DRILLING MUD HYDRAULICS 4.8 DRILLING MUD HYDRAULICS 4.8.

1 Rheological Classication of Drilling Fluids Experiments performed on various drilling muds have shown that the shear stress-shear rate characteristic can be represented by one of the functions schematically depicted in Figure 4.8.1. If the shear stress-shear rate diagram is a straight line passing through the origin of the coordinates, the drilling uid is classied as a Newtonian uid, otherwise it is considered to be non-Newtonian. The following equations can be used to describe the shear stress-shear rate relationship: Newtonian uid dv t=m [4.8.1] dr Bingham plastic uid t = ty + mp dv dr
n

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where t = shear stress v = the velocity of ow dv /dr = shear rate (velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the ow direction) m = dynamic viscosity ty = yield point stress mp = plastic viscosity K = consistency index n = ow behavior index The dynamic viscosity (m), yield point stress(tp ), plastic viscocity (mp ), consistency index (K), and ow behavior index (n) are usually determined with the Fann rotational viscometer. The Herschel and Buckley uid model is not considered further in this text. 4.8.2 Flow Regimes The ow regime (i.e., whether laminar or turbulent) can be determined using the Reynolds number. In general, the Reynolds number, Re, is calculated in consistent units from dvp Re = [4.8.5] m where d v r m = = = = diameter of the uid conduit velocity of the uid density of uid viscosity

[4.8.2]

Power law uid dv n t=K dr Herschel and Buckley uid t = ty + K dv dr

[4.8.3]

[4.8.4]

Shear Stress ()

Shear Rate

dv dr

Figure 4.8.1 Shear stress-shear rate diagram: (a) Newtonian uid, (b) Bingham plastic uid, (c) Power law uid, (d) Herschel-Buckley uid.

4-256

DRILLING AND WELL COMPLETIONS viscometer. When these data are available, the following equations can be used: [4.8.6] mp = q600 q300 cp ty = q300 mp lb/100 ft n = 3.32 log K= q600 q300
2

In oileld engineering units 928de v g Re = m where de v g m = = = =

[4.8.14] [4.8.15] [4.8.16] [4.8.17]

equivalent diameter of a ow channel (in.) average ow velocity (ft/sec) drilling uid specic weight (lb/gal) Dynamic viscosity (cp)

The equivalent diameter of the ow channel is dened as 4 (ow cross-sectional area) de = wetted perimeter [4.8.7]

q300 2 n n lb/100 ft s (511)

For ow in the i.d. of the workstring, de = d, and for annular ow, de = d1 d2 , where d = inside diameter of the pipe (in.) d1 = larger diameter of the annulus (in.) d2 = larger diameter of the annulus (in.) The ow changes from laminar to turbulent in the range of Reynolds numbers from 2,100 to 4,000 [1]. In laminar ow, the friction pressure losses are proportional to the average ow velocity. In turbulent ow, the losses are proportional to the velocity to a power ranging from 1.7 to 2.0. The average ow velocity is given by the following equations: For ow inside circular pipe q v= [4.8.8] (ft /sec) 2.45d2 For ow in an annular space between two circular pipes q v= [4.8.9] (ft /sec) 2 2 d2 2.45 d1 where q = mud ow rate (gpm) For non-Newtonian drilling uids, the concept of an effective viscosity can be used to replace the dynamic viscosity in Equation 4.8.5. For a Bingham plastic uid ow in a circular pipe and annular space, the effective viscosities are given as [2]. For pipe ow me = mp + 6.66 For annular ow me = mp + 4.99 ty (d1 d2 ) (Cp) v [4.8.11] ty d (Cp) v [4.8.10]

where q600 = viscometer reading at 600 rpm q300 = viscometer reading at 300 rpm Example Consider a well with the following geometric and operational data: 5 in., unit weight = 40 lb/ft, ID = 8.835 in. Drill Casing 9 8 1 pipe: 4 2 in., unit weight = 16.6 lb/ft, ID = 3.826 in. Drill 3 in. Hole in., unit weight = 108 lb/ft, ID = 2 1 collars: 6 4 2 in. Drilling uid properties: q600 = 68, q300 = 68, size: 8 1 2 density = 10 lb/gal, circulating rate = 280 gpm. Calculate Reynolds number for the uid (1) inside drill pipe, (2) inside drill collars, (3) in drill collar annulus, and (4) in drill pipe annulus. To perform calculation, a Power law uid is assumed. Flow behavior index (use Equation 4.8.16) is 68 n = 3.32 log = 0.729 41 Consistency index (use Equation 4.8.17) is 41 K= = 0.433 lb/100 ft 2 s0.729 0.729 (511) The average ow velocities are For inside drill pipe (use Equation 4.8.8) 280 = 7.807 (ft /sec) v = 2.45 (3.826)2 For inside drill collars 280 v = = 22.58 (ft /sec) 2.45 (2.25)2 In drill collar annulus (in open hole) use Equation 4.8.3. 280 v = = 4.282 (ft /sec) 2.45 8.52 6.752 In drill pipe annulus (in the cased hole) 280 v = = 1.977 (ft /sec) 2.45 8.8352 4.52 The effective viscosities are For inside the drill pipe (use Equation 4.8.12) me = (1.6) (7.807) (3) (0.729) + 1 3.826 (4) (0.729) (300) (0.433) (3.826) 7.807
0.729

For a power law uid, the following formulas can be used. For pipe ow me = 1.6v d 3n + 1 4n
n

300Kd v
n

(Cp)

[4.8.12]

For annular ow 2.4v me = (d1 d2 )

2n + 1 3n

200K (d1 d2 ) (Cp) v [4.8.13]

The plastic viscosity (mp ), yield point stress (ty ), ow behavior index (n), and consistency index (K) are mud rheological properties that are typically calculated from the experiments performed on the drilling mud in a rotational
Also called equivalent or apparent viscosity in some published works.

= 160.9 cp
0.729

For inside drill collars me = (1.6) (22.575) (3) (0.729) + 1 2.25 (4) (0.729) (300) (0.433) (2.25) 22.575

= 104.5 cp

DRILLING MUD HYDRAULICS For in drill collar annulus (use Equation 4.8.13) me = (2.4) (4.282) (2) (0.729) + 1 8.5 6.75 (3) (0.729)
0.729

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(200) (0.433) (8.5 6.756) 4.282 In the drill pipe annulus me = (2.4) (1.977) (2) (0.729) + 1 8.835 4.5 (3) (0.729)

= 140.1 cp

Typically, water based muds are considered to be incompressible or slightly compressible. For the ow in drill pipe or drill collars, the acceleration component (DPA ) of the total pressure drop is negligible, Equation 4.8.20 can be reduced to DP = DPF + DPG [4.8.21] Equations 4.8.19 through 4.8.22 are valid in any consistent system of units. Example The following data are given:

0.729

(200) (0.433) (8.835 4.5) = 233.6 cp 1.977 Reynolds number (use Equation 4.8.6) For inside the drill pipe (3.826) (7.807) (10) = 1723 Re = 928 (160.9) For inside drill collars (2.25) (22.575) (10) = 4511 Re = 928 (104.5) In the drill collar annulus (8.5 6.75) (4.282) (10) = 496 Re = 928 (140.1) In the drill pipe annulus (8.835 4.5) (1.977) (10) = 340 Re = 928 (233.6) 4.8.3 Principle of Additive Pressures Applying the conservation of momentum to the control volume for a one-dimensional ow conduit, it is found that [3]. dv dp rA = [4.8.18] = A Pw tw A rg cos a dt dl where r A dv /dt v tw Pw g a dP/dl l = = = = = = = = = = uid density ow area acceleration (total derivative) ow velocity average wall shear stress wetted perimeter gravity acceleration inclination of a ow conduit to the vertical pressure gradient length of ow conduit

Pressure drop inside the drill string = 600 psi Pressure drop in annular space = 200 psi Pressure drop through the bit nozzle = 1,600 psi Hole depth = 10,000 ft Mud density = 10 lb/gal bottomhole pressure pressure inside the string at the bit level (above the nozzles) drill pipe pressure

Calculate

Because the ow in the annulus is upward, the total bottomhole pressure is equal to the hydrostatic head plus the pressure loss in the annulus. Hydrostatic head (psi) is calculated as follows [1]: Phyd = 0.052rL psi where r = density (lb/gal) L = length of pipe (ft) Therefore, pbottom = 0.052(10)(10,000) + 200 = 5,400 psi Pressure inside the drill string above the nozzle, pis (psi), pis = 5,400 + 1,600 = 7,000 psi Drill pipe pressure (also known as standpipe pressure), Pdp (psi) pdp = 7,000 + 600 (0.052)(10)(10,000) = 2,400 psi Note that the drill pipe pressure is a sum of all the pressure losses in the circulating system. 4.8.4 Friction Pressure Loss Calculations 4.8.4.1 Laminar Flow For pipe ow of Bingham plastic type drilling uid, the following can be used: Dp = ty L mp Lv [4.8.23] + 1500d2 225d Corresponding equation for a Power law type drilling uid is Dp = 1.6v d 3n + 1 4n
n

[4.8.22]

For a steady-state ow, Equation 4.8.18 is often written as an explicit equation for the pressure gradient. This is dP dv Pw = tw rv rg cos a [4.8.19] dl A dl The three terms on the right side are known as frictional, accelerational (local acceleration) and gravitational components of the pressure gradient. Or, in other words, the total pressure drop between two points of a ow conduit is the sum of the components mentioned above. Thus, D P = D P F + D PA + D PG [4.8.20]

KL 300d

[4.8.24]

For annular ow of Bingham plastic and Power law uids, respectively, [4.8.25]

where DPF = frictional pressure drop ty L mp Lv + Dp = DPA = accelerational pressure drop 200 (d1 d2 ) 1000 (d1 d2 )2 DPG = gravitational pressure drop (hydrostatic head) and Equation 4.8.21 expresses the principle of additive pres2.4v 2n + 1 n KL sures. In addition to Equation 4.8.21, there is the equation of Dp = d 3n 300 (d (d ) 1 2 1 d2 ) state for the drilling uid.

[4.8.26]

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DRILLING AND WELL COMPLETIONS loss p1 . D p1 = 7.7 105 100.8 2801.8 270.2 5000 3.8264.8 psi

4.8.4.2 Turbulent Flow Turbulent ow occurs if the Reynolds number as calculated above exceeds a certain critical value. Instead of calculating the Reynolds number, a critical ow velocity may be calculated and compared to the actual average ow velocity [1]. The critical velocities for the Bingham plastic and Power law uids can be calculated as follows: For a Bingham plastic uid vc =
2 + 9.256(d d )2 t r 1.08mp + 1.08 mp 1 2 y

Dp1 = 190 psi Note use of equation 4.8.14 to determine the plastic viscosity. For ow inside the drill collars, it is easy to check that the ow is also turbulent and thus the pressure loss is Dp2 = 7.7 105 100.8 2801.8 270.2 500 2.254.8 psi

(d1 d2 )

(ft /min) [4.8.27]

Dp2 = 243 psi For annulus ow around the drill collars To calculate the critical velocity, Equation 4.8.28 is used vc = 3.878 104 (0.433) 10 2.4 8.5 6.75
1/(20.729)

For a power law uid 3.878 104 K vc = r 2.4 d1 d2

2n + 1 3n

n/(2n)

(ft /min)

[4.8.28]

In the case of pipe ow, for practical purposes, the corresponding critical velocities may be calculated using Equation 4.8.27 and 4.8.28, but letting d2 = 0. Note: the critical ow velocity is in ft/min instead of the customary ft/sec. In turbulent ow the pressure losses, Dp (psi), can be calculated from the Fanning equation [1]. Dp = f g Lv 2 25.8d [4.8.29]

2(0.729) + 1 3(0.729)

0.729/(20.729)

(ft /min)

vc = 442 (ft /min) = 7.36 ft /sec The average velocity around the collars is 4.282 ft/sec, as calculated in the previous example. Therefore, the ow is laminar and Equation 4.8.25 is selected to calculate the pressure drop Dp3 D p3 = 2.4(4.282) (8.5 6.75) 2(0.729 + 1) 3(0.729)
0.729

where f = Fanning factor L = length of pipe, ft The friction factor depends on the Reynolds number and the surface conditions of the pipe. There are numerous charts and equations for determining the relationship between the friction factor and Reynolds number. The friction factor can be calculated by [4]. f = 0.046 Re0.2 [4.8.30] Substituting Equation 4.8.7, 4.8.8, and 4.8.30 into Equation 4.8.29 yields [4] For pipe ow d4.8 For annular ow Dp =
0.2 1.8 7.7 105 g 0.8 mp q L

0.433(500) psi 300(8.5 6.75)

Dp3 = 6.06 psi For annulus ow around the drill pipe in the open hole section. It is found from Equation 4.8.28 that the ow is laminar, thus Equation 4.8.25 can be used with the average annular velocity found from Equation 4.8.9. v = D p4 = 280 2.45 8.52 4.52 2.4(2.19) (8.5 4.5) = 2.19 ft /sec 2(0.729 + 1) 3(0.729)
0.729

Dp =

0 .2 7.7 105 g 0.8 q1.8 mp L

[4.8.31]

(d1 d2 ) (d1 + d2 )

1.8

[4.8.32]

0.433(1000) psi 300(8.5 4.5)

Dp4 = 0.479 psi For annulus ow around the drill pipe in cased section. Using Equation 4.8.28 it is determined that the ow is also laminar in the cased hole , therefore Equation 4.8.26 is used again. D p5 = 2.4(1.977) (8.835 4.5) 2(0.729 + 1) 3(0.729)
0.729

Example The wellbore, drill string and drilling uid data from the previous example are used. Casing depth is 4,000 ft. Assuming a drill pipe length of 5,000 ft and a drill collar length of 500 ft, nd the friction pressure losses, For ow inside the drill pipe, the critical ow velocity is vc = 3.878 104 (0.433) 10 2.4 3.826 0
1/(20.729)

0.433(4000) psi 300(8.835 4.5)

2(0.729) + 1 3(0.729)

0.729/(20.729)

(ft /min)

Dp5 = 1.5 psi Therefore, the total frictional pressure loss is D p f = D p1 + D p 2 + D p 3 + D p 4 + D p 5 Dpf = 94.7 + 243 + 6.06 + .48 + 1.5 = 346 psi

vc = 283 ft /min = 4.72 ft /sec Recall v = 7.807 ft/sec, because v > vc the ow is turbulent therefore Equation 4.8.31 is chosen to calculate the pressure

UNDERBALANCED DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS 4.8.4.3 Pressure Loss Through Bit Nozzles Assuming steady-state, frictionless (due to the short length of the nozzles) drilling uid ow, Equation 4.8.19 is written rv = v p = 1 1 [4.8.33]

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Integrating Equation 4.8.33 assuming incompressible drilling uid ow (r is constant) and after simple rearrangements yields the pressure loss across the bit Dpb (psi) which is Drb = rv 2 2 [4.8.34]

Introducing the nozzle ow coefcient of 0.95 and using eld system of units, Equation 4.8.34 becomes Drb = or Drb = g v2 10, 858A 2 = = = = nozzle velocity in ft/s ow rate in gpm drilling uid density in lb/gal nozzle ow area in in.2 [4.8.36] g v2 1, 120 [4.8.35]

where v q g A

If the bit is furnished with more than one nozzle, then A = A1 + A 2 + A 3 + . . . A n where n is the number of nozzles, and
2 2 2 + d2 + . . . dn den = d1

[4.8.37]

[4.8.38]

where den is the equivalent nozzle diameter. Example A tricone roller rock bit is furnished with three nozzles with 9 10 the diameters of 32 , 32 and 12 in. Calculate the bit pressure 32 drop if the mud weight is 10 lb/gal and owrate is 300 gpm. Nozzle equivalent diameter is den = 9 32
2

10 32

12 32

= 0.5643 in.

and the corresponding ow area is p A = (0.5643)2 = 0.2493 in.2 4 The pressure loss through bit nozzles is Dpb = (10)(300)2 = 1334 psi 10858(0.2493)2

[4.8.39]

4.9 UNDERBALANCED DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS 4.9.1 Denitions Rotary drilling operations require that a drilling uid be circulated down the inside of a drill string, through the drill bit nozzles (or open orices), and up the annulus between the outside of the drill string and the borehole wall (see Sections 4.5 Drilling Muds and Completion Systems, 4.8 Drilling Mud Hydraulics, and 4.14 Well Pressure Control). As the drilling uid passes through the drill bit nozzles, the uid entrains the rock cuttings generated by the drill bit advance. In addition to carrying the rock cuttings from the borehole, the drilling uid cools the drill bit and stabilizes the borehole wall [1]. When drilling for oil and natural gas deposits, the most important function of the drilling uid is to control the inow of formation uids that could enter the wellbore annulus. When the specic gravity of the drilling uid has been engineered to provide a bottomhole pressure in the borehole annulus that precisely counters the pore pressure of the formation uids that could enter the wellbore annulus, the drilling operation is called balanced. When the specic gravity of the drilling uid has been engineered to provide a bottomhole pressure in the borehole annulus that is slightly higher than the pore pressure of the formation uids, the drilling operation is called overbalanced, When the specic gravity of the drilling uid has been engineered to provide a bottomhole pressure in the borehole annulus that is lower than the pore pressure of the formation uids, the drilling operation is called underbalanced [2, 3, 4]. This is sometimes referred to as owdrilling. Having drilled a well using underbalanced techniques, it is important to complete the well underbalanced. If the underbalanced drilling operation is not followed by completions efforts using underbalanced techniques, formation damage may still occur due to poor completions practices. For a general guideline, when drilling and completing wells into the actual producing rock formations, underbalanced drilling (and completion) techniques are restricted to geologic provinces that have producing formations with pore pressures of the order of approximately 2500 psi or less. From a practical standpoint, this restricts underbalanced drilling and completions to inll production wells in oil and natural gas elds that have signicant production history. However, there are numerous drilling operations where underbalanced drilling techniques are utilized in both exploratory and early development wells when upper zones with troublesome rock formations are encountered. Thus, underbalanced drilling and completion techniques have broad applications throughout the oil and natural gas (and geothermal steam and water) resource recovery industry. 4.9.2 Drilling Operations In oil and natural gas producing wells that have relatively low pore pressures, overbalanced drilling operations created formation damage by forcing the drilling mud particles and rock cutting nes into the producing rock formation pores thereby clogging the pores of formation rock in the vicinity of the open borehole. This formation damage reduces the ow of oil and/or natural gas to the wellbore when the well is completed and produced. Great costs are incurred by operating companies to reduce the effects of formation damage in wells that have been drilled with conventional overbalanced methods (e.g., hydraulic fracturing and acidizing). Producing oil and natural gas geologic provinces become depleted as they are produced. This depletion is in both volume of oil or gas available for production and in reservoir pressure. To reduce the effects of formation damage, inll

References 1. Gatlin, C., Petroleum Engineering: Drilling and Well Completions, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1960. 2. Bourgoyne, A. T., et al., Applied Drilling Engineering, Society of Petroleum Engineers , Richardson, Texas, 1986. 3. White, F. M., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1979. 4. Moore, P. L., et al., Drilling Practices Manual, PennWell Books, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1974.