B

A2 is obtained by replacing the entries in the2nd column by B

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 b1 a12 L a1n   a11 b1 L a1n 

b a22 L a2 n  a b2 L a2 n 
A1 =  2 , A2 =  21

M M M M   M M L M 
   
bn a2 n L amn  am1 bn L amn 
The 1st column is replaced by B The 2nd column is replaced by B

Ai is obtained by replacing the entries in i th column by B

i th column
↓
 a11 L b1 L
a L b2 L
 21
Ai =  a 31 L b3 L
 
 M M M M
a m1 L bn L
↑
B
• Find the determinant of Ai Æ Ai
Ai
• The value of xi is obtained, using the formula xi =
A

Example 13:
Given a systems of linear equation:

5x − 2 y = 4
3x − y = 2
Find the value of x and y using the Cramer’s Rule.

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Solution:
i) Write the systems in a form of AX = B

ii) Find |A| =

iii) Find the Cramer matrix : A1 and A2

iv) Compute |A1| and |A2|

v) Get the value of x and y:

A1
x= =? and
A

A2
y= =?
A

EXERISE 14:
Solve the following systems of linear equations using the Cramer’s rule:

x + 2 y = −2
a) 2x + 3y = 3

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x + 2 y + 3z = 1
b) x + 3 y + 5z = 2
x + 5 y + 12 z = 3

c) Every month Ali sends glass bottles, plastic bottles and old
newspapers to the recycling centre. Table 1 shows the weight of
each item sent by Ali for the first three months of 2005 and how
much it is paid.

Item / Glass Plastic Old Payment

Month Bottle Bottle Newspaper received
(kg) (kg) (kg) (RM)
January 4.5 3.5 8.0 4.90
February 6.0 4.0 12.5 6.70
March 6.0 5.0 10.5 6.60
If RM x, y and z is paid for each kilogram of glass bottle, plastic bottle
and old newspaper sent,

i. Write the problem in a form of matrix: AX = B

ii. Find|A|

iii. Determine the price paid for a kilogram of old newspaper using
the Cramer’s Rule.

Chapter 1: Matrix 32