Engineer On a Disk

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will be welcomed.

Copyright © 1993-2001, Hugh Jack

email: [email protected]
phone: (616) 771-6755
fax: (616) 336-7215

Copyright © 1993-2001, Hugh Jack

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1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................................................................... 2
BASIC DESIGN ....................................................................................................................... 5
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8
COMMERCIAL ....................................................................................................................... 9
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 9
PRODUCT DESIGN .............................................................................................................. 10
LEGAL DESIGN AXIOMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10
SPECIFICATIONS................................................................................................................. 11
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 13
DESIGN METHODS ............................................................................................................. 14
BLACK BOX DESIGN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 14
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN ...................................................................................................... 15
GENERATION OF CONCEPTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 15
CONCEPT EVALUATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 18
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 21
HUMAN FACTORS/ERGONOMICS................................................................................... 22
ERGONOMICS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 22
SAFETY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 23
HUMAN STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 25
EQUIPMENT INTERFACES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 26
MANAGEMENT.................................................................................................................... 27
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 28
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 29
DESIGN TEAMS ................................................................................................................... 30
TEAM PROFILES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 33
ADMINISTRATION.............................................................................................................. 34
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 34
CONCURRENT ENGINEERING ......................................................................................... 35
OVERVIEW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 35
DOING CONCURRENT ENGINEERING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 37
FUTURE TOOLS FOR CONCURRENT ENGINEERING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38
SOFTWARE CONCURRENT ENGINEERING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38
METHODS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 38
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40
DESIGN FOR X (DFX) ......................................................................................................... 41
OVERVIEW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY (DFA) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 42
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING (DFM) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64
DESIGN FOR RECYCLING (DFR) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 64
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 67
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SAMPLE QUESTIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 68
AXIOMATIC DESIGN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 69
DRAFTING ............................................................................................................................ 73
CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 73
NOTATIONS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 102
WORKING DRAWINGS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 112
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 116
REFERENCES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 116
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) ............................................................................... 117
DESIGN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 117
CAD HISTORY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 119
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CAD SYSTEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 119
EDITING AND CREATING - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 120
USER INTERPRETATION OF THE GEOMETRIC MODEL - - - - - - - - - - - - - 124
USER DIRECTED CHANGES TO THE GEOMETRIC MODEL - - - - - - - - - - 125
SELECTING A CAD SYSTEM - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 127
DESIGN - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 130
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 132
GEOMETRICAL MODELLING OF PARTS ..................................................................... 133
OVERVIEW - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 133
GEOMETRIC MODELS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 134
SOLID MODELERS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 146
MASS PROPERTIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 146
NON-MANIFOLD PARTS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 147
NUMERICAL ACCURACY - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 148
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 148
GEOMETRICAL MODELLING FOR DESIGN................................................................. 150
CAD FILE FORMATS......................................................................................................... 168
GRAPHICS FORMATS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
CAD FORMATS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 170
PDES/STEP - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 184
PRACTICE PROBLEMS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 184
COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING (CAE) ................................................................... 186
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 186
ASSEMBLY AND KINEMATICS - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 187
ASSEMBLIES - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 189
OPTIMIZATION - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 189
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Design Topics
 page 5

DI:2. BASIC DESIGN

• Before we begin,
1. Design is the satisfaction of need.
2. Design is never an exact process, and each design will differ.
3. Try to do it right the first time.
4. Most design methods try to cut the problems into smaller problems.

• One of the common problems encountered by designers is the overwhelming number of details.
Most design methods focus on dealing with detail overload. The challenges a designer faces
are,
- multiple technologies require arbitrary decisions
- a design will have many components that interact, and the effects of changes can be
widespread
- economics
- other competitive designs

• Design is typically referred to as having certain stages,

- Conceptual
- Synthesis
- Detailed
- Analysis

• The typical stages of design include,

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Need

Specifications

feasibility

conceptual

detailed

analysis/testing

review

• Design factors commonly considered are,

- functional requirements
- physical constraints
- specifications
- aesthetics
- usability/user interface
- cost
- manufacturing
- evaluation/testing/analysis
- maintenance
- retirement

• A more detailed design sequence is shown below,

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START: select a
needed design

determine
e.g. a support cable functional elements major changes e.g.
replace cable with beam

pick members
e.g. maximum tension geometry, etc.

select values
and properties small changes
e.g 1/2” steel cable
e.g. diameter

e.g. find stress and compare analyze for

to ultimate strength suitability

e.g. use factor

of safety decide on
deficiencies

no deficiencies
DONE: Approve
design

• Conceptual - The selection of general components to go into a system. At this point the exact
form of final point is inexact. At this point we might be deciding to put wheels on a car.

• Synthesis - The selection of components or devices for the system. At this point the general
geometry, and components for the system are selected.

• Detailed - Exact dimensions are finally assigned to parts in the system.

• Analysis - The review of design details to determine suitability. This is done after the exact
design is complete. It may lead to redesign.

• The activity of design creates a dilemma for management in that it adds to the overall cost of a
product, but it can also reduce the final cost of a product.

• We can draw graphs that illustrate the total amount committed in the final cost from the first
concept, to the final product. Most of the final cost is determined by decisions early in the
design phase.
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product costs
product starts shipping
costs committed

money spent
time

design only preparation for manufacturing

• By planning for design, and then committing fully, we can obtain a better product.

design quality design process

changes (do it right the first time)

rush to design
(just do it and fix it later)

project time
start production
release

• Over-the-wall is an engineering approach that has developed because of management pressures.

It helps split designs into clean stages and responsibilities. This approach does simplify man-
agement up front, but requires fire fighting as problems arise.

• A product life cycle has four phases,

1. Identify needs, plan and design
2. Manufacture and deliver
3. Use, maintain, repair
4. Retire

DI:2.1 REFERENCES
Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.
 page 9

DI:3. COMMERCIAL

• The commercial view of product development typically looks like,

idea generated
product designed
patents applied for
vendors checked and contracts signed
tooling and production prepared
marketing starts
test run and samples
sales training
products shipped

• Other significant functions that will be considered are,

- documentation user/service manuals
- maintenance/service/installation training
- packaging
- governement forms in regulated industries
- business plans for financing - banks or venture capital
- market survey and testing

3.1 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

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DI:4. PRODUCT DESIGN

• When designing a product there are certain terms that designers use,

configuration function substituting

connection interface transition
components magnifying
copying rearranging
decomposing refine
form reversing

DI:4.1 LEGAL DESIGN AXIOMS

• Some rules to follow to reduce the chance/success of a law suit

- the design process should examine hazards and probabilities (e.g., FMEA)
- make sure that all employees conform to the current standards and legal requirements
(e.g. toxicity)
- inspection and quality control in manufacturing
- clearly written warning labels and manuals that outline proper use and hazards
- keep good records of all tests, inspections, etc.

4.2 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

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DI:5. SPECIFICATIONS

• Specifications are a brief list of functional objectives.

• These are often called Functional Requirements (FRs)

• We can look at the design process as mapping Functional Requirements (FRs) to Design Param-
eters (DPs). We can also look at mapping from the design parameters to the Process Parame-
ters (PPs) as the task of process engineering.

FRs DPs PPs

design manufacturing
engineering engineering

• Examples of DPs could be # of engine cylinders, or a final dimension.

• Good rules of thumb for specifications are,

- try to talk in general terms that focus on the function instead of solution (e.g., “the auto-
mobile should be able to move on ground with a 12 inch variation in height”
instead of “the axle clearance should be 12 inches”).
- break requirements into separate parts.
- keep the requirements as simple as possible.
- avoid vague language, use numbers and technical goals.
- don’t specify more FRs than needed.

• In design we should try to meet, not exceed specifications. The Kano model helps to illustrate
this [Ullman],
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customer
response
delighted excitement performance

fully
over time implemented
consumer product
tastes shift function
absent
basic

Note: This trend encourages designers to add

new features as old features lose appeal.
There is a trend to continually increasing
disgusted features.

• As an example consider the progress in the computer industry. Specifically Moore’s Law - about
every 2 years the number of transistors on a chip will double (implies memory doubling, speed
doubling, etc) this has proven to be remarkably accurate.

• If we construct a graph we can show how the consumer response shifts as a function of time

consumer
expects

consumer
excitement

feature life
 page 13

• We can combine a number of new and old features in products as FRs. These will affect both
customer expectations and product cost. A graph shows what marketing departments research
in terms of customer needs.

product cost
economic
value
consumer
value/utility

feasible
design
range number of
features

• For new products we can try to determine their value with market surveys and by examining
competitors products.

5.1 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 14

DI:6. DESIGN METHODS

DI:6.1 BLACK BOX DESIGN

• Characterized by considering inputs and outputs only, while disregarding what is in the box.

• This approach can be used for off-the-shelf components.

• There is a heavy dependance on the manufacturers specifications.

DI:6.2 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

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DI:7. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

• The first creative stage of any design is to generate concepts such as the choice between gasoline
or electric powered vehicles.

• The most important rule in conceptual design is generate a few concepts and then select the best.

DI:7.1 GENERATION OF CONCEPTS

• This is the typically the hardest part of design.

• When talking about invention - this is the ‘inspiration’

DI:7.1.1 Brain Storming

• Basically this method generates a large number of diverse concepts using a group.

• One approach might be,

1. Have a meeting individuals (6-12 is good) related to the design tasks.
2. Make it clear that criticism is not allowed and every idea is good.
3. Ask everyone to write ideas on separate pieces of paper.
4. Start going round the room one at a time, and ask for the ideas. (Don’t allow criticism or
judgement!) After the idea is given, the paper is placed in the center of the table.
5. This continues until all ideas are exhausted. (Participants should generate new ideas
based on what they have heard from others). Encourage participants to suggest
ridiculous ideas.
6. Go through the ideas in the middle of the table, and vote for the best one(s).

DI:7.1.1.1 - Practice Problems

1. Use brain storming to develop concepts for putting on shoes.

DI:7.1.2 Diagramming

• We can break functions down to subfunctions shown as black boxes

 page 16

• Basically we draw functional blocks that show interfaced systems and indicating inputs and out-
puts of information, energy and materials.

• We can start by drawing one main box for a function (e.g., ‘a pen must draw a consistent line
width)

Step 1: Writer Pen Paper

Mechanical energy Mechanical energy

Velocity Velocity

Ink Ink

Line width Line width

energy flow
Note: the lines indi-
cate different material flow
flows. information flow
interfaced systems

• The rules of thumb when creating the main diagrams are,

- pick reasonable function boundaries (not too much or too little)
- conserve energy and material
- indicate interfacing/involved parts of the system
- add information flows to determine how well the system is performing

• (as with IDEF) we can break the main function into sub functions. To do this we,
- make sub function boxes that show how
- create as many boxes as possible
- list alternates
- make sure all applicable flows are included
- consider sequences
- use standard notations
- use available documents, parts, etc to develop ideas
- don’t be afraid to add new items not on the first diagram
 page 17

Step 2:

tip velocity
wet pen tip
ink in pen ink on tip

• We can then combine the function blocks into a single diagram.

STEP 3:

• Finally, we convert the diagram to a conceptual design. The functional diagram(s) are used to
provide clues, and in many cases they will lead directly to a design.

STEP 4:

DI:7.1.2.1 - Practice Problems

1. Considering the example started in the notes,

a) develop more subfunction blocks for the pen
b) using the previous blocks, draw a detailed functional diagram
c) Develop a final pen design using the final diagram.
 page 18

DI:7.1.3 Patents

• Use patents as a source for ideas

• Using keywords patents can be searched on-line

• A patent is typically made of common parts. The most useful are,

- an abstract
- references
- a long description
- a set of specific claims

DI:7.2 CONCEPT EVALUATION

• After design concepts have been developed they must be reviewed.

• When evaluating concepts, we are best to start with many concepts and then refine,
 page 19

conceptual
design review process for one conceptual design

is no
design
feasible?
yes

is there
an unknown or no build/model/
vague component? simulate/prototype

yes
will
add detail/research concept no
discard design work?

yes

acceptable concept discard concept

 page 20

need/specifications
Process to generate a conceptual design

develop a few
brainstorming conceptual designs

review each
conceptual design

evaluate the remaining

decision matrix
conceptual designs

select a concept
detailed design

final conceptual design

DI:7.2.1 Decision Matrix

• Basically we set some criteria, give them a value, and then compare conceptual designs to it.
The final results are numerical.

• For this method we,

1. list the conceptual designs as columns.
2. List the criteria as rows (these criteria are like those used in QFD).
3. A weight is given to each criteria.
4. A score is given to the concept for each criteria. The ranking is done relative to one of
the design concepts, with the middle of the scale being the first concept. A scale of
-3 to +3 is reasonable.
 page 21

5. Using the criteria weights, the column values are multiplied and added to get a score for
the design.
6. The design with the highest score is often judged the best candidate for detailed design
(although other designs may be chosen).

7.3 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 22

DI:8. HUMAN FACTORS/ERGONOMICS

• Ergonomics is the study of the interactions/interface between humans and machines/processes.

DI:8.1 ERGONOMICS

• There are a variety of areas for ergonomic analysis

- manufacturing - reducing worker stress (physiological) can reduce health problems (lost
days), decrease product cost and increase product quality.
- consumer - increasing ease of use can increase utility of the product.

• Ergonomics is the basis for many design methods such as DFA

• Ergonomics takes into account,

- body proportions
- strength
- desired function

• Non-ergonomic designs typically lead to personal injuries (and hence lawsuits, etc.)

• Typical ergonomic problems in manufacturing are listed along with possible solutions,
discomfort - uneeded strain on worker (e.g. hunching over)
1. training for proper lifting methods
2. rearrange operation locations and sequence to reduce unnatural motions.
efficiency - unnatural motions slow production
1. training for proper lifting methods
2. rearrange operation locations and sequence to reduce unnatural motions.
cummulative trauma disorders - muscle strain injuries (lifting 30lb packages all day)
1. training for proper lifting methods
2. use special lifting equipment
repetitive stress injuries - repeated motions. For example carpel tunnel syndrome in the
wrists.
1. rearrange operation locations and sequence to reduce unnatural motions.
2. use ergonomically redesigned equipment (e.g. computer keyboards)
information overload/confusion - excessive, inappropriate or a lack of detail. (e.g. fighter
pilots, airtraffic controllers)
1. redesign displays to be clear with a minimum amount of good information
2. use of color coding and pictures
3. simplify controls to minimum needed
eye strain - fine focus or bad lighting
1. adjust lighting
2. use magnifying lenses
 page 23

noise - direct hearing or annoyance. (e.g., piercing tones, just too noisy)
1. special hearing protection equipment
2. redesign workspace to reduce noise reverberation
3. redesign equipment to reduce sound emmisions

DI:8.2 SAFETY

• It is natural for a machine to have hazardous parts/functions/flows.

• If the risk (probability) of comming in contact is high we call this danger

• Typical hazards include,

- pinch points
- crushing
- collision with moving objects
- falling from heights
- slippery surfaces
- explossion
- electric shock
- temperature/fire
- toxicity
- physical strain

• When possible it is best to eliminate hazards. If this is not possible we want to reduce the risk of
access (hence danger).

• OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) regulates workplace procedures.

• Danger can be reduced by,

- signs
- safegaurds (e.g. barriers)
- policies and procedures
- worker training
- special protective equipment (e.g. earplugs)

• Typical additions to machines include,

- barrier gaurds - physical blocks to separate operators and equipment. Interlocks are used
to disable the machine when the barrier is open.
- passive safety devices - for example seat belts
- active safety devices - these include
- hand pull-backs
- dead-man controls
- presence sensing devices
 page 24

- maintenance safety devices - these additions (and procedures) ensure that the machine is
still safe, even though the normal safety equipment is disabled.
- warnings - large warning signs, buzzers, status lights, etc. are used to promote aware-
ness.

• Note: It is important to place safety considerations at the top of the design priorities. It is so
obvious that it is quite often assumed.

DI:8.2.1 Environment

• Environmental considerations are a natural consideration of the design process and can be con-
sidered an extension of safety.

• design factors that will impact the environment include,

- discharges/waste (gas, liquids, solids) from production processes
- energy/fuel utilization in production
- aging of the product - decay, inert, toxic, etc.
- energy/fuel efficiency in use

• There are a wide variety of laws, agencies and organizations that influence manufacturing and
consumer products,
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration)
EPA (Environment Protection Agency)
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety & Health)
UL (Underwriters Laboratory)
CSA (Canadian Safety Association)

DI:8.2.2 MIL-STD 882B - System Safety Program Requirements

• This standard addresses the likelyhood and acceptability of hazards.

• The basic tables are,

 page 25

I II III IV
Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligable

A. Frequent 1 3 7 13
B. Probable 2 5 9 16
C. Occasional 4 6 11 18
D. Remote 8 10 14 19
E. Improbable 12 15 17 20

Risk Index Criterion

1-5 unaceptable
6-9 undesirable
10-17 acceptable with review
18-20 acceptable with no review

Category Description Definition

I catastrophic death or equipment loss

II critical major injury, illness or system failure
III marginal minor injury, illness or system failure
IV negligable insignificant loss of function

Level Description Single Item Inventory

A frequent happens often allways happening

B probable occurs several times over life of product occurs frequently
C occasional will occur sometime over life of product occurs several times
D remote may occur during life of product not often
E improbable rarely occurs rarely

DI:8.3 HUMAN STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS

• When designing we can use statistical values of human proportions to set sizes of components,
forces, etc.
 page 26

• These tables are available from a number of sources such as NASA. There is a set of tables in
the back of the text book.

DI:8.4 EQUIPMENT INTERFACES

• When a human interacts with a machine they use controls to begin actions, and displays to mon-
itor status.

• Typical controls include,

- switches (push, toggle, touch, etc.)
- sliders, knobs
-

• Typical displays include

- indicator lights
- audible tones (buzzers, beeps, bells, etc.)
-

8.5 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 27

DI:9. MANAGEMENT

• Management differs from administration in that it sets a new course working on the policy mak-
ing level - administration follows policy. There are many levels of administration and manage-
ment.

• Questions that a manager will consider before putting together a design activity include,
- Is the design for a small batch or mass production? smaller batches don’t require as much
effort in refining the design. The design cost becomes a significant part of the final
cost.
- Is the design an improvement or redesign of an existing product, or is it new? Product
improvement/variation can be done with minimal technical effort. The amount of
technical effort increases dramatically as we go to a new design.
- What design functions are anticipated? This determines the types of roles on a design
team. (These are listed in approximate order of responsibility and authority). Note:
All of these roles are important in a successful design. There should be people
assigned to each explicitly.
1. Marketing/Product manager - makes major market/customer decisions
1. Design Engineer - Makes major technical decisions an assesses results
2. Manufacturing engineer - makes decisions about production of product
2. Designer/Engineer - does detailed design work based on major decisions
3. Quality control engineer - evaluates quality problems and opportunities
3. Materials specialist - selects materials
3. Industrial designer - makes aesthetic decisions (typically an artist)
4. Drafter - completes drawings of parts
4. Technician - builds, tests, evaluates product
4. Vendor/Supplier Representative - a product manager from another company
- How does the design naturally break into manageable parts? The team can be constant
members in a static structure, or can have shifting responsibility and structure. An
innovative design must allow more freedom and a dynamic structure. A well
defined design should be use a clear structure and set of tasks.
- How much time does the design require? Based on experience and some calculations a
manager can set milestones for a design team. Typical tasks might include,
- set specifications
- generate concepts
- test concepts with prototype/simulation
- do detailed design
- build full prototype
- test and evaluate prototype
- plan for tooling and production
- test runs
- full runs

• A manager will tend to follow a set of steps when planning,

 page 28

identify tasks

state objectives
for tasks redefine tasks

is each
task/objective no
clear and
necessary?

yes

estimate time,
people resources
needed

sequence tasks
and develop a
schedule

estimate cost
of project

are can tasks

requirements be made to fit
too yes company yes
much? objectives?

no no

begin project abandon project

DI:9.1 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Consider a typical pen,

a) a design improvement to change one unappealing feature.
 page 29

b) to design a similar competitive product.

c) to design a radically new, but functionally equivalent product.

9.2 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 30

DI:10. DESIGN TEAMS

• Selecting team membership appropriately increased the chance of success in the design.

DI:10.1 TEAM PROFILES

• To select members of teams we must consider psychological factors and the general objectives
of a design.

DI:10.1.1 Personalities

• We can develop categories of people by using some indicators of personality (this is not to be
taken too seriously).

DI:10.1.1.1 - Personality Traits

• In terms of organizational behavior there are some traits (note - not strengths) that may be iden-
tified. A personality can be made up of a combination of these traits.
a. detail oriented - pays a great amount of attention to information. Investigative in nature.
This person does not like lingering questions, etc. A large amount of time will be
spent trying to prove things completely
b. planning/organization - looks forward and lays out steps. Prefers a well ordered
sequence and wants to know/decide what will happen next and on.
c. innovator - breaks traditional molds. This person does not mind changing direction and
will invent unexpected solutions.
d. concrete/constructor - A ‘touchy-feely’ person that move easily into implementation.
This person is skills oriented and will take pleasure in the practice/methods of
developing a solution.

• A good team will overall have a combination of each of these traits.

• As an exercise,
1. pick a partner.
2. for your partner, write down a number from 1 to 4 for the points above. The total score
cannot be above 10. Don’t let your partner see your numbers.
3. write down similar numbers for yourself.
4. talk to your partner about the numbers you got, compared to what they gave you.
 page 31

DI:10.1.1.2 - Personality Types

• We can also classify individuals as,

- introverts/extroverts
- concept/detail oriented
- subjective/objective
- decisive/flexible

• When introverted individuals are encountered,

- encourage them to speak out
- make team members aware of the introverts message
- use introverts to “check” extroverts

• Extroverted individuals may require,

- slow them down and allow time for thought
- make extroverts listen to others and repeat
- ensure they don’t “dominate” the group

• Fact oriented people,

- need to be encouraged to think wildly
- need to plan/set goals before starting

• Concept oriented people,

- need to be grounded in detail and should be asked to explain in detail.
- keep these individuals on track

• As an exercise, consider what to do with the remaining two personality types to make a design
team more effective.
 page 32

subjective objective

decisive flexible

DI:10.1.2 Team Composition

• Typical personality types found on a team might include,

coordinator - a natural leader
creator - develops new ideas
resource/investigator - does “leg-work”
shaper - problem solver
monitor/evaluator - has vision
team worker - dislikes dissent
implementor - uses tried methods well
completer/finisher - gets things done

• A good team will have some combination of all of these.

DI:10.1.3 Team Success

• Some guidelines for a successful team,

1. Productivity - a well laid out (realistic) set of goals, purpose and methods will lead to an
enthusiastic team.
2. Composition - technically capable and well matched personalities
3. Methods - lay out the problem solving styles and techniques
4. Immediate Gratification - devise goals and objectives to develop frequent feelings of
accomplishment
5. Bonding - team members should spend time to develop personal relationships
 page 33

10.2 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 34

DI:11. ADMINISTRATION

• We need to determine the day-to-day (administration) needs of a design team.

• In terms of the design process there is a continual cycle of,

1. identifying problems
2. devising solutions
3. evaluating the solutions
4. deciding to accept, retry, terminate

• The specifications are repeatedly used to guide all phases of the design work. A design not con-
forming to the specs is useless.

11.1 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 35

DI:12. CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

DI:12.1 OVERVIEW

####################### Rework and summary required in this section

• Concurrent engineering is a common sense approach to product design.

• Originally (hundreds of years ago) the designer was also the person who produced the design.
So during the design phase they considered production problems.

• As designs, and manufacturing methods became more complex, it became necessary to break
down design and manufacture to more specific tasks.

• These areas of specialization caused different functions to arise in an enterprise. So it became

common for the designer to have little, or nothing to do with production.

• For many years designs tended to be thrown over-the-wall. This was effective in big companies,
but some problems arose as a result,
- The designer did not always understand the results of his decisions
- More time was spent trying to get a design to work right

• But, now with the aid of computers, and other information tools, we are able to close the gap
between the designer, and production. Hence, concurrent engineering.

• Reasons for using the traditional design methods,

- Product development is traditionally its own organization and is physically and organiza-
tionally isolated.
- Process development and production operations are located together in a different orga-
nization labeled manufacturing.
- Most emphasis is on manufacturing operations, that is, shipping product out the door.

• Problems with current design methods,

- The design is driven by scheduled deliverable data items. There is pressure for drawings
and specifications, which leads to a depth-first design search. Design alternatives
are quickly eliminated in the interest of time, and one particular idea is pursued.
- The definition of design detail is costly in labor hours. Even with CAD/CAM tools,
much manual effort is needed. It would be better to delay this task until the design
is somewhat optimized.
- The design process is characterized by a rigid sequence of design decisions. The ultimate
goal is usually lower cost, when the goals should include optimal performance and
ease of manufacture.
 page 36

- Producability and supportability issues are not considered until relatively late in the pro-
cess, when a design change may be very costly.
- Production planning, support analysis, maintenance, and reliability are considered sepa-
rately from the design process. The designers are left on their own to select the par-
ticular set of utilities considered in the first design iteration.
- Design data is fragmented. Documentation includes CAD files, dimensioned component
drawings, sketches, process drawings, 3-D solid models, etc. It is difficult, if not
impossible to maintain consistency at all times across these representations.
- Information is lost as the design progresses. The design intent may be lost by the time the
documentation gets to the producability experts. They then must rely on experi-
ence and luck in guessing what changes can be made to make the item producible
and also functional. Ideally, the reasons for the design features would be included
in the design documentation.
- Designers are usually not aware of cost information, so they cannot intelligently set cost
reduction as a realistic goal. Companies do not release cost information routinely.
There are no tools for estimating costs as there are for other design domains, and
when the costs are calculated, it is often too late to make major design changes.

• Some of the goals of concurrent engineering are,

- Avoiding component features that are unnecessarily expensive to produce. This often
happens because when a decision is made about a manufacturing feature, there is
often a lack of information about the effect of the decision.
- Minimizing Material Costs, and selecting better materials.

• Concurrent Engineering means that during design, we consider more than just the design, we
also consider how to make it, how to package it, and all of the other functions that were previ-
ously left-for-later.

• The development of Concurrent engineering can be traced to 1979 Xerox, HP & Ford look at
design practices, and foreign competition. Many small developments since then.

• Important tasks for a concurrent engineering team are,

1. Define the design concept as behavior - The design team must define exactly how a
product must perform, and rank the options. This will tend to focus the multidisci-
plinary team.
2. Define error recovery procedures - In effect the team must now define the challenges
which the product will face. For example, if we are designing a transmission, what
are the possible failure modes the transmission may face, or stacking for shipping.
3. Define how components interact - As components are defined, and detailed, their inter-
dependence must be considered. At this stage the power of the multidisciplinary
team becomes important. If all team members participate, most problems can be
eliminated before they become problems.
4. Define product integration and testing procedures - The group as a whole define how
the product will be brought together, and tested. This ensures that original design
intent is present in the final product, and also the final product should be manufac-
turable with very little backtracking.
 page 37

DI:12.2 DOING CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

[find - source]

1. From the start, include all domains of expertise as active participants in the design
effort.
2. Resist making irreversible decision before they must be made.
3. Perform continuous optimization of product and process.
4. Identify product concepts that are inherently easy to manufacture.
5. Focus on component design for manufacture and assembly.
6. Integrate the manufacturing process design and product design that best match needs
and requirements.
7. Convert concept to manufacturable, salable, usable design by stating all constraints.
8. Anticipate fabrication and assembly methods and problems.
9. Reduce number of parts.
10. Increase interchangeability between models.
11. Define subassemblies to allow models to differ by the subassemblies.
12. Standardize fastener types and sizes; use low-cost, irreversible fasteners only where a
skilled serviceperson would work.
13. Improve robustness of product and process.
14. Identify difficult process steps for which costs and process times cannot be predicted.
15. Use existing processes and facilities so that product yield is high.
16. Break down products and processes into self-contained modules and assembly lines.
17. Adjust tolerances to eliminate failures during assembly.
18. Identify testable areas.
19. Make assembly easier by minimizing setups and reorientations.
20. Design parts for feeding and insertion.
21. Determine character of product; what design and production methods are appropriate.
22. Subject the product to a product function analysis to ensure rational design.
23. Carry out design for producability and usability study; can these two be improved
without impairing function ?
24. Design fabrication and assembly process
25. Design assembly sequence
26. Identify subassemblies
27. Integrate quality control strategy with assembly.
28. Design each part so that tolerances are compatible with assembly method and fabrica-
tion costs are compatible with cost goals.
29. Design factory system to fully involve production workers in the production strategy,
operate on minimum inventory, and integrate with vendor capabilities.
 page 38

DI:12.3 FUTURE TOOLS FOR CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

• More computer tools are becoming available for breaking down the barriers between the
‘Islands’ of automation.

• Some tasks have been defined for evolving software to support concurrent engineering. [ get
source]
1. Interoperable tools and tasks - Develop standards for file transfer, so that software may
pass information freely between various engineering systems.
2. Interoperable computing environment - The differences between different computers,
from different vendors should be eliminated, or at least made to be insignificant.
This will overcome the need for separated systems which occurs now. This also
extends to other aspects of computing technology, such as User interfaces, Data-
base interfaces, Files management systems.
3.Data management - Basically integrate all information into a single framework, so that
transferring information is no longer an issue. An example of this is a single data-
base which would serve all software in a facility, so that there is no need for trans-
ferring designs, and other information.
4. Process management - At present human judgement is still required to initiate any, and
all processes in an automated environment. If the computers could be made to
automatically review designs, or forward information the interested parties, then
the computer would create an automated framework for concurrent engineering.
5. Decision support - While most of the other 4 developments are concerned with the
design information. We would eventually require tools that examine the work done
by the group, and determine which aspects of the design still need to be performed,
or are insufficient. In effect, the computer takes on some of the management tasks.

• As the 5 stages above develop the focus changes from data to knowledge, and from simple stor-
age of files, to shared collaboration of data.

DI:12.4 SOFTWARE CONCURRENT ENGINEERING

• A number of software tools have been developed which make it possible to consider later stages
of a product life during the design stage.

• There are some standard tools like FEA for failure analysis, but there are also tools which use
knowledge about a problem domain to suggest design changes.

DI:12.5 METHODS
 page 39

• Some methods have already been identified for supporting concurrent engineering,
[get source]

Axiomatic Design - This topic applies methods such a Nam Suh’s theories so that produc-
tion costs, and problems can be eliminated in the design stage by following the
rules. An example of an axiom would be “Everything being equal, conserve mate-
rials”.

Design For Manufacturing (DFM) guidelines - Methods which focus on rules for simpli-
fying manufacturing in general. An example of one of these rules is “Use known
and proven vendors and suppliers”.

Design For Assembly (DFA) - A method for evaluating whether designs may be assem-
bled quickly, and effectively. An example is “Use tapers to align parts which must
be mated”.

Taguchi Methods - Experimental methods for determining sensitivity of design factors to

change. This allows designs to be made less sensitive to variations in the produc-
tion process.

Group Technology - A number is given to a part. The number tends to identify what the
part is. Similar parts will have similar numbers. As a result it becomes easy to use
similar designs, and process plans. The use of standards allows problems discov-
ered before to be considered.

Failure-Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) - Estimates of failures, and possible out-
comes can be examined before the part ever reaches production, and provisions
may be made in the design phase.

Value Engineering - During the design stage, an attempt is made to evaluate all of the
parts in a design, and decide what their value to the customer is. Financial costs are
also considered. This allows a picture of how good the design is before the cus-
tomer gets it.

Simulation - Simulation is an important aspect of product evaluation. If a production facil-

ity does not exist, or a new technology is being used, simulation allows evaluation
of production times, costs, efficiencies, and problems, before any equipment is
purchased, or designs are finalized. This overlaps with some elements of CAE. For
example a simulation of cooling of plastics in an injection mold allow consider-
ation of production problems.

• The advantages of the various tools can be any of the following,

- Optimize design satisfaction of customer requirements
- Simplify designs
- Ensure manufacturability
- Optimize production ease and cost.
 page 40

12.6 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 41

DI:13. DESIGN FOR X (DFX)

DI:13.1 OVERVIEW

• During design, we often focus on the final product, and not its manufacture.

• The Design For X (DFX) philosophy suggests that a design be continually reviewed from the
start to the end to find ways to improve production and other non-functional aspects.

• These rules are nothing new, they are just common sense items written down, but they can be a
good guide through the design process.

• Advantages of these techniques are,

- shorter production times
- fewer production steps
- smaller parts inventory
- more standardized parts
- simpler designs that are more likely to be robust
- they can help when expertise is not available, or as a way to reexamine traditional
designs
- proven to be very successful over decades of application

• These techniques can be used as a very substantial part of concurrent engineering.

• Some of the DFX acronyms are, (modified from [Dodd, 1992])

 page 42

DFA Design For Assembly

DFD Design For Disassembly
DFEMC Design For ElectroMagnetic Compatibility
DFESD Design For Electrostatic Discharge
DFI Design For Installability
DFM Design For Maintainability
DFM Design For Manufacturability
DFML Design For Material Logistics
DFP Design For Portability (Software)
DFQ Design For Quality
DFR Design For Redesign
DFR Design For Reliability
DFR Design For Reuse
DFS Design For Safety
DFS Design For Simplicity
DFS Design For Speed
DFT Design For Test

DI:13.2 DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY (DFA)

• These techniques attempt to simplify products to ease the assembly process, without compro-
mising functionality of the product.

• First, consider the basic steps involved in assembly,

1a. parts are purchased, and put into inventory, or storage bins.
1b. parts are manufactured, and put into inventory, or storage bins.
2. batches of parts are often inspected for quality.
3. the batches are moved to the work station.
4. the partially completed assembly may be already at the work station, or the operator
may accept it from another source (e.g., a belt on an assembly line)
5. the part base will be set in position.
6. The operator will pick a part from the parts bin.
7. the operators will (if not already) position the part correctly in their hand, and prepare to
insert it into the work.
8. The operator will guide the part into the final position.
9. The operator will move the two parts so that they fit together
10. The operator will perform any fastening operations required.
11. Additional alignment or quality inspection steps may sometimes be included.

• Each one of these steps has potential for problems, or improvement. For example, if one part can
 page 43

be modified to match another, we cut the need to perform steps 1 to 5 in half. For each part that
can be eliminated we reduce steps 1-11.

• One report of these techniques applied to circuit boards [Boothroyd and Knight, 1993] reports,
- manufacturing costs down almost 20-30%
- component costs down 10-20%
- component counts down almost 25-40%
- board densities down almost 5-20%
- problem parts down over 20-90%
- yield up over 30-50%

DI:13.2.1 Design rule summary

• Part Design
1. Eliminate/minimize tangling between parts in feeders.
2. Use symmetry to reduce the orientation time during handling
3. If symmetry is not possible, use obvious features to speed orientation

• Product Design
1. Reduce the number of parts when possible
2. Build the part in layers from the top on the bottom, using gravity to locate parts
3. Have the already assembled product stable on the work surface
4. Have the work lie in a horizontal plane
5. Use chamfers and fillets to ease mating of parts.
6. Use snap-fits, and other quick fasteners, avoid screws, glue, etc.

DI:13.2.2 Rules for Manual/Automatic Assembly

• The basic strategies of DFA for automated assembly are,

1. Reduce the number of parts
2. Allow assembly from the top of a fixtured part
3. Develop symmetry for easy part orientation
4. Use guides to simplify part mating, such as chamfers
5. Aim for snap-fit connectors, avoid screws
6. Reduce handling problems

• The basic rules of DFA for manual assembly are,

1. the number of parts should be reduced
2. parts should be standardized where possible
3. alignment operations should be reduced
4. locating and aligning features should be used
 page 44

5. allow clear paths for parts being added to the assembly

6. add orientation features so that parts can only be assembled in the correct orientations
7. consider part feeding/picking from batches
8. introduce symmetries to reduce the need for reorientation
9. add orientation features to simplify orientation identification

DI:13.2.3 Reducing the Number of Parts

• Designs often include more parts than are necessary

• A set of questions must be satisfied for any two parts in an assembly to justify their being sepa-
rated
1. Do the parts move relative to one another?
2. Must the parts be made of different materials?
3. Must the parts be separable for maintenance or manufacture?

• Some simple ideas possible are,

1. Instead of attaching labels on plastic parts, add the lettering into the mold so that the let-
ters are added at the time of molding. The completely eliminates a part, and the
associated operations.

DANGER: don’t eat

metal parts, call
physician.

DANGER: don’t eat

metal parts, call
physician.

2. In sheet metal parts create features using sheet metal, instead of attaching them with
other means. Some examples are,
- instead of adding hook to a sheet metal part, cut and bend hooks out of the sheet
metal
- don’t add screw standoffs to metal, but punch the metal to create a standoff, and
tap the hole.
-
 page 45

3. When possible use snap fits instead of screws. Most screwed connectors require 1 nut, 1
bolt, typically 2 or more washers, and possibly a lockwasher, as well as a great
deal of time and dexterity to assembly. Snap fittings can be made very simple and
fast. NOTE: press fits can also be considered for these operations, although their
need for higher forces can be a negative.

Flexible Catch
Flexible Detent

ASIDE: Basically these catches are designed to be deflected during

assembly, but to not have any forces on them after assembly. This
will prevent creep of the plastic. Care must be exercised during
design to make sure the plastic is not permanently deformed.

4. If screws must be used try integrating washers with the screw heads, this will eliminate
at least one part.
 page 46

5. Replace separate springs with parts with thin sections that act as springs.

6. When screws are required (often for maintenance) try to reduce the number to a mini-
mum.
7. Cables can be eliminated for a reduction in cost, and an increase in reliability, and
access for maintenance. Card edge connectors, and PCBs will be slightly higher in
material costs, but the boards are simply plugged together. If cables are strung
between boards and other boards/components, they will require additional time for
soldering, be the source of soldering quality problems, and make the boards tricky
to orient, etc.

DI:13.2.4 Feeding and Orienting Parts

• It must be considered that more complicated parts require greater handling time to properly ori-
ent them.
 page 47

DI:13.2.4.1 - Part Tangling/Nesting

• It should be considered that when small parts are shipped, they come in bulk lots. (large/more
expensive parts are often shipped in pallets, or separately.

• When the parts are stored together, they can sometimes tangle or nest.
Tangling - the parts get looped together, making them difficult to separate
Nesting - one part gets stuck inside another, much like styrofoam cups.

• The obvious problem with this situation is that the parts often require additional costly human
intervention to separate them, and this problem will greatly reduce the success of an automated
parts feeder.

• The problems of nesting and tangling can be significantly reduced through small design modifi-
cation in many cases.

• A few of the problems, and some possible solutions are shown,

PROBLEM: Two shapes can naturally nest, and in the case, suction and
friction will hold them in place. [Iredale, 1964]
SOLUTION: Put a rib or riser in the bottom to stop the two cups from mat-
ing.
 page 48

PROBLEM: Two split rings can loop over each other, and become tangled.
[Iredale, 1964]
SOLUTION: We can’t get rid of the split (it is needed for contraction), but
we can remove the large gap between the openings.
 page 49

PROBLEM: Two open ended coil springs will tend to get stuck together
quite easily. [Iredale, 1964]
SOLUTION: If the ends are closed, then the springs will not be coiled
together except when force is applied.

DI:13.2.4.2 - Handling Parts

• As parts vary greatly in size we must how it is to be manipulated. The basic categories are,

CATEGORY DESCRIPTION

One hand with tools Very small, or delicate objects will have to be grasped with spe-
cial motion amplifiers, and visual aids.

One hand Parts can be easily picked up with a single hand

Two Hands Parts are light enough for one hand, but a second hand is needed
for untangling, support, etc.

Two hands/heavy Both hands are needed for object bulk and/or mass

Multiple people Two or more workers are required for bulk and/or mass

Heavy lifting tools Equipment such as lift trucks are required to move parts.
 page 50

• Other factors to consider when handling parts,

- are the parts sticky?
- are the parts fragile?
- are there any sharp edges?
- do the parts nest or tangle?
- are there any parts or tools that the operator must leave the work station to get?

DI:13.2.4.3 - Orienting Parts

• When parts are to be fed, automatically and by human, the task is simplified if certain features
are added.

• Basically, symmetry is a major problem for automated feeders.

• In general, a part is easier to orient if,

1. The orientation is based on internal features, and there are external features that can be
used for reference.
2. Extra features are added to change the centre of mass, or create holding points for fea-
tures.

• Some examples of parts orientation are,

PROBLEM: The part on the left would be hard to locate

SOLUTION: If external features are added to allow orientation without
examining the internal holes, the part can be fed easily.
 page 51

PROBLEM: The sheet metal bracket has no features that would make it
easy to orient.
SOLUTION: A lip is added at the top of the part (assuming this won’t
affect the function), allowing the part to be oriented by suspending it by
a wire for part of its travel.

PROBLEM: The hole in the part to the left would be hard to separate locate
left to right.
SOLUTION: By cutting a notch on one side, we can use a vibratory bowl
feeder to sort the parts by centre of gravity or by track width.
 page 52

PROBLEM: The feature on the part to the left is not prominent enough to
simplify orientation techniques.
SOLUTION: The part to the right will be somewhat easier to orient.

DI:13.2.4.4 - Locating and Aligning Parts

• When we try to thread a needle, the thread is smaller than the hole in the needle, but this does not
make threading the hole simple. In fact the process of threading the needle is simplified by the
rounded opening on the needle. If the opening of the needle were square it would greatly com-
plicate this problem.

• Much like threading a needle, the problem of mating two parts can be simplified if the parts tend
to align and locate themselves.

• If we consider that for one part to mate with another, it must travel along an approach axis. In
fact, when the parts are mated the parts will have common axis. We can add guides to the parts
to align the axis to be parallel, and to locate the axis so that they are colinear. Hence, the terms
aligning and locating.

• Consider the cases given below, and the implications they have for alignment
 page 53

PROBLEM: We are to put a bolt (with a bearing sleeve) in a hole, but it is

hard to get the bolt in the hole. At the far side, the bolt must enter a sec-
ond threaded hole to secure it.
SOLUTION: Put a chamfer on any stage where the bolt must pass through,
this will align it, and allow it to slip in..
 page 54

PROBLEM: A roler bearing is to be placed into a support. Just to keep

things interesting, the roler bearing has already been press fit onto a
shaft. But the sharp edges keep the two from mating easily.
SOLUTION: Put a chamfer on any stage where the bolt must pass through,
this will align it, and allow it to slip in.

• Although screws are discouraged in DFA techniques, when they must be used, then we can add
some features to help align and locate them.

Plain Square End

(not good for DFA)
Chamfer Point Dog Point Cone Point Oval Point
 page 55

DI:13.2.4.5 - Part Symmetry

• Perfectly symmetrical parts need no rotation to orient them, completely asymmetrical parts
require at most 360° rotation followed by a second 360° to put them in the same position every
time.

• There is also a recognition phase required by humans for every orientation. Therefor parts that
are not symmetrical, but look as if they are upon quick inspection, will require additional
inspection time.

• consider the cases below,

PROBLEM: The part on the left has a stepped shaft at each end, each being
slightly different in length. This part can cause three problems: i) it
could be installed backwards, ii) a maximum of 360° of rotation might
be required, and iii) the operator would require additional time to recog-
nize the orientation.
SOLUTION: Make the steps equal on both sides.

PROBLEM: The offset bar on the left is somewhat thin, and would require
some time to determine left/right orientation. If it were small it would
also be difficult to manipulate.
SOLUTION: Make the offset a bit larger to make the part easier to handle.
 page 56

PROBLEM: The part on the left would require some time to rotate, as
much as 360°, and also time to identify orientation.
SOLUTION: Put the hole on both sides, and increase symmetry.

PROBLEM: The part to the left has a slot cut into it on one side. This slot
would be hard to see unless the part was picked up and rotated.
SOLUTION: One possibility is to put a second slot on the other side of the
piece.

• Alpha symmetry is the largest angle a part would have to be turned about an axis perpendicular
to the insertion axis.

• Beta Symmetry is the largest angle the part would have to be rotated about the insertion axis for
mating.

• Alpha and Beta symmetry actually range from 0 to 360° (instead of the intuitive 0 to 180°)
because it is assumed that the worst case rotation is used.
 page 57

β = 90° β = 90° β = 360°

α = 90° α = 180° α = 180°

Note: For the triangular wedge above

there are three possible cases
based on the shape of the triangle.

If all three sides are equal α = 180° β = 120°

If two sides are equal length α = 180° β = 360°

If no sides are equal length α = 360° β = 360°

DI:13.2.4.6 - Part Shape, Size and Thickness

• We must consider the basic shapes of the parts being assembled. Two basic categories are pris-
matic and rotational.

• Rotational parts tend to roll when placed on a surface, suggesting that they will need some sort
of holding fixture. This also means that during assembly, they must be supported by hand if not
in a stable position when working.

• Prismatic parts tend to have at least one stable orientation that allows them to be rested on sur-
faces. Unlike rotational parts. If the prismatic parts are made to be stable when put in their final
position, then they are much easier to fasten.
 page 58

• The size of an object is generally the size of its largest major dimension, and thickness is the
smallest major diameter.

• There are a number of criteria that can be used to determine how easily a part can be handled,
- a high size/thickness can be a measure of fragility
- large size values can indicate large weights
- small size values can indicate the need for special tools

DI:13.2.5 Mating Parts

• There are a large number of methods for assembling parts. Generally a fastening operation is
involved.

• The best rule of thumb is that all assembly work is best done by setting down a large base, and
slowing dropping more parts on top of the base. Each part should be fed by gravity, and the
work base should not have to be moved to put the part on.

• When mating two parts there are a number of possible combinations. The following table is an
adaptation of Boothroyd [1979].
 page 59

easy alignment, then crimping

force fit, then crimping

crimping
press fit
snap fit
approach from above
With open
straight approach from side
approach
approach from bottom

Mating become
approach from above more difficult
inside
enclosure
approach from side

approach from bottom

• If a part must be supported or held down by hand while a fastening operation is done, this
greatly complicates any operations. If this is the case, self securing parts should be used.

• parts may also exert some sort of resistance to insertion. If this is the case, the force should be
minimized

• There are two type of obstructions that must be considered during assembly operations
- the operator has no clear view of the assembly site
- the assembly site is not in easy reach (i.e. the assembly axis is not clear)

• A self nesting or self fixturing part is ideal. In effect the part will hold itself in location after it
has been positioned.
 page 60

DI:13.2.6 Adjustments

• As an assembly is built, adjustments are commonly used to bring the shape back to proper spec-
ification. This can easily by the result of errors accumulated as parts are added in discrete
steps.

• This problem can best be avoided by,

- having parts positioned relative to one reference piece. For example pilots through layers
of the work can be used for mounting parts.
- screw hole slots, instead of holes can allow play in position.
- loosen tolerances to the minimum levels
-

DI:13.2.7 Modular Assemblies

• Designing in modules will allow reduction of the problems involved with any one assembly.

• Each module should be functionally separate from the other modules

• A module should have docking features to allow it to be connected to the main assembly

• advantages,
- simplified assembly steps
- easier quality control
- simpler inventory
- easier to reconfigure a system
- suited to automatic assembly
- fewer adjustments are required on final parts
- simplified maintenance

DI:13.2.8 Standard Parts

• There are a few distinct benefits to standards parts (as opposed to custom designed),
- lower development costs
- simple selection of vendors
- lower production costs (no special tooling required)
- quality levels are well established
- these parts are easy to approve for Acceptance Sampling programs
- automation tooling is available for many standard parts
 page 61

DI:13.2.9 Part Fixtures and Jigs

• Jigs and fixtures are often used when,

1. Doing manual assembly, with small or fragile parts
2. doing any form of robotic assembly (at present sensors are not yet available for reliable
fixtureless work).
3. when designing self fixturing parts where the base part also acts as a form of fixture.

• When parts are mounted on fixtures, we can pretend this is another assembly step, and apply all
of the normal DFA rules.

• The location of the part on the fixture is important for both alignment, and location in many
cases, as the fixture has been set up as a reference.

• For high accuracy in location, we are better to have (one, two, or three) point contact between
the fixture and the part. For orientation, surface/surface contact (such as chamfered hole shaft
pairs) will give better results.
 page 62

PROBLEM: We want fixture to put an oval shaped part into a fixture to

insert parts into the holes, but the alignment of the part is somewhat dif-
ficult because of the rounded shape. The fixture shown has an oval
shape to hold the part, a rounded opening, and holes underneath for the
inserted parts to fall into.
SOLUTION: Add small alignment notches in the part, and the fixture to
ease the alignment.
 page 63

PROBLEM: We want to take the part below, and put it on a fixture so that
the centre hole can be accessed for a press fit. But for the same problem
cited for the last case this is not an easy configuration.
SOLUTION: Add tapered pegs that will go through the two side holes to
locate the part.

DI:13.2.10 Bottom Up Layered Assemblies

• The assembly should be done using a heavy and stable base piece at the bottom.

• As the design continues we want to add new parts in layers.

• The docking location for the new part should be a sort of mini fixture.

• Pilots should be added to locate layered pieces.

 page 64

• This method also allows many parts to be put in place, and then a number of parts assembled in
one assembly step.

DI:13.2.11 Examples

• First, review the DFA handbook paying special attention to the work sheets and the tables.

• Use the DFA handbook a) To do an analysis of the assembly below (assume dimensions with an
overall length of about 8”). b) do a redesign of the assembly and reanalyze.

DI:13.3 DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING (DFM)

DI:13.4 DESIGN FOR RECYCLING (DFR)

• When disassembling a product is can be very difficult to reclaim any value.

 page 65

• There are three clear objectives when disassembling a product,

- remove subassemblies that can be resold as is.
- remove hazardous materials
- separate the remaining materials into single materials with as little effort as possible

• By following the design for assembly rules we can actually produce a part that is relatively easy
to disassemble, and with some additional rules we can obtain easy to recycle designs.

• The basic rules (above DFA) are,

1. Use modules (consolidated parts) that can be removed and reused in other applications
2. Mark all materials for identification that cannot be sorted easily
3. Make parts easy to disassemble
4. Reduce materials and energy invested in the parts.

DI:13.4.1 Reduce Materials and Energy

• When we manufacture a product it requires energy to generate the raw materials, more energy to
form them, and over the life of the product energy is used.

• Ideally the perfect product last forever, and never needs to be recycled. This can be attempted
through good design practices.

• Other ways to reduce the total energy/materials in the product are,

- reduce the number of parts
- reduce the part size
- reduce the time to assemble
- eliminate redundant components
- use recycled materials where possible
- reduce scrap
- evaluate materials chosen for their environmental impact, and recyclability
- minimize waste in production processes
- packaging should be eliminated, or replace with reusable packaging
- when reliability is a problem, make the components easy to maintain and repair.
- avoid finishing operations that might contaminate materials
-

• If you recycle your own products, there are potential economies of scale, and the approach to
DFR will improve.

DI:13.4.2 Consolidated Parts

 page 66

• Auto wreckers commonly salvage good parts from an automobile before it is scrapped. This
reduces the amount of material that must be reprocessed from raw state.

• These parts are self compact modules that,

1. can be removed and reinstalled in another machine
2. can be rebuilt easily, if at all
3. has a compact geometry with connectors

DI:13.4.3 Ease Of Disassembly

• One major reason not to recycle is the time required to separate materials.

• To make a product easy to disassemble you can,

1. use snap fits that can be undone or broken easily
2. mark the location of snap fits so that they can be separated quickly
3. reduce the fastener count
4. avoid threaded and permanent fasteners (eg glue)
5. reduce the number of components to reduce the number of steps in disassembly
6. assembly from top in layers so that parts can be picked off
7. avoid parts with mixed materials

DI:13.4.4 Recycling Markings

• For plastics there are six symbols commonly recognized,

 page 67

1 Polyethylene Terephthalate

2 High Density Polyethylene

3 Poly vinyl Chloride

4 Low Density Polyethylene

5 Polypropylene

6 Polystyrene

• Metals that are commonly recycled are,

iron/steel - this can be sorted using electromagnets
aluminum -
platinum - reclaimed from catalytic converters

• Glass is typically sorted, and is easy to melt and reuse.

• Paper can be reused, but it must be mixed with new fiber.

DI:13.5 REFERENCES

Boothroyd., G., “Design for Assembly”, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of

Massachusetts, USA, 1979.

Boothroyd, G., and Knight, W., “Design for Assembly”, Spectrum, IEEE, September 1993, pp.
53-55.

Dodd., C.W., “Design for ‘X’”, IEEE Potentials, October 1992, pp. 44-46.

Iredale, R., “Automatic Assembly - Components and Products”, Metalwork Production, April 8,
1964.

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 68

DI:13.6 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. The theoretical minimum number of parts in a 3 prong electrical plug are,

a) 1-2
b) 3-5
c) 6-8
d) other _____________________ (specify, and justify your answer below)
(ans. b. 3 conductors and an insulator)

2. What features of a typical car windshield violate the principles of design for assembly (DFA)?
(ans. length to width, fragile)

3. Sketch out components of a calculator that would observe the rules of Design For Assembly

4. Redesign the part below for more efficient assembly

************ Boothroyd piston figure

 page 69

DI:13.7 AXIOMATIC DESIGN

• Basically sets of rules are used to guide the design process.

DI:13.7.1 Suh’s Methodology

• Relates Design Parameters (DPs) to Functional Requirements (FRs) using matrices.

• Two basic axioms,

1. The Independance Axiom - sections of the design should be separable so that changes in
one have no (or as little as possible) effect on the other.
2. The Information Axiom - the information inherent in a product design should be mini-
mized.

• In a simple design FRs would be the requirements of a design. This will be a discrete list of inde-
pendant items. If the FRs are not independant enough then complications will arise. An exam-
ple would be for a parachute,
FR1: The parachute will slow down a descent to prevent injury
FR2: When not in use it will be easily carried by a user
FR3: Reliability will be greater than 1 failure in 20000 users
FR4: The user will be able to redirect the descent vector

• If we consider DPs, we want these to be independant also. These will express how we have
decided to satisfy the FRs (Note: this technique is analytical). If we consider the parachute
example,
DP1: Material chosen for chute- weight and strength
DP2: Length of cords between rider and chute
DP3: Number of cords between rider and chute
DP4: Area of chute
DP5: Vents in chute
DP6: Packing and release methodology

• It is possible to relate the FRs to the DPs using a sensitivity matrix,

 page 70

dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR

-------------1- -------------1- -------------1- -------------1- -------------1- -------------1-
dDP 1 dDP 2 dDP 3 dDP 4 dDP 5 dDP6 dDP 1
dFR 1 dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dDP 2
-------------2- -------------2- -------------2- -------------2- -------------2- -------------2-
dFR 2 dDP 1 dDP 2 dDP 3 dDP 4 dDP 5 dDP6 dDP 3
=
dFR 3 dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dDP 4
-------------3- -------------3- -------------3- -------------3- -------------3- -------------3-
dFR 4 dDP 1 dDP 2 dDP 3 dDP 4 dDP 5 dDP6 dDP 5
dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dFR dDP 6
-------------4- -------------4- -------------4- -------------4- -------------4- -------------4-
dDP 1 dDP 2 dDP 3 dDP 4 dDP 5 dDP6

• Obviously the relational matrix above is non-linear, so to allow simple analysis, we consider the
matrix values near the operating point, and substitute in values of small (x) and large (X)
effects. As a result the previous matrix might look like,

DP 1
FR 1 x X x DP 2
FR 2 DP 3
= X x x X
FR 3 X x X x X DP 4
FR 4 X X DP 5
DP 6

• Considering the independance axiom, we want a one-to-one relationship between FRs and DPs.
Ideally we would want a square identity matrix. Practically we must compromise. The corro-
laries give direction to changes.
Corollary 1: Decoupling - We should attempt to decouple or separate different design ele-
ments. If done using the matrix method above this would result in an identity
matrix (or equivalent).
Corollary 2: Minimize FRs - If we can reduce the number of FRs it will simplify the
design.
Corollary 3: Integrate Parts - When possible, without signifigantly compromising the
other principles, we want to reduce the number of parts.
Corollary 4: Standardization - Standardized parts tend to satisfy the design axioms, and
should be used when possible to reduce the information content.
Corollary 5: Symetry - When possible use symetry to reduce the information content of
the product.
Corollary 6: Large Tolerances - Reduce the information content by using the largest toler-
ances possible.
 page 71

Corollary 7: Uncouple and Minimize Information - When possible the designer should
strive to minimize information and interdependance between design components.

• Ideally there are a number of objectives to follow,

1. Strive for the same number of FRs and DPs, and have each independant.
2. Minimize the values in the relationship matrix by reducing the information in each part.

• If we consider the parachute example, we can see the problems that must be addressed.
1. First, FR3 has three major relationships. FR2 and FR4 have 2 major relationships. DP1
and DP4 have two major relationships. These are ideal candidates for redesign.
2. We might consider suitability of the DPs and FRs. If they are reasonable and don’t
overlap, we might go farther. In this case FR3 and DP1, DP2, DP4 are prime can-
didates.

DI:13.7.1.1 - The Information Axiom

• Information is a measure of complexity originally developed by Shannon []

• If we think about the information content (complexity) of some modern products, the implica-
tions are obvious,
- very pure semiconductor materials increase yield and chip sizes.
- the number of transistors per IC is also climbing
- the tolerances for internal combustion engines have increased - and the idea of replacing
an engine is now uncommon.

• For mechanical parts (with reasonable tolerances) the information content of a part might be
rated by the formula,

n
li
I = ∑ log  ----
 T i
i=1

where,
I = a number representing the information content
n = the number of dimensions with tolerances
li = an overall dimension for feature ‘i’
Ti = the tolerance for dimension ‘i’

• In another case we might have access to SPC data, and can calculate the Cpk for each feature we
 page 72

might measure information with,

I = ∑ [ 10 log Cpk ]i

i=1

where,
Cpki = the process capability for feature ‘i’

• As common sense dictates we would want to generally increase our work dimensions (to a
point) and increase our tolerances whenever possible.
 page 73

DI:14. DRAFTING

• Drafting was previously a set of techniques (using compasses, angles, T-squares, etc.) for creat-
ing drawings that could be understood and used in manufacturing.

• More recently drafting is focusing less on techniques and more on conventions, because of CAD
systems.

• The conventions of drafting are very important because they allow us to define parts in a way
that they will be understood by any engineer, machinist, technologist, etc.

DI:14.1 CONVENTIONAL DRAFTING

• The purpose of drafting is to present technical ideas in precise and concise forms.

• A properly drafted drawing should be understood by any engineer.

• A sample of a drafted drawing is given below.

 page 74

Ø0.25 Ø0.006 M

1.750 A
Ø2.00

Ø1.62
A
0.25
2.50
Ø1.0005/0.9995
section A-A
2
Notes:
part: bushing
1. Break sharp edges to 0.01 max.
date:
2 Drill Ø0.985 ream to spec. etc....

DI:14.1.1 Manual Drafting

• This is the use of drafting boards, pencils, pens, and a number of specialized tools for drafting.
While this method is still very popular, the techniques used in manual drafting are quickly
being displaced by CAD (Computer Aided Design) systems.

• I will not cover some of the manual drawing topics list below, but more information on them
appears in a large number of drafting books.
- lettering
- hand sketching
- drawing ellipses
- etc
 page 75

DI:14.1.2 Turning Three Dimensions Into Two (Multi View Drawings)

• The problem with drafting is that the paper is flat, while the object drawn is not.

• To get around this we can develop a number of views to work with.

- Front View
- Top View (Plan View)
- Right Side View
- Left Side View

• This method of developing views is known as Orthographic projection

• This method eliminates the perspective distortion in real vision, thus making it easier for techni-
cal depiction.

• In this method, object faces that are parallel to the viewing plane are shown as actual size, but
objects that are not parallel are foreshortened.

• The number of views used is a function of the geometry. For a simple object such as a washer,
only one view is needed. A more complicated object, such as a piston, would require at least
two views.

DI:14.1.2.1 - The Glass Box

• The views are developed as if a glass box was placed over the object. The view from each direc-
tion was frozen, and when the box is unfolded, the resulting views are seen.

• Imaging the case below of a small tetrahedron (a three pointed triangle),

 page 76

freeze the view

cover with through each
a glass box side of the glass
box
the part

Unfold the sides to get

a set of views

• The drawings are layed out with certain conventions. The example above is continued below for
illustration, In the figure extra construction lines are added to show how the drawings in the
different views are related.Note that the top view is related to the side view using a 45° line.
These properties are a result of the ‘glass box’ concept. The folding lines are often shown on
drawings (they have two dashes and one long). Also note that in the figure shown below, the
points in the top view will be the same distance from the folding line as they are in the side
view.
 page 77

T
F

F R-S

• The layout of the drawings is done by convention. In this drawing the right side view is to the
right of the front view. If this drawing observed european standards, the right side view would
be on the left hand side.

• A useful method for keeping the large number of points in a drawing sorted is to number them.
For example,
 page 78

3 2

T
F
1
1

F R-S

2,3
3 4 2 4

• The view that is selected as the front is arbitrary, but it should

- be a natural front to the object.
- be the most important view
- appear stable
- chosen to minimize hidden lines in other views
- contain most of the detail

DI:14.1.3 Lines

• The number of lines on drawings will become confusing, therefore this calls for some method
for differentiating between lines.

• Hidden lines are dashed lines used to show lines that not visible.
 page 79

• Centre lines are used to show the axis of rotation for an object surface. These lines have long/
short dashes.

• Construction lines are drawn on to help locate final drawing lines. These lines are so light that
they are often not even erased when the drawing is complete.

construction line
centre line
hidden line
phantom line
drawing line

break line

dimension line

leader
cutting plane

• Some objects have disproportionate dimensions. As a result, it may be necessary to ‘break’ them
to show any reasonable level of detail. There are three types of breaks commonly used,
- S breaks - for round objects
- Z breaks - for thin long/wide objects
- freehand breaks - for long rectangular objects
 page 80

S break

Z break

freehand break

DI:14.1.4 Holes

• There are a number of holes commonly depicted in drawings,

 page 81

Through Holes - these are cut all the

way through an object

Blind Holes - these holes stop part way

through an object

Tapered Holes -

Counterbored Holes -

DI:14.1.5 Special Cases

DI:14.1.5.1 - Aligned Features

• Aligned features - in some cases, features are revolved, and shown at a consistent radial dis-
tance, but not necessarily in the correct position.

• Holes are commonly rotated to simplify views

 page 82

preferred

• Ribs and wings are commonly rotated to simplify views

Preferred
 page 83

• Large features on parts may be rotated to simplify views. small features, such as slots may also
be rotated between views for clarity.

Part is imagined in this

position, but drawn
correctly in the top view

But the part can be drawn, and

correctly dimensioned in the front
view with the bend artificially
removed

• Sheet metal parts start out flat, but are deformed to new useful shapes. Therefore it is common to
draw sheet metal parts in the deformed, and the undeformed state.
 page 84

DI:14.1.5.2 - Incomplete Views

• Incomplete views - certain details can be omitted to simplify the view. This method produces
drawings that are not correct, but they are commonly used in practice.

• Some views will end up having an excessive number of hidden lines. To combat this problem,
we may sometimes just leave them out.
 page 85

• Large radial/cylindrical parts are often cropped to save space. But, enough is shown to make the
remainder of the geometry obvious.

use half circles or use a break

 page 86

DI:14.1.6 Section Views

• when there are complicated internal features, they may be hard to identify in normal views with
hidden lines. A view with some of the part “cut away” can make the internal features very easy
to see, these are called section views.

• In these views hidden lines are generally not used, except for clarity in some cases.

• The cutting plane for the section is,

- shown with thick black dashed lines.
- has arrows at the end of the line to indicate the view direction
- has letters placed beside the arrow heads. These will identify the section
- does not have to be a straight line

• sections can be lined to indicate,

- when the section plane slices through material
- two methods for representing materials. First, use 45° lines, and refer to material in title
block. If there are multiple materials, lines at 30° and 60° may be used for exam-
ple. Second, use a conventional set of fill lines to represent the different types of
materials.

DI:14.1.6.1 - Full Sections

• Full sections - generally a straight section line cuts through a part to give a complete view of the
inside. This section typically replaces one of the views that is confusing.
 page 87

A A A section view
can clarify a view
appreciably

SECTION A-A

DI:14.1.6.2 - Offset Section

• Full sections will experience difficulties when the features do not lie along a single line.
 page 88

• We can use a section line that is turned to cut through features. This view can be used to replace
one of the principle views.

A A

SECTION A-A

DI:14.1.6.3 - Half Section

• In some cases it is better to illustrate internal features with both a section, and a full view. In this
case we can cut away only part (a quarter) of the object, and draw a view that is half normal,
half section.

• this method is well suited to symmetrical parts, with the section starting at the axis of symmetry

• Take note that the section line here only has one arrow head, but the direction must be observed
 page 89

Section A

DI:14.1.6.4 - Cut Away Sections

• Instead of doing large scale sections, we can cut away a very specific region of interest.

• In this case a break line is used, and the cutting plane lines used in other cases are not applicable.
 page 90

DI:14.1.6.5 - Revolved Section

• When we have transition pieces, such as ribs, or airplane wings, we will want to show the shape,
but this is not easy with conventional views, In this case we can break out a section.

• The basic procedure is to

1. select a characteristic section, and draw cut lines to either side.
2. in between the breaks, draw a section that is rotated 90° so that it is obvious on the
drawing.

• This method is useful when space is at a premium

• The cutting plane line is not used with this technique

DI:14.1.6.6 - Removed Section

• this is a more exact alternative to the revolved section method.

• With this method a break is not used, but a cutting plane line is. The sections are then drawn at
some other location on the page.

• The only features shown are the features of the section.

 page 91

• labels such as A-A, B-B, etc are used to avoid ambiguity.

• these views are often placed at a distance and arranged in the same order as the sections.

A B

SECTION A-A SECTION B-B

A B

• These section may also be shown using lines extended from the object
 page 92

• modified scales may also be used with appropriate notation

DI:14.1.6.7 - Auxiliary Section

• A section can be done that does not lie in one of the primary planes.

• This done as a normal section

 page 93

-A
A
N
A

IO
CT
SE
A

DI:14.1.6.8 - Thin Wall Section

• This method is used for assemblies of thin materials, such as sheet metal.

• This illustrates how the pieces butt up against each other.

• The sections are filled with black, but a small space is left between the piece to indicate the
assembled faces (operations such as crimping, spot welding, etc are used for these)

DI:14.1.6.9 - Assembly Section

• When placing parts together we want to verify that they will match, and that they can be assem-
bled. We also want to provide assistance to the assembler. To do this a cut away assembly
drawing can be used.

• There are a number of elements present in these diagrams,

 page 94

- two or more parts

- a parts list with numbered items
- generally section views are used, and oriented along the main assembly axis

3
2
1
4

4 piston M8765 1
3 rod M87101 1
2 chamber M8734 1
1 o-rings P8703 3
ref # description part # qty.

DI:14.1.6.10 - Special Cases

• Because sections are to clarify confusing features on diagrams, they are sometimes not theoreti-
cally correct.

• A few of the cases that are considered when working with sections are,

1. cutting lines may intersect ribs, but they may be drawn offset somewhat to clarify the
rib geometry.
 page 95

A
Preferred

2. sections may be aligned to clarify the views

A
 page 96

3. If a cutting plane cuts through intersecting features, the less important feature may be
omitted for clarity, or to save time. For example, two rounds that intersect at an
angle other than 90° would have an unusual shape, if one is not drawn, the section
becomes much easier to do.

DI:14.1.6.11 - Fill Patterns

• Sections can be filled with a number of patterns to indicate different materials

• This was a common technique in the past. Some examples are given below.

cast iron and steel and bronze, brass zinc, lead,

malleable iron wrought iron copper alloys

aluminum and
magnesium and
their alloys

DI:14.1.7 Auxiliary Views

• The glass box can also be folded at odd angles. This technique produces views known as Auxil-
iary views.

• These views are useful when we want to draw a view of a surface that is not normal to one of the
primary viewing planes.

• common terms used for this method are true size, and true shape. keep in mind that if a feature
does not lie parallel to one of the primary viewing planes, it will appear distorted in every
view.

• These views can be constructed from any view in a drawing. typical names for these identify the
 page 97

view that they are drawn from,

- front auxiliary view
- top auxiliary view
- side auxiliary view

• We can also use auxiliary views to project other views for geometric purposes

• hidden lines are typically not used in auxiliary views, unless needed for clarity. Also, a number
of surfaces are not included because they are distorted, and of little value.

• typically steps followed to construct an auxiliary view,

1. select the face that is to be drawn as i) a true surface, ii) a true length line, iii) an end
view of a line.
2. draw construction lines perpendicular to the surface/line/point of interest. This line
should go in a direction, and far enough that leaves enough space for the view.
3. draw a folding line at an appropriate distance. This will act as a reference plane.
4. transfer distances from another view. This view will typically be the view adjoining the
view that the auxiliary is drawn from.
5. Complete the view.

• an example is given below, and all faces are drawn for illustration, but normally only the angled
face would be drawn. Because this is the first auxiliary from the drawing, it is called the pri-
mary auxiliary view.

Step 1: decide to draw the angled

face of the block,
using the front view,
because an edge view
is available.
 page 98

Step 2: draw construction lines

perpendicular to the face,
the view will be drawn
in the open space in the
upper right opening.

Step 3: draw the fold line in for

reference. Just as a visual
check, each of the construction
lines should be perpendicular
 page 99

6
7

8
6,10 7 8,9
1
Step 4: Transfer distances to find 9
points in the auxiliary view. d2 2 10
Here the points are numbered d2
for the readers benefit. We can 5
d1
transfer the distances either
from the top or side view. 1,5 2 3,4 3
4
d1

1,6
2,7 2,1 7,6
d2
3 8
3,8
d1 9,10
5,10 4,9 4,5

true
surface

Step 5: the view is completed

 page 100

• There are special drafting techniques for rounded, or curved surfaces, these can be found in any
drafting textbook.

DI:14.1.7.1 - Secondary Auxiliary Views

• sometimes it is necessary to make an auxiliary view, using an auxiliary view. When this is done,
the first auxiliary is constructed as normal. The second auxiliary is made from the first, but the
distances can only be transferred from the first auxiliary for the second auxiliary.

• These views can be needed for a number of purposes, but generally they will be needed when
the object does not lie perpendicular, or parallel to any of the viewing planes.

DI:14.1.7.2 - Partial Auxiliary Views

• It is not necessary to draw entire auxiliary views, they can be draw in part, and break lines use.

• This technique allows simplified illustrations of features of interest, without full development of
an auxiliary view.

DI:14.1.8 Descriptive Geometry

• The use of drafting to determine geometric properties, such as shortest distances between points
and lines.

• These methods can also be used to solve statics (vector) problems, etc.

• These methods use extensions to the methods of auxiliary views that allow curved surface to be
considered.

• the basic steps in these methods are,

1. find the true lengths of a line
2. find the end view of a line
3. find the edge view of the surface
4. find the true shape of the surface

• These steps will allow determination of a number of properties,

- points can be projected into other views
- lines can be projected into other views
 page 101

- the true length of a line can be determined

- a point view of a line can be found
- distances between points and lines can be found
- distances between lines can be found
- distance between a point and plane
- angle between two planes
- edge view of a plane

DI:14.1.9 Isometric Views

• These views are done as a way of realistically drawing objects. This is not correct, as a perspec-
tive drawing would be, but it is very good for engineering problems.

• The viewing directions are skewed so that up is still up, but straight back now goes to the left
and back, and right goes to the right and back. Both of the moved axis are drawn at 30° to the
horizontal.

• The values measured off these views will be accurate when measured along the axis.

DI:14.1.10 Special Techniques

• There are a number of special techniques of interest when doing manual drafting, but of declin-
ing interest in view of modern CAD systems. A list of these techniques are given below, and
are described in good detail in most drafting books,
- drawing ellipses
- drawing with circles
- drawing with revolution
- drawing with four centres
- isometric drawing
- using 30°/60° angles
- using special paper
- Oblique views
- cavalier (45°, with full depth size)
- cabinet (0-90°, with half depth size)
- general (0-90°, with between half and full depth size)
 page 102

a unit cube is shown for

illustration

angle
distance

DI:14.2 NOTATIONS

• Typically these are a number of notations added to drawings to describe features, or explain
operations.

• Some abbreviated terms are given below,

Abrev. Description

CBORE counterbore
CSK countersink
DIA diameter
HDN case harden
L lead
LH left hand
NC national course
NF national fine
P pitch
R radius
Rc Rockwell C hardness
RH right hand
THD thread(s)
TIR total indicated runout
TPI threads per inch
UNC unified national course
UNF unified national fine
 page 103

DI:14.2.1 Basic Dimensions and Tolerances

• The size of an object, and the required accuracy can have a significant bearing on the cost

• Unilateral Tolerances

• Bilateral Tolerances

• Limits can be used to exactly define the size boundaries of a feature.

1.505”
1.495”

• Tolerances use a nominal dimension and differences.

+0.005”
1.500” -0.005”

DI:14.2.2 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD & T)

• Specified in standard ANSI Y14.5 (1983).

• Combines rules and independent symbols in addition to the normal tolerancing symbols

• Allows old style tolerances, but adds new methods that cover geometrical forms.

• Allows easy specifications of datums, etc.

 page 104

• Advantages of this method are,

- makes drawings clearer and more ambiguous
- allows separated features to be related
- uses symbols instead of words to reduce language translation problems
- the method helps specify manufacturing and metrology methods

• The main purpose of GD&T is to ensure,

size - the overall dimensions are as specified
form - the shapes specified must have the correct geometrical form
fit - two parts must mate as specified
function - the product conforms to performance specification

DI:14.2.2.1 - Feature Control Symbols

• The basic of GD&T is the feature control symbol.

• This indicates what the tolerance is, its value, the reference datums, and any modifiers needed.

• An example of a feature control is given below,

0.001 M A B C

datums to be used in this case the

part is placed against A, then B, then
C. This forms a reference
coordinate frame.
The maximum metal modifier
the basic tolerance value

the zone identifier

the type of feature control (parallelism)

• not all of these symbols/categories will be used on a regular basis, but they provide the designer
added flexibility in how they specify tolerances.
 page 105

DI:14.2.2.2 - Symbols and Meaning

• The basic symbols are shown below,

tolerance type characteristic symbol

straightness

flatness
individual form
features circularity

cylindricity

for individual profile of a line

or related profile
features profile of a surface

angularity

orientation perpendicularity

parallelism

position
related location
features concentricity

circular runout
runout
total runout

• Flatness - basically, all the surface elements are constrained to lie within two parallel surface
places, separated by the tolerance
 page 106

0.001

tolerance
parallel zone
planes

means
<0.001

• Straightness - basically, one the surface elements is constrained to lie within two parallel surface
places, separated by the tolerance. In effect, this means that if any line across the surface is
within two parallel lines, the part is acceptable. This can be tested by running a comparator
across the surface (using a reference plane)

0.001

tolerance
parallel
zone
lines

means
<0.001

• Circularity - all of the points on a cylindrical surface are constrained to lie within two circles.
This can be tested with a talyrond.
 page 107

0.01
0.01
tolerance
zone

means

• Cylindricity - an extension to circularity that specifies the tolerance along the cylinder.

0.01
0.01
tolerance
zone

means

and

0.01
tolerance
zone

• Concentricity -

• Angularity - requires that all points on a specified feature must form an angle with a datum. This
could be measured with a sine bar and a height comparator.
 page 108

0.02 tolerance
0.02 A zone

40°
40°
-A-

• Perpendicularity - this has the same meaning as angularity, but it is specifically applied to 90•
angles. This could be measured with squares and reference plates.

• Symmetry -

• Parallelism - all points on a surface are to be parallel to a given datum, within a specified toler-
ance

0.5±0.1

0.01 A

-A-
0.01 tolerance zone

05.

• Line Profile - the amount of deviation that is allowed (typically for irregular lines)
 page 109

0.01

• Surface Profile - the amount of deviation that is allowed for a surface

0.01

0.01

This means over the entire

surface

• Circular Runout - when dealing with a surface of revolution, this determines the amount of devi-
ation allowed from the central axis. This specifically refers to a specific point
 page 110

0.01 A

-A-
0.01
tolerance
zone
this means that at any point
along the axis, the cross
section of the part will
result in the specified
tolerance

• Total Runout - similar to circular runout, but this applies to the entire part. In effect, circular
runout uses two circles, whereas total runout uses two surface planes.

DI:14.2.2.3 - Datums

• These are reference features, that other features are to be measured against.

• These can be used when setting up parts, for manufacturing or production

• Typical features used are,

- axes
- cylinders
- planes
- lines
- points

• A datum reference frame can be constructed with,

- three perpendicular planes
- 3 contact points in the primary plane, 2 in the secondary plane, and 1 in the tertiary

• A datum is specified with a boxed letter with two dashes,

 page 111

-B-

-A-

DI:14.2.2.4 - Modifiers

• to overcome shortcomings in symbols, modifiers can be added to change their meanings.

• in particular,

Maximum material condition - the tolerance is at the extreme that would

M result if too little material was cut off, and the maximum material
remains.

Least (Minimum) material condition - the tolerance is at the extreme that

L would result if too much material was cut off, and the minimum mate-
rial remains.

Regardless of features size (RFS) - this indicates that the tolerance must
S be maintained, regardless of variations in this size of the object.

Projected tolerance zone - a tolerance zone can be extended beyond a sur-

P face. To do this the basic surface must be specified as a datum.
 page 112

************ Include an example of tolerances using GD&T

DI:14.3 WORKING DRAWINGS

• The basic skills/topics discussed below lead up to preparing, and understanding a complete set
of drawings.

• The purpose of working drawings is to,

- describe the exact geometry of parts
- indicate other details associated with drawings (for example, material)
- show how parts are assembled
- indicate manufacturing preferences

• generally, the drawing package will include a number of items,

- a drawing (one a separate sheet with a separate title block) for each part
- a bill of materials
- an assembly drawing

• a typical working drawing package will contain,

- a design layout
- assembly drawings (and a Bill of Materials)
- subassembly drawings
- detailed drawing
- purchased parts
- modified purchased parts

DI:14.3.1 Drawing Elements

DI:14.3.1.1 - Title Blocks

• Most of the important details are put in this block. Each block is individualized to a company,
but generally they include,
- company name, and division if applicable
- machine or department name
- part name
- drawing number
- part number
- the number of parts required
- the scale
 page 113

- drafter name/date
- drawing checker name/date
- material
- tolerances
- finishing details
- units of drawing

• The block is typically located in the bottom right hand corner of the drawing

• The drawing title, and drawing number are commonly printed in large fonts

DI:14.3.1.2 - Drawing Checking

• this is a process whereby a drawing is reviewed for completeness, accuracy, etc.

• modern CAD systems, especially solid modeler should reduce the emphasis on checking the
drawings. Some of the main features checked for in manual drawings are,
- appearance - this can be a large issue for hand drawn work
- within standards - legal and corporate
- clarity - all description, dimensions, etc should be well understood
- completeness - sufficient dimensions, etc should be present for production
- redundancy - redundant information should be eliminated unless essential
- manufacturability - the cost and feasibility of production should be considered. are toler-
ances sufficient/excessive, are other steps sufficient for product life.
-

DI:14.3.1.3 - Drawing Revisions

• When a drawing has reached production, it is considered final, but changes are frequently made.

• It is very important that drawing changes are dealt with properly. This means,
- all changes are recorded on the drawing, and new drawings made
- all old drawing must be collected, or marked void (failure to do this can lead to very
expensive mistakes)
- when a drawing has been changed a number of times, it should be redrafted.

• Computer CAD systems still do not sufficiently deal with problems such as these, and often rely
on the previous manual drafting systems to process these updates. But, software is available,
and is being developed for product information management (PIM) that will deal with these
changes in a manner suitable for CAD.
 page 114

DI:14.3.1.4 - Bill of Materials (BOM)

• An important list on most drawings is a Bill of Materials, this is a list of all required materials/
parts required to make to part depicted in the drawing.

• This list contains,

- all part numbers
- all part names
- quantity of parts required
- materials required
- source

• This is sometimes given on separate sheets, or on the drawing itself

• The typical (but not the only) order for listing parts on a BOM is,
1. produced in-house
2. specialty purchase (e.g. roller bearings)
3. standard purchased hardware (e.g., washers)
4. bulk items (e.g. lubricants)

DI:14.3.2 Drawing Types

DI:14.3.2.1 - Assembly Drawings

• These are used to specify an assembly with,

- a drawing of the assembled part

• Hidden lines are typically omitted from these drawings. Details may also be omitted if they have
no bearing on the product

• assembly instructions may also be included in these drawings to guide workers

• full section assembly drawings are often used

• dimensions not included unless essential

• Small blow-up bubbles are often used to emphasize details

• The parts can be identified using,

 page 115

- numbers with arrows and a block list of parts including,

- quantity
- part name
- part source
- part number
- reference number
- drawing number
- arrows and descriptions
- quantity
- part name
- part source
- part number
- drawing number

DI:14.3.2.2 - Subassembly Drawings

• these are basically the same as assembly drawings, except that there are components that have
already been assembled.

• Modern equipment is complex and is assembled in stages. The final assembly might be some-
thing like an automotive body welding shop, whereas a sub-assembly might be the car radio.

DI:14.3.2.3 - Exploded Assembly Drawings

• these are drawings that show each piece separated, and indicates their assembly paths. This can
help when determining,
- which part goes where
- the orientation of the part
- the part of approach
- the order of assembly

DI:14.3.2.4 - Detailed Drawings

• These drawings use the techniques discussed earlier in this section to depict, and dimension
parts.

************************* INCLUDE A COMPLETE DRAWING PACKAGE TO ILLUS-

TRATE
 page 116

DI:14.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

14.5 REFERENCES

Ullman, D.G., The Mechanical Design Process, McGraw-Hill, 1997.

 page 117

DI:15. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

DI:15.1 DESIGN

• Recall the basic process of design (or at least one of the many)

Defined
Need

Problem
Definition

Conceptual
Design Correction &
Optimization

Detailed
Design
Correction &
Optimization
Analysis &
Evaluation

Final Design
• The important phases of this diagram are,
- The ongoing refinement of the overall design
- The ongoing refinement of the detailed design
- The analysis of the design

• This diagram (or at least the main concepts) form the basis for CAD systems. A complete CAD
system will provide as much of the structure above as possible.

• Some of the tools provided in a CAD environment are,

- Innovative and conceptual design
- Qualitative design analysis
- Structuring of part (eg. assemblies)
- Knowledge based/intelligent design tools
- Engineering design information (standards lookup, or electronic catalogues)
 page 118

- Optimization
- Design interfaces, and tools

• Some applications are well suited to 2D CAD systems,

- PCBs (Printed Circuit Board Design)
- ICs (Integrated Circuit Design)
- Mapping (road maps, topographical maps)

• Consider the example of a sheet metal layout

• 3D CAD systems are becoming widely used for Mechanical design in a number of businesses
these days including,
- Aircraft Design
- Automotive
- Consumer electronics
- etc.

• CAD systems provide advantages such as,

- Visualization
- Minimizes design errors
- Graphical display of hard to visualize information (eg. 3D warping of plastic part)
- Standardized drawings, and documents
- Faster lead time
- Customer perception is improved
- Productivity improvement over time
- Developing alternate concepts
- Evaluation of alternate concepts
 page 119

- Analytical investigation of parts

- Experimental investigation
- Detailed drawings and specifications
- Preliminary ‘construction’ of design prototype
- Easy bridge to prototype construction
- Easy to change designs
- Optimization

DI:15.2 CAD HISTORY

• A very brief history of CAD development is listed

1940s - First digital computer developed
1950s - Commercial computers become available
1955 - CRTs begin being used in military projects
1957 - APT II (Automatic Programmed Tool) developed for generating NC control. Auto-
mated NC used in industry.
1959 - Stromberk Carlson develops a system to interpret graphics on tape, then output
them to a screen, or print on special paper
1963 - Ivan Sutherland presents a paper on “Sketchpad” which allows interactive graphics
1965 - Lockheed introduces a CAD/CAM system, and a FEM system. McDonnell intro-
duces CADD
1966 - Business world sees Wall Street Journal title “Electronic Sketching; Engineers
Focus on Screen to Design Visually via Computer; Keyboard Enlarges, Rotates
‘Drawings’; Lockheed, GM Enthusiastic About Uses”
1971 - David Prince writes first book on computer graphics
1975 - ICAM (Integrated Computer Aided Manufacturing) project is begun by US Air-
force
1976 - Color raster graphics technology begins to develop.
1979 - Development of IGES begins
1980 - Introduction of PCs revolutionizes all markets
1980s - Solid Modeling on UNIX
1990s - Solid Modeling on low end systems

DI:15.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF CAD SYSTEMS

• A CAD System must,

- Allow a user to input geometry, and other information
- Provide methods for manipulating the geometry
- Provide for display output for the user
- Allow storage of the design in formats which can be used in other CAD and CAM pack-
ages
 page 120

• There are other features of great value to a CAD system,

- Don’t forget the manuals, They can help get through the tough times. If not, you may
spend a lot of money calling help lines.

DI:15.4 EDITING AND CREATING

• Each CAD package allows us to manipulate the geometrical model using various interactive
techniques.

• Editing Geometry depends upon the representation the geometry is stored with.

• If an elemental (remember: lines, circles, arcs, etc.) geometric model is used, then the methods
are much different than a B-Rep model.

• The major editing methods used are for Elemental, Surfaces, and CSG.

DI:15.4.1 2D Curves and Lines

• A number of functions must be provided to allow editing of 2D geometrical entities, such as

lines, circles, arcs.

• Some of the basic editing functions are listed below,

- Basic Entity Creation (lines/ circles/ arcs/ etc)
- create using exact coordinates
- two screen points for line ends, circle radius/centre/diameter/etc
- Line Trimming
- trim lines back to intersection
- extend lines to intersection
- trim line to perpendicular point
- cut a circle/arc on one side of an intersection
- Point Creation
- screen position
- exact numerical coordinate
- nearest tangent of line to an arc
- nearest end of a line
- midpoint of nearest line
- centre of nearest arc
- nearest grid point
- Arc Creation
- intersection of circle with another line
 page 121

- Special Techniques
- offset of a line
- extend lines to intersection
- trim line to perpendicular point
- delete entities
- etc

• There are a number of ways (philosophies) for creating drawings using the basic elemental edit-
ing techniques. A few popular methods are listed below.

- Construction Lines - A set of construction lines are set up, then segments of the lines are
selected for the actual drawing

Step 1: Construct a basic set of lines to

lay out the shape to be drawn.

Step 2: Pick parts of the construction

lines to darken.

- Trimming - The construction lines are all drawn, then the unwanted parts are trimmed off
 page 122

Step 1: Construct a basic set of lines to

lay out the shape to be drawn.

Step 2: Pick parts of the construction

lines to delete.

- Navigation - A line figure is built up using successive line segments.

Step 1: Starting from one point, select the

type of element, and build the shape
in sequence.

- Parametrization - Objects such as rectangles, circles, arcs, etc. are created using their
dimensions, then positioned with traditional methods.
 page 123

DI:15.4.2 Surfaces

• Most surface modelling packages rely on the elemental definition of lines, and points.

• There are a number of basic philosophies for creating surfaces,

- Swept profiles - a profile, and a path in space are used to sweep out a surface.
- Rotated Profiles - a Profile is created then swept about an arbitrary axis
- Extruded Profiles - a profile is created, then grown in one direction.
- Skins (Splines) - a direct creation of points, then the splines that connect them
- Polygon Approximation - polygons are defined which join up to define a surface
- Sections - sections are defined for different points along a path, which then allow gener-
ation of complex transition geometries.

Polygons/skins
Swept/Extruded
Rotated

sections

• Once surfaces have been created, they may be operated on by boolean operations.

• This method is often used as a preliminary stage to CSG editing.

DI:15.4.3 CSG

• This is by far the simplest method

• Solid Primitives are progressively cut and joined to form new shapes.
 page 124

• Primitives may come from,

- Traditional Sources - Blocks, Spheres, Wedges, etc.
- Surfaces - A Volume is assigned to a surface model
- Previous operations
- others ?

• CSG editing requires storage of the results of operations. This is because a part may be used
many times to cut another part, for example a chamfered hole for a sunken screw.

• The fundamental CSG operations are,

Union - both parts joined as one
Intersection - Only where two parts overlap
Subtraction - only where parts do not overlap, One of the parts is typically discarded.

Subtraction case A (cuts hole in block)

two primitives before the operation

Subtraction case B (cuts off end of cylinder)

Union (both shapes merged into one) Intersection (bottom of cylinder remains)

DI:15.5 USER INTERPRETATION OF THE GEOMETRIC MODEL

 page 125

• Every CAD system uses a graphical display for user interpretation of the final part.

• The display methods discussed in the computer graphics section are all used in CAD packages.
(Please refer to that section for examples, and explanation of how each display method affects
the user).

• There are many techniques possible with computer graphics that make on screen designs easier
to understand.
- Dimensioning
- Placed manually, but updates when dimensions change.
- Annotation - the user may add comments to drawings
- text with a leader pointing to something
- text alone
- tolerances
- Drawing information
- Graphics effects
- Fill Styles - hatching and other patterns selected
- Line Styles - such as hidden, shadow, phantom, etc.
- Color - helps differentiate when there are many lines

DI:15.6 USER DIRECTED CHANGES TO THE GEOMETRIC MODEL

• This feature is of the greatest importance to a user

• Some onscreen input selection features are,

- Boxes - a good example of this method is the zoom boxes
- Types - all objects of a certain type are selected
- Last - last object created
- All - all visible objects
- Names - in some systems parts are named, and these can be used for reference.
- Markers - symbolic markers can be placed on the screen to allow easy differentiation
between object (like in Ideas)
- Layers - drawings can be layered up, which allows easy separation of distinctive parts.
One example is a factory layout, including separate layers for machines, plumbing,
electrical, HVAC, etc.

• Objects often require manipulation on the screen, and certain parameters defined by a number of
techniques,

- Translation
- select two points (they define a translation vector)
- angle and distance
- select a line (a direction vector)
 page 126

- move a point to a point

- interpolate
- etc.
- Rotation
- about a pivot point by 1 angle (2 angles for 3D)
- about an axis by an angle
- Mirroring
- mirror over a line/plane
- Magnification
- a magnification about a point by a factor
- Copying
- a simple copy
- a copy with an offset for each copy
- a copy with a rotation for each copy

DI:15.6.1 Modern Hardware for CAD Systems

• The CRT is taken for granted now, but previously CAD systems underwent many metamorpho-
sis.

• The array of current and previous hardware input devices are,

- keyboard
- mouse
- tablet
- button/dial boxes
- light pen
- touch screen
- track balls
- joy sticks
- punched cards
- CMMs
- scanners
- 3D scanners

Device Resolution Speed Cost Fatigue

Mouse Medium High Low Medium

Keyboard Exact Low Low Medium
Tablet High High High Low
Position Joystick Medium High Low Low
Velocity Joystick High Medium Low Low
Light pen Low High Low High
 page 127

• Future hardware input devices include,

- virtual reality gloves
- voice
- scanned input and recognition
- vision systems

• Previous output devices include,

- Text printers
- Graphics printers
- Plotters
- CRT
- Rapid prototyping
- Virtual reality vision systems

DI:15.7 SELECTING A CAD SYSTEM

• While this apparently seems easy, it is a very complex decision

• There are a number of factors which affect how the system is received,
- Current computer use by employees
- Perceived role of computer by employees
- Cost of computer system and software
- Available training for staff
- Maintenance requirements for computer
- Required number of users
- Design complexity
- Availability of CAM Facilities
- Successful implementation in similar facilities
- Management philosophy
- Redundancy of design

• Major mistakes are,

- Assuming more expensive is better
- Assuming it will be well received because it will make work easier
- Assuming that high tech means easier to use
- Failing to get the potential users interested and involved in the decision to buy/selection/
implementation
- Neglecting the break in period
- Not thoroughly examining the existing manual/computerized system which ALREADY
WORKS
- Forgetting that accountants want numbers plus a rate of return.
 page 128

DI:15.7.1 An Example Plan for Selecting a CAD system

1. Examine the existing situation. Involve staff to find out what they perceive as problems,
and possible solutions. This establishes allies required for whatever decision you
choose. (Expect some who will resist, but they can become allies if handled prop-
erly).
2. Identify key people with an interest in the system, and get them involved with selection.
3. Devise a definite list of requirements, to support existing functions, and problems which
exist, and possible solutions.
4. Get the accountant on your side by consulting them about costs, budgets, etc.
5. Gather information about existing systems by visiting trade shows, reading magazines,
talking to others using systems.
6. Talk to Salesmen and companies of interest.
7. Get the salesmen to present to the CAD selection group
8. Narrow the possible vendors to about three.
9. Talk to their other customers about their system problems, and advantages, support, etc.
10. Pick a package using the CAD selection group and management.
11. Prepare budget, using help from accounting, and include a large portion of the budget
for training, and maintenance.
12. Schedule training and implementation dates. Ensure that implementation is gradual,
and does not overlap with the busiest times
13. Propose the budget and schedule to management, and request approval.
14. Give a general announcement to all concerned, and those partially concerned. A Gen-
eral meeting will help. The more information the better.
15. Follow schedule, and evaluate after each stage of implementation.

DI:15.7.2 A Checklist of CAD/CAM System Features

• A list below is suggested for hardware, but in light of recent advances in consumer computing,
most of the previous concerns, such as special plotter papers, are no longer problems.

• Hardware
Computer
Type
Personal Computer
Unix Workstation
Proprietary
Network ready
Backup capabilities
Disk space
CPU performance
Uninterruptable power supply (UPS)
Monitor
Screen resolution (768*1024 or 1024*1280 are suggested)
screen size (14” is absolute minimum)
 page 129

dual monitors
I/O Devices
Drawing output
plotter
laser printer (color?)
ink jet printer
Input Devices
mouse
tablet
track ball/roller ball

• System Software
Operating System
Unix
MS-Dos/Windows 3.1,95,NT/etc.
Apple
Other ? (VMS, ???)

• CAD Software
Geometrical model
2D/3D
Exact or faceted with planar polygons
Mass properties
Editing
Parametric
Object Organization
Named Objects
Layers
Part libraries
Drawing Output
Drafting module
Analysis Module
Finite Elements
Plastic Flow
Kinematics/Collisions
Dynamics
Importing/Exporting
Surface formats: IGES, DXF, CDL
Solid Formats: PDES/STEP, SAT
Files for systems such as NASTRAN
Can be linked to a user written program
Rendering
Hidden line
Shaded Image
Ray Tracing
Real Time Rotations
 page 130

DI:15.8 DESIGN

• Design interfaces have been continuously improving over the years,

- ASCII Text Files
- Keyboard Entry, with printed output
- Keyboard Entry with graphic terminal output
- Icon and Menu Driven with on-screen graphics
- Fully windowed interfaces

• As computers become cheaper, and more powerful, the only interfaces of real importance are the
Graphical User Interfaces (GUI).

• An example of novel technology is the visual scanner available for 3D input.

DI:15.8.1 Graphical User Interfaces

• The current demands on user interfaces are,

- on-line help
- adaptive dialog/response
- feedback
- ability to interrupt processes
- consistent modules
- a logical display layout
- deal with many processes simultaneously

• The common trend is to adopt a user interface which often have,

- Icons
- A pointer device (such as a mouse)
- Full color
- Support for multiple windows, which run programs simultaneously
- Popup menus
- Windows can be moved, scaled, moved forward/back, etc.

• The history behind these machines are,

- Development of Mouse based graphical interface at Xerox Palo-Alto Research park
(70s)
- Personal Computers began providing graphical programs for system management,
games, etc (Early 80s)
- MacIntosh, Sun, Apollo, Silicon Graphics, and others introduced mouse driven, fully
windowed computers (Mid 80s)
 page 131

- MacIntosh Competitor IBM PC gets OS/2 and Microsoft Windows (Late 80s). Marking
massive movement to Windowed environment by all players in scientific comput-
ing.
- X-Windows becomes a new, and widely accepted standard on workstations (Late 80s)
- Microsoft introduces Windows, bringing windowed interfaces to the last major computer
platform.

• Some Concepts in GUIs are,

button - An item which is shown within a window. When a user points at it, and presses a
mouse button, it initiates an action.
icon - A small graphical symbol on the screen which can be opened to expose a window
menu - A pop up menu which stays hidden until called up by mouse. This simplifies prob-
lems of crowded screens.
mouse - a very popular input device for graphics programs. The use can point and choose
an item. Contemporary alternatives are track-balls, joy-stick, dial boxes, tablets,
etc.
scrollbars - At this side of some graphical, and text windows are bars which can be used
to move the window around, to see previous text, or hidden areas of a graphics
screen.
slider - A bar chart type of input, where the user can use the mouse to pull the slider along,
and change an input value
window - A panel for keyboard and mouse I/O, which can be layered on a screen with
other windows, like paper on a desk. The user often selects to work in a specific
window by pointing the mouse into it. A Window may be closed, to become an
icon

• Popular window systems are (not a complete list),

OS/2 - IBMs attempt to take control of the operating system used on the IBM PCs, and
bring full capability to PC architecture.
Windows 3.1 - Microsoft’s answer to the MacIntosh interface
Windows 95 - Microsoft’s answer to Windows 3.1 - adds a true multitasking environment.
Windows NT - Microsoft’s answer to Windows 95 - adds more capable network and file
security issues.
MacIntosh Interface - The proprietary windowed operating system, considered one of
the forerunners in user friendly systems.
Sunview - The original windowed systems used on Sun computers
X-Windows - A defacto standard for newly developed windowed operating systems.
Openwindows - Sun’s new windowed operating system which is a superset of X-Win-
dows
Motif - A competitor to Openwindows, also based on the X-Windows standards

• The Implications of X-Windows will be very important in future computer purposes. Some of
the X-Windows Features are,
- intended for networking, including display of programs across a network. The implica-
tion of this is that I may sit at a Sun computer in my office, and run Ideas across the
network from the SGI lab.
 page 132

- Shared definitions makes software very portable between machines. (The quantity of
public domain software is huge).
- The user interface is very similar when going between different X-Windows based
machines.
- Easy to Customize for an individual user
- The differences between systems like Motif and Openwindows are mainly based on def-
initions of things like buttons, fonts, etc.
- When using X-Windows, a program (called the X server) runs which controls all the
windowed graphics. Programs that use X are written to let it set up buttons, get
input, call functions, etc.
- etc.

• Windows NT is not yet as capable as X-Windows, but if the trend continues it will become more
similar over time.

• Automatic GUI generators are available on commercial systems. One example is given for a
system which allows window layout, then automatic program generation.

DI:15.9 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

 page 133

DQ:16. GEOMETRICAL MODELLING OF PARTS

DQ:16.1 OVERVIEW

• A model is used to mathematically capture some aspect of the real world so that it may be
manipulated, studied, tested, etc.

• To computerize a design we will capture a very explicit model of a part in a computer program.

• Geometry is by far, the most important part of any design. It is used as a reference for tolerances,
processes, functions, materials, assemblies, etc.

?????
Feature
material = 1040

BOX Volume

grind face1 face2 face6 Boundary

line1 line2 line4 Element

length tol. = 0.002

??

• Three major functions in geometric modelling,

 page 134

Analysis,
Evaluation, Etc.

Display
Design A Geometric
Representation (Data Interpretation
(Data Entry & (Data Storage) and Rendering)
Manipulation)

User

• The Geometric Representation determines what a system can do.

• There are a number of methods of representing geometry, 1D, 2D, 2.5D, 3D

2D - All in one dimension, such as a side view of a part
2.5D - Points have an x, y coordinate, and height. This is a special case which can describe
raised surfaces like buildings.
3D - Full spatial dimensions

2D 2.5D 3D

• 2D models are quickly becoming obsolete, 2.5D models were an early compromise, but 3D
models are quickly becoming the standard.

DQ:16.2 GEOMETRIC MODELS

• There are many ways to model a part, the major categories are,
 page 135

- Elemental (using lines and points like drafting)

- Surfaces (such as polygons used in ES 206)
- Solids - Swept
- Solids - BRep
- Solids - CSG
- Features

• If describing a block with a hole in it, each of the methods above will result in different descrip-
tions

Elemental: 14 Lines
2 Circles

Surfaces: 4 Square polygons for sides

Many rectangular polygons for inside hole
2 Odd shaped polygons for top and bottom

Solids Swept: 1 Base block

1 Circular profile
1 Straight path to sweep the cutting circle
through the block
 page 136

Solids BRep: 7 Faces

8 Vertices
14 Edges

Solids CSG: 1 Block primitive

1 Cylinder primitive
1 Equation: Block - Cylinder

Features: 1 Block from stock

1 Bored hole

• Which is best???? all of them in the right situations.

• Each method has its particular advantages, and disadvantages.

• The best software and hardware supports a combination of all methods.

• It is assumed that other information is used to describe the geometries above, like,
- Position
- Orientation
- Dimensions

• The geometries can also be used to associate other information,

 page 137

- Materials
- Tolerances
- Finishes
- Inspection information

HOLE = {
BLOCK radius = .5 inches
HOLE height = 3 inches
x_position = 1.5 inches
y_position = 1.5 inches
x_rotation = 90 degrees
radius_tolerance = 0.001 inches
}

DQ:16.2.1 Elemental Depiction:

• Depicted with the simplest of details (lines, points arcs, etc.)

• Advantages,
- very easy to store and alter
- well suited to line based problems
- does not require a powerful computer
- easy to perform traditional drafting

• Disadvantages,
- not capable of carrying complex information
- ambiguous
- complex items require long time to model
- requires repetition
- very hard to connect to programs for FEM, etc.

• Typically used in older CAD systems like AUTOCAD, CADKEY, etc.

• A classic demonstration of the arbitrary nature is shown below,

 page 138

Which shape this wire frame drawing

produces is arbitrary !

DQ:16.2.2 Surface Description

• The geometry is described with polygons which should represent an entire surface of an object.

• Generally these polygons do not indicate which side a volume lies on, but inside/outside is
defined with tricks like defining polygon vertices so that counter-clockwise is out.

• STL is a good example of an engineering use of this surface representation.

• This method is also used in computer games where speed is important, and the overhead of the
 page 139

full solid information is not desired.

• Advantages,
- gives appearance of solids.
- well known, and fast software and hardware for drawing.

• Disadvantages,
- because objects are not solid, they may be subject to ambiguities
- hard to pass data to other systems, like FEA
- not well suited to CAD
- polygon selection is problematic

• Commonly used in graphics packages like HOOPS, PHIGS, CORE, etc. Also acts as the basis
for the SGI computer graphics.

• An example of the polygon meshes is given below.

Vertex # Location Polygon # Vertices

V1 0,5, 0 P1 V1,V2,V4
V2 4,15,0 P2 V2,V3,V4 V2
V3 4,10,0
V4 8,0,0
V3
P2

P1
V1

V4

• We can also define these geometries using edge meshes.

 page 140

Vertex # Location Edge # Vertices Polygon # Edges

V1 0,5, 0 E1 V1,V2 P1 E1,E3,E2

V2 4,15,0 E2 V1,V4 P2 E3,E4,E5
V3 4,10,0 E3 V2,V4
V4 8,0,0 E4 V2,V3
E5 V3,V4

V2
E4
V3
E1
E3 P2

P1 E5
V1
E2
V4

DQ:16.2.3 Solid - Swept

• A profile is created in 2D, and then swept along a path to create a volume, or to cut a volume.

• The path may be straight, rotating about an axis, rotation along a helix, following a curved twist-
ing path.

• Advantages,
- Can make very complex parts quickly
• Disadvantages,
- Requires a powerful computer
- Some operations difficult

DQ:16.2.4 Solid - B-Rep (Boundary Representation)

 page 141

• This still bears a remote resemblance to Surface Modelling.

• Major differences are that,

- inside/outside is defined for each surface
- the edges, and vertices of touching faces are defined

• Advantages,
- can store very complex geometries
- easy to propagate changes to faces, edges and vertices
- can easily generate and store complex surfaces
- many systems support this method, such as PARASOLIDS, ACIS, etc.
- can be used to mimic CSG
• Disadvantages,
- high Level information is still not present in model
- requires a powerful computer
- hard to recognize some simple features like a block

• A BRep object is pictured below,

• Each feature in a B-Rep object can be varied independently

• Geometry is kept in parallel with the object topology. One example of a data structure is seen
below.
 page 142

Geometry lists Topology Lists

Object
Body
Surface Splines Face
Edge Spline Curves Loop
Edge
Vertex Points Vertex

• A common data focus uses the edges of an object to define the shape (vertices and faces can also
be used)

Winged-edge data structure

successor 1 predecessor 2

E F2
F1

successor 2
predecessor 1

• Euler operations can be used to build an object.

• We can check to see if the solid model is valid using the basic Euler equation, or the more
involved Euler-Poincare tologoical equation. These equations must be satisfied for the models
to be valid.
 page 143

V–E+F = 2
where,
V = number of vertices
E = number of edges
F = number of faces
V – E + F – (L – F) – 2(S – G ) = 0
where,
L = number of edge loops
S = number of shells
G = genus of solid (holes)

• When developing solid modelers we can use the Euler operations to ensure that the model stays
topographically valid at all times.

DQ:16.2.5 Solid - CSG

• Does not calculate lines/vertices/faces when storing part geometries

• Uses primitive shapes such as planes, blocks, spheres, cylinders, wedges, torii, etc. to model
shapes

• The primitives can be rescaled to meet requirements

• Uses a basic set of operators to combine or cut with the primitives,

Union - Both primitives are joined into one (boolean OR)
Intersection - The part of the primitives which overlaps (boolean AND)
Not - The inverse of a shape
Assemble - Parts may overlap without being joined
Difference - The area of one primitive is removed from another

• Basic common primitives are,

- blocks
- cylinders
- wedges
- tetrahedrons
- spheres
- torii
- cones
 page 144

• Advantages,
- Very compact representation
- Primitive shapes match human though processes
- Very fast when creating parts with standard geometrical features

• Disadvantages,
- Slow because all interpretation is done at once
- may be difficult to incorporate irregular surfaces

• Used in systems like PADL2, Romulus, Build, etc.

• CSG designs can be stored in trees

• Various types of CSG operators are possible based on closure of sets. In particular we can con-
sider two boxes that touch, but don’t overlap.

• Halfspaces can be used for defining boundaries of an object.

DQ:16.2.6 Tessellated Models

• Space is broken down as a regular/irregular grid.

This evenly tessellated space is This space is broken down into 28

divided down into 256 squares for an equivalent repre-
squares sentation

• locations in space are marked as occupied/empty/partially filled.

• this method is most common when using scanners such as CAT and MRI that collect data in
 page 145

voxels (these are small rectangular volumes)

DQ:16.2.7 Features

• The designer would simply define a part in terms of fundamental manufacturing features, such
as chamfers, through slots, blind slots, etc.

• Very high level, but can complicate additions of unanticipated features, like a ridge in a car
hood.

• Advantages,
- very intuitive and easy to use
- can simplify other aspects of CIM (eg. If a standard feature is used there will be a stan-
dard process plan to make that feature).
- emphasizes the use of standard components.

• Disadvantages,
- restrictive when dealing with nonstandard features
- interaction of features can be hard to estimate
- a complete set of all possible features would be very large

• There are two levels of features commonly used in these systems,

- micro
- macro

• A set of standard features for rotational parts might be,

• Macro Features,
- cylinder
- taper
• External Features
- rotational fillet
- thread
- square neck
- chamfer
- shoulder
- external radius
- key seat
- spline
- flat
- thread
• Internal Features
- internal taper
- internal slot]
 page 146

- internal tapered radial slot

- internal round slot
- countersink
- internal spline
- woodruff keyseat

• A set of prismatic features might be,

• Macro Features,
- box
• External Features
- linear chamfer
- linear round
- linear v slot
- linear slot
- linear round slot
- linear t-slot
• Internal features
- rectangular pocket
- linear fillet

DQ:16.3 SOLID MODELERS

DO:16.4 MASS PROPERTIES

• A Numerical integration may be done on the geometry of a part by examining its components.
From this mass, Polar and Cartesian moments of inertia, and centre of mass may be deter-
mined.

• An approximate division of space is often used called oct-trees. In this case the volume of the
object is recursively broken down into finite parts. Other methods use an even division of
space.
 page 147

• Is most successful with solids models.

DO:16.5 NON-MANIFOLD PARTS

• A manifold part makes sense mathematically. A non-manifold part may be interpreted in a num-
ber of ways, when dealing with general cases.

• Some examples below show manifold/non-manifold shapes

Non-Manifold / Open Parts Manifold Parts

• Non-manifold parts have,

- vertices with less than 3 adjoining faces
- edges with more or less than two adjoining faces
- etc.
 page 148

• Non-manifold parts are required for,

- composite material modeling in a single part
- assembly modeling where parts touch or overlap (press fit)
- other Future Applications ????

DO:16.6 NUMERICAL ACCURACY

• Many CAD systems experience numerical problems based upon the nature of floating point
arithmetic.

• This can result in points, and surfaces being distorted, and this may cause errors during compar-
ison.

• To overcome the problem, most systems will allow a “point tolerance” value to be used to
numerically compare, and join separated point.

A small numerical error

results in a new edge

DO:16.7 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Discuss the statement “Line trimming can be essential when constructing solid models”.

2. a) For the part below, describe how it would be represented with a winged edge B-Rep data
structure. Draw the winged edges, then create data arrays.
 page 149

v1
f5 f4
e1 e4 e2 e3
f3
v3 f2 v2
e8
v4 e5 e7
e6 v5
f1

b) For the model in part a) suggest how tolerances could be added to the arrays.

3. Draw a B-rep solid model representation for the box below. Vertices have been drawn, you will
need to add the other data elements to complete the model.

V1 V2

V4 V3
V7 V6

V8
V5

4.
 page 150

DM:17. GEOMETRICAL MODELLING FOR DESIGN

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DG:18. CAD FILE FORMATS

• Every CAD package stores information internally in a format that it best suited for that package.
When the user is done this information is written to files on the hard drive.

• These proprietary formats can only be read by the specific program (and version of software),
and are virtually useless to other programs.

• For most modern engineering applications it is necessary to be able to transfer CAD models
between dissimilar computer programs.

• Standard file formats are the best method for storing and transferring CAD geometries (and
other information) between dissimilar programs.

• Files are mainly stored on disks as ASCII, or binary with a structure that has been agreed upon
by organizations that represent various interest groups in the CAD/CAM sectors.

• When standard formats are used data should be easily transported between systems. Although
beware, some vendors do not conform fully to these standards.

• The basic structure of programs using standard files is shown below

Program A CAD file Program B

in program A
format CAD file
in program A
format

CAD file
in standard
format

• An example of data transfer is a prototype part drawn using CADKEY and then transferred to
SmartCAM (via CADL) so that it can generate the NC code to manufacture the part. Finally it
is transferred to the milling machine using ‘G-Code’.
 page 169

Part Data
CADKEY system data transfer
using CADL
facility

SmartCAM system

NC code
generated

milling machine
milled
product

• Reasons to use non-standard files are listed below. Note: some software offers standards that are
non-compliant - these should be treated as non-standard files.
- Standard files are compromises, therefore they may limit the ability of certain software
- Standards do not always exist, and may lag behind their need.
- Prevent your customers from using other CAD, etc software (e.g., Microsoft and IBM
have made an art of this process)

• Why use standard files?

- Universally readable allowing easy data transfer
- Generally more dependable that proprietary formats (better thought out)
 page 170

DG:18.1 GRAPHICS FORMATS

• Some Graphics formats are intended for graphical display,

GIF - (Graphics Interchange Format) A compact graphic format
JPG - (Joint Photographic experts Group) A compressed format
MPEG - (Motion Pictures Experts Group) Compressed Animation

• Some graphics formats are intended for output on hardcopy devices

HPGL - Hewlett Packard Graphics Language - An ASCII language devised to drive pen
plotters
PostScript - A VERY popular graphics format which typically drives laser printers, but
can also be displayed on devices like color screens

DG:18.2 CAD FORMATS

• Some types are
CGM - A US defense department product, related to polygon modeling
CIF - For Integrated Circuit Design by layered polygon definition
DMC - Digital Mapping for Customers - for transmitting maps
DXF - Primarily developed by Autodesk (for Autocad) to transfer geometry using ASCII
definitions
EDIF - Electronic Design Interchange Format supports VLSI design, and is expected to
incorporate Circuit Boards soon
IISF - A format Developed by Intergraph for their CAD systems
SET - Standard d’Echange et de Transfert - Made to be more compact than IGES
STEP and PDES (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data and Product Data
Exchange Specification) An attempt to model other attributes of a product, in addition
to geometry, such as tolerancing. This is the emerging standard, but it is not widely
available yet.
VDA-FS (DIN 66301) A German approach for modelling surfaces
VDA-IS - A German subset of IGES for the auto industry
UNV - Ideas Universal File

DG:18.2.1 Proprietary “Standard” Formats

• As mentioned before, these should be treated as non-standard formats, but they will increase
some of the transferability of data.

• For marketing reasons most major vendors of CAD systems attempt to define their own “stan-
dards”. Examples include ‘DXF’ for Autocad, ‘CADL’ for Cadkey, ‘SAT’ for ACIS.
 page 171

• An example of a proprietary format is the CADL file produced by Cadkey for transferring geo-
metric entities through the use of an ASCII file. Such entities may be lines, points, arcs,
splines, etc.

LINE 0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1

start pt. end pt.

DG:18.2.2 Standard Formats

•A device independent format is based on public standards that are controlled by non-commercial
bodies.

• examples of these include

STEP (Standard for Exchange of Product Data)
SET (Standard d’Exchange et de Transfer)
PDES (Product Data Exchange Specification)
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)

DG:18.2.2.1 - IGES

• IGES was first developed by the National Bureau of Standards, Boeing Corporation, and Gen-
eral Electric Corporation and published by the National Bureau of Standards in 1980.

• Initially the only data that could be exchanged were basic entity types such as points, lines, arcs,
and circles.

• September 1981, IGES version 2.0 was approved by the American National Standards Institute
as ANSI standard Y14.26M for CAD/CAM communications.

• More recent versions of IGES contain the ability to transfer constructive solid geometry and
boundary representations of solid models.

• The IGES can be in either binary or ASCII format. In ASCII the file is easy to read and modify
by hand but it tends to be larger.

• There are two formats

- a fixed 80 character line length format
 page 172

- a compressed line length free format.

• In the fixed formatted data, there are several sections that must be entered in a highly structured
approach. Data must be right justified within the specified column locations, and these loca-
tions must occupy the columns between 1 and 80, inclusive. The following is a brief outline of
some rules that must be followed in creating the IGES file.
1. Blanks: Blanks are only significant in string constants. A numeric filed of blanks is con-
sidered to denote the default value for that field. No blanks are allowed between
the beginning of a numeric constant and the end of that constant. Leading blanks in
numeric constants are ignored. Blanks between the end of any constant and the
delimiter following the constant are not allowed.

2. Numeric Constants: Embedded commas in numeric constants are not permitted. The
absolute magnitude of a numeric constant may not exceed the value of
(N – 1)
2 – 1 , where N is the number of bits used to represent an integer of a real
value. Real constants may be double or single precision. Valid integer constants
can be expressed as:
1 150 -24567 23457 +23456.
Valid real constants can be expressed as:
346.098 0. -.34 0.1E-3 1.E+4.

3. String Constants: A string constant is defined as an arbitrary sequence of ASCII charac-

ters. Blanks, commas, and numbers are treated as characters within the string.
String constants are represented in Hollerith notation. This form consists of a non-
zero integer constant (i.e. the number of characters in the string), followed imme-
diately by the letter H, followed by the character string. Valid string constants can
be expressed as:
3Hr45 12H Hello There 9Htime;.erw

4. Sequence numbers: A sequence number is a string of up to seven digits and is used for
indexing the lines within the various sections of the IGES file. Sequence numbers
begin ar 1, (i.e. 0000001) in each section and continue sequentially without inter-
ruption to the end of that section. This is primarily used to indicate the number of
physical lines of the particular section, or may be thought of as section line
counters. Sequence numbers must be used in each section of the IGES file. These
numbers are right justified in the columns 74 to 80. Sequence numbers may have
leading zeros (0) or blanks.

• An IGES file consists of six (6) sub-sections that must appear as follows:
1. flag section
2. start section
3. global section
4. directory entry section
 page 173

5. parameter data section

6. terminate section

DG:18.2.2.1.1 - Flag section (optional)

• This section identifies whether the IGES file is written as a bit string binary file, or as a “com-
pressed” ASCII file. If this section is ignored, then the default format for the IGES file is
ASCII.

DG:18.2.2.1.2 - Start section

• This section of the IGES file is to provide a readable prologue to the file. There must be at least
one (1) start record. All records must have the letter “S” in the 73rd column and a sequence
number in columns 74 to 80. Information in columns 1 to 72 are ASCII characters. Figure 3

1 72 73 80

THIS IS A READABLE SECTION OF THE IGES FILE. S0000001

Only the ASCII character set is used in this space. S0000002
. .
. .
. .
Characters occupy columns 1 to 72. S N

DG:18.2.2.2 - Global section

• The global section contains information regarding the IGES pre-processor, and any information
that is required by the IGES post-processor. There are 24 parameters that must be entered.
These include:

Parameter Data Type Description

1 string parameter delimiter character
2 string record delimiter character
3 string product ID from sending system
4 string file name
5 string system ID
6 string IGES pre-processor version
7 integer no. of bits for integers
8 integer single precision magnitude
9 integer single precision significance
10 integer double precision magnitude
 page 174

11 integer double precision significance

12 string product ID for receiving system
13 real model space scale
14 integer unit flag
15 string unit description (mm, m, in, etc.)
16 integer no. of line weight gradations
17 real size of max. line width
18 string data and time of file generation
19 real min. user intended resolution
20 real approx. max. coordinate value
21 string name of author of file
22 string name of organization
23 integer IGES version
24 integer applicable drafting standard

• Parameters of the global section (All string constants are represents in Hollerith notation).
1. Parameter delimiter character: Indicates which character is used to separate values in
free formatted data (including the global section). Default is a comma (,).
2. Record delimiter: Indicates which character is used to indicate the end of a list of
parameters in free formatted data sections (including the global section). Default is
a period (.).
3. Product ID from sending system: Name of the product as referenced from the sending
system.
4. File name: Name of the IGES file.
5. System ID: Name and version of software containing the pre-processor which created
the IGES file.
6. IGES pre-processor version: Version of the pre-processor which created the IGES file.
7. No. of bits for integers: No. of bits present in the integer representation of the sending
system.
8. Single precision magnitude: Maximum power of 10 which may be represented as a sin-
gle precision floating point number from the sending system.
9. Single precision significance: No. of significant digits of a single precision floating
point number on the sending system.
10. Double precision magnitude: Maximum power of 10 which may be represented as a
double precision floating point number from the sending system.
11. Double precision significance: No. of significant digits of a double precision floating
point number on the sending system.
12. Product ID for receiver: Name of product intended to be used by the receiving system.
13. Model space scale: Ratio of model space to real space (e.g. 0.125 indicates a ratio of 1
unit model space to 8 units real space).
14. Unit flag: Integer value denoting the measuring system used in the file.
unit flag = 1 (inches)
= 2 (millimeters)
= 3 (see parameter 15 for name of units)
= 4 (feet)
= 5 (miles)
 page 175

= 6 (metres)
= 7 (kilometers)
= 8 (mils, i.e. 0.001 inches)
= 9 (microns)
= 10 (centimeters)
= 11 (microinches)
A value of “3” should only be used when the receiving system is using the same units. In
this case, parameter 15 must be used to provide additional information as to those
units.
15. Unit description: A string constant naming the units in the system.
2HIN or 4HINCH (model units are inches)
2HMM (model units are millimeters)
2HFT (model units are feet)
2HMI (model units are miles)
1HM (model units are metres)
2HKM (model units are kilometers)
3HMIL (model units are mils)
2HUM (model units are microns)
2HCM (model units are centimeters)
3HUIN (model units are microinches)
When a unit flag of “3” is used, the string constant naming the desired unit should con-
form to MIL-STD-12D (DOD12D), or ANSI/IEEE 260 (IEEE260).
16. Maximum no. of line weight gradations: Number of equal subdivisions of line thick-
ness.
17. Size of Max. line width: Width of the thickest line possible in the (scaled) file.
18. Date and time of file generation: Time stamp of when the file was created.
19. Minimum user intended resolution: Smallest distance in model space units that is dis-
cernible by the system.
20. Approximate Max. coordinate value: Upper bound on the values of all coordinate data
occurring in this model.
21. Name of author of file: Name of person who generated the data contained in the IGES
file.
22. Name of organization: Name of organization who generated the data contained in the
IGES file.
23. IGES version: Integer number representing the corresponding version of IGES used to
create the file.
1 - IGES version 1.0
2 - ANSI Y14.26M-1981,
3 - IGES version 2.0
4 - IGES version 3.0
Default is 3 (i.e. IGES version 2.0).
24. Applicable drafting standard: Integer number representing the drafting standard to
which the data in the IGES file was specified.
0 - no standard
1 - ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
2 - AFNOR (French Association for Standardization)
 page 176

3 - ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

4 - BSI (British Standards Institute)
5 - CSA (Canadian Standards Association)
6 - DIN (German Institute for Standardization)
7 - JIS (Japanese Institute for Standardization)

• A sample of the global section is given below,

1 72 73 80

,,8HGear.prt,8HGear.prt,15HMCS.Cadkey 3.02,23HGear Desi G0000001

gn Version 1.0,16,8,24,11,53,8HGear.prt,1.,2,2HMM,1,1., G0000002
13H890206.100000,.0005,,12H Douglas Lee,15HES 488b CAD/ G0000003
CAM,4,0; G0000004

DG:18.2.2.3 - Directory entry sections

• provides attribute information for each entity entered in the parameter section

• each directory entry consists of two, 80 character, fixed formatted lines

• An example is given below,

1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32 33 40 41 48 49 56 57 64 65 72 73 80

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1. Entity type number: An integer value identifying the type of geometric entity.
2. Parameter data: Sequence number of the parameter data record for this entity.
3. Structure: Not discussed here. For more information, consult the IGES text.
4. Line font pattern: Integer value indicating the pattern to be used in displaying the geo-
metric entity.
1 - solid
2 - dashed
 page 177

3 - phantom
4 - centreline
5. Level: An integer value indicating the graphic display level, or layer, to be associated
with the entity.
6. View: Specifies the type of entity view desired. This value is a pointer to the directory
entry of a view entity (type 410). It can also be a pointer to an associativity
instance. A value of zero (0) indicates the entity is displayed with the same charac-
teristics in all views.
7. Transformation matrix: This value is either a pointer to the directory entry of a transfor-
mation matrix used in defining this entity, or a zero indicating the identity matrix
used in defining this entity, or a zero indicating the identity matrix for rotation
(zero rotation) and zero translation.
8. Label display associativity: Pointer to the directory entry of a label display associativity
which defines how the entity’s label and subscript are to be displayed in different
view.
9. Status number: This is an 8 digit number relaying 4 pieces of entity information,
described as follows:
• Blank status - defines whether the entity is meant to be visible on the output
device of the receiving system. A value of 00 implies the entity is dis-
played, a value of 01 indicates the entity is not to be displayed.
• Subordinate entity switch - indicates if an entity is referenced by another entity in
the file. A value if 00 indicates the entity is independent, and not refer-
enced by other entities. A value of 01 indicates the entity is dependent on
some other parent entity. A dependent on some other entity. A dependent
entity cannot exist without its parent entity.
• Entity use flag - indicates the use of the entity. A value of 00 indicates the geom-
etry, 01 indicates annotation (descriptive purposes), 02 indicates an entity
used in definition of structures of data, 03 indicates all other used for enti-
ties such as defining structural features in the file, 04 indicates logical or
positional entities and 05 indicates 2D parametric entities defined by a
mathematical parametric equation.
• Hierarchy - indicates the relationship between entities in a hierarchical structure
and is used to determine which entity’s directory entry attributes should be
applied. Applies to line font, view, entity level, blank status, line weight,
and color number. A value of 00 indicates all the above directory entry
attributes apply to this entity.
10. Sequence number: The sequence number for the position of the directory entry line in
the IGES file. This sequence number will always be an odd number.
11. Entity type number: Same as in 1.
12. Line weight number: Denotes the width for which an entity is to be displayed. Largest
line thickness is specified in global parameter 16, smallest thickness is specified in
global parameter 17. A value of zero (0) indicates the default line weight as speci-
fied by the receiving system.
13. Color number: This value specifies the color of the entity.
1 - black
2 - red
 page 178

3 - green
4 - blue
5 - yellow
6 - magenta
7 - cyan
8 - white
0 - no color specified
14. Parameter line count number: The number of lines in the parameter data section
which contain the entity whose attributes are described in the directory entry sec-
tion.
15. Form number: A value of zero (0) causes individual interpretation of the entity type
entered in the parameter data section.
16. Reserved field: This filed is reserved for future use and should be left blank.
17. Reserved field: Same as 16.
18. Entity label: This is an alphanumeric identified for the particular entity type in consid-
eration.
19. Entity subscript number: A numeric qualifier for the entity label in 18.
20. Sequence number: The sequence number for the position of the directory entry line in
the IGES file. This sequence number will always be even.

• A sample of a directory section is given below,

1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32 33 40 41 48 49 56 57 64 65 72 73 80

110 1 1 5 0 0 00000000 D 1
110 0 8 1 0 line D 2
110 2 1 5 0 0 00000000 D 3
110 0 8 1 0 line D 4
116 3 1 1 0 0 00000000 D 5
116 0 3 1 0 point D 6
116 4 1 1 0 0 00000000 D 7
116 0 3 1 0 point D 8

DG:18.2.2.4 - Parameter entry section

• This section of the IGES file provides entity identification and coordinates to be plotted on the
receiving system. The following is a partial list of some common entities:

Entity Type No. Entity Type

100 circular arc
102 composite curve
108 plane
110 line
 page 179

112 parametric spline curve

114 parametric spline surface
116 point
124 transformation matrix
126 rational B-spline curve
128 rational B-spline surface
136 finite element

• The structure is a free formatted data entry from columns 1 to 64. Each line of free formatted
data consists of the entity type number followed by the parameter data describing the entity.
Columns 65 to 72 are reserved for a parameter data index which is an odd number counter,
right justified in the field, which begins at the number 1 and progresses in odd increments for
each entity entered. Column 73 is reserved for the letter ‘P’ to indicate the data element
belongs to the parameter data section. Columns 74 to 80 are reserved for the sequence number.
Each line of data corresponds to the entity type as specified in the global section. For example,
the first entity element of the global section corresponds to the first line of coordinates in the
parameter data section. Each portion of data in the global section is matched with its coordi-
nate counterpart in the parameter data section.

• Circular arc entity parameter data:

Index Name Type Description

1 zt real parallel zt displace. of arc from xt, yt plane
2 x1 real arc centre x coordinate
3 y1 real arc centre y coordinate
4 x2 real start point x coordinate
5 y2 real start point y coordinate
6 x3 real terminate point x coordinate
7 y3 real terminate point y coordinate

• Line entity parameter data:

Index Name Type Description

1 x1 real start point x coordinate
2 y1 real start point y coordinate
3 z1 real start point z coordinate
4 x2 real terminate point x coordinate
5 y2 real terminate point y coordinate
6 z2 real terminate point z coordinate

• Point entity parameter data:

Index Name Type Description
1 x real x coordinate of point
2 y real y coordinate of point
3 z real z coordinate of point
4 PTR pointer pointer to directory entry of subfigure insta-
 page 180

nce specifying the display symbol. If zero (0),

then no display symbol is specified.

• A sample of a data section is given below,

1 72 73 80

100,0.0,0.0,0.0,20.0,20.0,0.0; 1 P0000001
110,5.0,5.0,0.0,10.0,10.0,0.0; 3 P0000002
116,5.0,10.0,0.0,0.0; 5 P0000003

DG:18.2.2.5 - Terminate section

• This section provides information needed by the post-processor to properly signal the end of the
IGES file. The information that is relayed to the receiving system is the number of lines in each
of the sections of the IGES file.

• A sample of the termination section is given below,

1 8 9 16 17 24 25 32 33 40 41 48 49 56 57 64 65 72 73 80

No. of No. of No. of No. of

‘S’ lines ‘G’ lines ‘D’ lines ‘P’ lines not used T0000001

DG:18.2.2.6 - A Sample IGES File

• A Sample IGES File (Note: the columns are out of alignment)

This is a sample IGES file generated from a drawing done using CADKEY. S 1
This is simply a drawing of a two boxes: one larger box and one smaller S 2
box placed on top of the larger one. The size of the larger box is S 3
100x150x50 and the size of the smaller box is 80x60x50 units. S 4
Viewed from the top view, the origin is located on the top of the large S 5
r box. S 6
,,7Hbox.prt,7Hbox.prt,14HMCS.CADKEY 3.0,9HC2IG 3.0B,16,8,24,11,53, G 1
7Hbox.prt,1.,2,2HMM,1,1.,13H911001.075746,.0005,,17HDouglas M. A. Lee, G 2
33HThe University of Western Ontario,4,0; G 3
124 1 1 0 0 0 01000000D 1
124 0 0 1 0 Matrix D 2
124 2 1 0 0 0 01000000D 3
124 0 0 1 0 Matrix D 4
124 3 1 0 0 0 01000000D 5
124 0 0 2 0 Matrix D 6
124 5 1 0 0 0 01000000D 7
 page 181

124 0 0 2 0 Matrix D 8
124 7 1 0 0 0 01000000D 9
124 0 0 2 0 Matrix D 10
124 9 1 0 0 0 01000000D 11
124 0 0 2 0 Matrix D 12
124 11 1 0 0 0 01000000D 13
124 0 0 2 0 Matrix D 14
124 13 1 0 0 0 01000000D 15
124 0 0 2 0 Matrix D 16
110 15 1 1 0 0 00000000D 17
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 18
110 16 1 1 0 0 00000000D 19
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 20
110 17 1 1 0 0 00000000D 21
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 22
110 18 1 1 0 0 00000000D 23
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 24
110 19 1 1 0 0 00000000D 25
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 26
110 20 1 1 0 0 00000000D 27
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 28
110 21 1 1 0 0 00000000D 29
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 30
110 22 1 1 0 0 00000000D 31
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 32
110 23 1 1 0 0 00000000D 33
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 34
110 24 1 1 0 0 00000000D 35
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 36
110 25 1 1 0 0 00000000D 37
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 38
110 26 1 1 0 0 00000000D 39
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 40
110 27 1 1 0 0 00000000D 41
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 42
110 28 1 1 0 0 00000000D 43
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 44
110 29 1 1 0 0 00000000D 45
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 46
110 30 1 1 0 0 00000000D 47
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 48
110 31 1 1 0 0 00000000D 49
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 50
110 32 1 1 0 0 00000000D 51
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 52
110 33 1 1 0 0 00000000D 53
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 54
110 34 1 1 0 0 00000000D 55
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 56
110 35 1 1 0 0 00000000D 57
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 58
110 36 1 1 0 0 00000000D 59
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 60
110 37 1 1 0 0 00000000D 61
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 62
110 38 1 1 0 0 00000000D 63
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 64
124,1.,0.,0.,0.,0.,1.,0.,0.,0.,0.,1.,0.; 1P 1
124,1.,0.,0.,0.,0.,6.125742E-017,-1.,0.,0.,1.,6.125742E-017,0.; 3P 2
124,-1.,0.,-1.225148E-016,0.,-1.225148E-016,6.125742E-017,1.,0., 5P 3
7.504944E-033,1.,-6.125742E-017,0.; 5P 4
124,-1.,0.,-1.225148E-016,0.,0.,1.,0.,0.,1.225148E-016,0.,-1., 7P 5
0.; 7P 6
124,6.125742E-017,0.,1.,0.,1.,6.125742E-017,-6.125742E-017,0., 9P 7
-6.125742E-017,1.,3.752472E-033,0.; 9P 8
 page 182

124,6.125742E-017,0.,-1.,0.,-1.,6.125742E-017,-6.125742E-017,0., 11P 9
6.125742E-017,1.,3.752472E-033,0.; 11P 10
124,.707107,-.408202,.577383,0.,.707107,.408202,-.577383,0., 13P 11
-4.331554E-017,.816543,.577285,0.; 13P 12
124,.5,.5,.707107,0.,-.853553,.146447,.5,0.,.146447,-.853553,.5, 15P 13
0.; 15P 14
110,0.,0.,0.,100.,0.,0.; 17P 15
110,100.,0.,0.,100.,150.,0.; 19P 16
110,100.,150.,0.,0.,150.,0.; 21P 17
110,0.,150.,0.,0.,0.,0.; 23P 18
110,0.,0.,-50.,100.,0.,-50.; 25P 19
110,0.,0.,0.,0.,0.,-50.; 27P 20
110,100.,0.,0.,100.,0.,-50.; 29P 21
110,100.,0.,-50.,100.,150.,-50.; 31P 22
110,100.,150.,0.,100.,150.,-50.; 33P 23
110,100.,150.,-50.,0.,150.,-50.; 35P 24
110,0.,150.,0.,0.,150.,-50.; 37P 25
110,0.,150.,-50.,0.,0.,-50.; 39P 26
110,10.,70.,0.,90.,70.,0.; 41P 27
110,90.,70.,0.,90.,130.,0.; 43P 28
110,90.,130.,0.,10.,130.,0.; 45P 29
110,10.,130.,0.,10.,70.,0.; 47P 30
110,10.,70.,50.,90.,70.,50.; 49P 31
110,10.,70.,0.,10.,70.,50.; 51P 32
110,90.,70.,0.,90.,70.,50.; 53P 33
110,90.,70.,50.,90.,130.,50.; 55P 34
110,90.,130.,0.,90.,130.,50.; 57P 35
110,90.,130.,50.,10.,130.,50.; 59P 36
110,10.,130.,0.,10.,130.,50.; 61P 37
110,10.,130.,50.,10.,70.,50.; 63P 38
S 6G 3D 64P 38 T 1

LINE 0.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 100.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1

LINE 100.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 100.0000, 150.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 100.0000, 150.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 150.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 0.0000, 150.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 0.0000, 0.0000, -50.0000, 100.0000, 0.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 0.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 100.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 100.0000, 0.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 100.0000, 0.0000, -50.0000, 100.0000, 150.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 100.0000, 150.0000, 0.0000, 100.0000, 150.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 100.0000, 150.0000, -50.0000, 0.0000, 150.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 0.0000, 150.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, 150.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 0.0000, 150.0000, -50.0000, 0.0000, 0.0000, -50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 10.0000, 70.0000, 0.0000, 90.0000, 70.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 90.0000, 70.0000, 0.0000, 90.0000, 130.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 90.0000, 130.0000, 0.0000, 10.0000, 130.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 10.0000, 130.0000, 0.0000, 10.0000, 70.0000, 0.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 10.0000, 70.0000, 50.0000, 90.0000, 70.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 10.0000, 70.0000, 0.0000, 10.0000, 70.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 90.0000, 70.0000, 0.0000, 90.0000, 70.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 90.0000, 70.0000, 50.0000, 90.0000, 130.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 90.0000, 130.0000, 0.0000, 90.0000, 130.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 90.0000, 130.0000, 50.0000, 10.0000, 130.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 10.0000, 130.0000, 0.0000, 10.0000, 130.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1
LINE 10.0000, 130.0000, 50.0000, 10.0000, 70.0000, 50.0000, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1

DG:18.2.3 A DXF File

 page 183

• The DXF file below is shown only for illustration (Not for casual reading)
0 61.230339 8 20.403206 38 0
SECTION 38 0 11 0.000000 10
2 0.000000 10 0.000000 0 155.563492
HEADER 0 70.710678 21 LINE 20
0 LINE 20 -40.827133 8 16.328091
ENDSEC 8 -81.647354 38 0 11
0 0 11 0.000000 10 155.563492
SECTION 10 176.776688 0 56.568542 21
2 106.066017 21 LINE 20 57.155220
TABLES 20 -20.417019 8 65.319267 38
0 61.230339 38 0 11 0.000000
ENDSEC 11 0.000000 10 113.137085 0
0 0.000000 0 56.568542 21 LINE
SECTION 21 LINE 20 32.663086 8
2 0.000000 8 24.492136 38 0
BLOCKS 38 0 11 0.000000 10
0 0.000000 10 113.137085 0 155.563492
ENDSEC 0 176.776688 21 LINE 20
0 LINE 20 -8.164045 8 57.155220
SECTION 8 20.410112 38 0 11
2 0 11 0.000000 10 98.994949
ENTITIES 10 176.776688 0 56.568542 21
0 0.000000 21 LINE 20 89.811401
LINE 20 -20.417019 8 24.492136 38
8 -40.827133 38 0 11 0.000000
0 11 0.000000 10 56.568542 0
10 70.710678 0 113.137085 21 LINE
0.000000 21 LINE 20 65.319267 8
20 -81.647354 8 -8.164045 38 0
0.000000 38 0 11 0.000000 10
11 0.000000 10 155.563492 0 98.994949
70.710678 0 176.776688 21 LINE 20
21 LINE 20 16.328091 8 48.984272
-40.820225 8 -20.417019 38 0 11
38 0 11 0.000000 10 98.994949
0.000000 10 106.066017 0 113.137085 21
0 0.000000 21 LINE 20 89.811401
LINE 20 20.403206 8 -8.164045 38
8 0.000000 38 0 11 0.000000
0 11 0.000000 10 113.137085 0
10 0.000000 0 155.563492 21 LINE
70.710678 21 LINE 20 32.663086 8
20 -40.827133 8 16.328091 38 0
-40.820225 38 0 11 0.000000 10
11 0.000000 10 98.994949 0 98.994949
176.776688 0 106.066017 21 LINE 20
21 LINE 20 48.984272 8 89.811401
20.410112 8 61.230339 38 0 11
38 0 11 0.000000 10 56.568542
0.000000 10 106.066017 0 113.137085 21
0 70.710678 21 LINE 20 65.319267
LINE 20 20.403206 8 32.663086 38
8 -40.820225 38 0 11 0.000000
0 11 0.000000 10 155.563492 0
10 70.710678 0 98.994949 21 ENDSEC
176.776688 21 LINE 20 57.155220 0
20 -81.647354 8 48.984272 38 EOF
20.410112 38 0 11 0.000000 ?
11 0.000000 10 56.568542 0
106.066017 0 106.066017 21 LINE
21 LINE 20 24.492136 8
 page 184

DG:18.3 PDES/STEP

• PDES (using STEP) is the result of an international effort to develop a standard product design
standard.

• This format attempts to incorporate all aspects of product modeling including,

- geometry (B-Rep, CSG, Features)
- tolerances
- electrical/electronics
- function information
- process plans
- etc

DG:18.4 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

1. Given the following IGES file, draw the part it contains.

A Test file for the IND807 final exam 1995 S 1

,,7Hbox.prt,7Hbox.prt,14HMCS.CADKEY 3.0,9HC2IG 3.0B,16,8,24,11,53, G 1
7Hbox.prt,1.,2,2HMM,1,1.,13H911001.075746,.0005,,9HHugh Jack, G 2
30HRyerson Polytechnic University,4,0; G 3
110 1 1 1 0 0 00000000D 1
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 2
110 2 1 1 0 0 00000000D 3
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 4
110 3 1 1 0 0 00000000D 5
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 6
110 4 1 1 0 0 00000000D 7
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 8
110 5 1 1 0 0 00000000D 9
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 10
110 6 1 1 0 0 00000000D 11
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 12
110 7 1 1 0 0 00000000D 13
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 14
110 8 1 1 0 0 00000000D 15
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 16
110 9 1 1 0 0 00000000D 17
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 18
110 10 1 1 0 0 00000000D 19
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 20
110 11 1 1 0 0 00000000D 21
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 22
110 12 1 1 0 0 00000000D 23
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 24
110 13 1 1 0 0 00000000D 25
110 0 3 1 0 Line D 26
110,0.,75.,0.,0.,100.,0.; 1P 1
110,50.,100.,0.,25.,100.,0.; 3P 2
110,25.,100.,0.,25.,75.,0.; 5P 3
110,25.,75.,0.,50.,75.,0.; 7P 4
110,50.,75.,0.,50.,50.,0.; 9P 5
110,25.,50.,0.,50.,50.,0.; 11P 6
110,0.,0.,0.,100.,100.,100.; 13P 7
 page 185

110,50.,0.,0.,50.,50.,0.; 15P 8
110,75.,0.,0.,100.,0.,0.; 17P 9
110,100.,0.,0.,100.,25.,0.; 19P 10
110,75.,25.,0.,100.,25.,0.; 21P 11
110,75.,25.,0.,75.,50.,0.; 23P 12
110,75.,50.,0.,100.,50.,0.; 25P 13
1S 3G 26D 13P 38 T 1
 page 186

DC:19. COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING (CAE)

• One of the fundamental features of Engineering is to make trade-offs to get optimal designs

• If we overdesign, then all designs become simple, but more expensive, and more difficult to
manufacture

• If we underdesign, then our design will not fulfill our requirements

• Therefore we use knowledge and tools to achieve designs which are ‘just right’.

• There are many physical factors which can affect the quality of a design,

- Yield stress failure

- Excessive deformation
- Insufficient heat transfer
- Kinematic interference
- Too much/little air drag
- Resonance at wrong frequency
- Electromagnetic interference effects
- Non uniform cooling effects (eg. warping in plastic parts)
- etc.

DC:19.1 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)

• Why?: When we have to find an effect (stress, strain, flux, etc) which is distributed throughout a
volume, and is too difficult to calculate by hand.

• How: Break a part into discrete chunks (elements), Apply driving functions, constraints, etc.,
then solve for physical effects.

• Elements
- different types of elements may be used in a FEM mesh
- elements that are too deformed will yield poorer results
- if a field variable will be subject to a large change over an area, then smaller elements
should be used to improve the approximation.

• CAD systems will often allow a user to manually, and automatically mesh a part.

• Generative meshing algorithms will

- mesh a part roughly,
- solve the problem using the rough mesh,
 page 187

- identify elements with large errors,

- reduce the element sizes in the critical areas,
- resolve the problem to obtain a more accurate result.

• Errors of 10% or more are easy to get using FEA systems. Care must be taken when examining
results.

• Boundary conditions used in FEA systems include,

- x, y, and/or z positions fixed
- x, y, and/or z axis rotations fixed.
- applied force
- applied moment

• Automeshing
- Still a research topic, and many various methods are available
- Generally the computer breaks geometry into subsections

********* Include Automeshing figure

********* Include Ideas FEM notes

********** Include my FEM notes

DC:19.2 ASSEMBLY AND KINEMATICS

• It is difficult for the computer to distinguish between two or more parts, and how they are related

• Assemblies tend to have a hierarchy of sub-assemblies and parts

• Another important concept is an instance. For example, a bolt is a single part in a CAD system,
but there may be 10 instances of the bolt in a product.

• Each instance of a part has,

- a position
- an orientation
- a unique identification
- other information the designer chooses to associate

• It is also important to define instances in an assembly as a chain of kinematic entities. Some

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common joints are,

- slider
- rotary
- spherical
- universal
- ground (a special case for kinematic solutions)

• Assembly planning requires some representation of a precedence for assembly mating. The
example that follows shows some of the data structures which may be used for describing an
assembly.

DC:19.2.1 Tolerancing

• The real value of tolerancing becomes obvious when we begin to consider assemblies.

• The obvious methods of tolerancing are,

- dimensional tolerancing
- geometrical tolerancing

• There are many methods for dealing with tolerances when working by hand (eg. Maximum
metal condition)

• The trade off to be handled by tolerancing is tighter tolerances increase quality, but they slow
production, and increase cost.

• As tolerances are stacked up, accumulated errors occur. It is hard to predict what effects these
errors will have.

• The ability to obtain a tolerance can also be effected by the manufacturing method chosen.

• A popular computer based method for tolerance analysis is the Monte Carlo simulation. In
effect, each tolerance has a random distribution, and it is varied randomly. The effect is noted,
and statistics are gathered from the model. The basic process is outlined below.

• Monte Carlo Tolerance Evaluation,

1. Generate a candidate instance of an as-manufactured part using a normal (or other) dis-
tribution random number generator to perturb the vertices of the part within the
specified size tolerance zone.
2. Check if the part instance meets the specified form tolerances. This is needed because
form tolerances may be tighter than size tolerances, and because normal distribu-
tion may, in rare cases, generate perturbations with standard deviations beyond the
size tolerance zone.
3. If one or more of the vertices of the part instance are found out of zones of form toler-
ances, the part instance is rejected. If all vertices are inside the zone, the part
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instance may be accepted.

4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for all other parts in the assembly.
5. Use the solid modeler to create the assembly instance using all the instances created in
step 4. These instances are positioned relative to datums established by part fea-
tures.
6. Check if the assembly instance from step 5 satisfies the design constraints. If yes, the
assembly is accepted. If not, the assembly is rejected.
7. Repeat steps 1 to 6 as many times as the desired sample size (number of assembly
instances) is used to calculate the statistics. The larger the sample size the better,
and the more confidence we have in the results.

DC:19.3 ASSEMBLIES

• While assemblies apparently look simple, they pose intersection problems

• The dilemma is that two points in a modelled assembly may occupy the same point in space, a
physical impossibility.

• In some cases this may be simply ignored, but when doing interference checks, or joining mod-
els, the two assembled parts may become one part, then change the results when doing FEM,
kinematic, and vibration analysis.

• Some methods to deal with this are,

- Explicitly store, and manipulate parts of an assembly separately
- To use complex graphics boundaries called s-sets (still research)

DC:19.4 OPTIMIZATION

• One of the most important aspects of engineering

*************** Add in optimization notes