Experiment No.

4 CHARACTERISTICS OF ORIFICE Objectives To measure the extent of reduction in flow, contraction of the stream and energy loss, as water discharges into the atmosphere from a sharp-edged orifice in the base of a tank. Apparatus The apparatus is to be used with the Hydraulic Bench H1.

Summary of Theory Figure 4.2 shows the essential features of flow through the orifice. The tank is assumed to be sufficiently large for the velocity of flow in it to be negligibly small except close to the orifice. In the vicinity of the orifice, the fluid accelerates towards the center of the hole, so that as the jet emergences it suffers a reduction of area due to the curvature of the streamlines, as typified by the streamline MN indicated in the diagram. The reduction in area due to the curvature may be taken to be completed at about half the orifice diameter downstream of the plane of the orifice. The reduced section is usually referred to as the vena contracta. 1

The pressure everywhere on the surface of the jet is atmospheric, but within the jet the pressure does not fall to atmospheric until the acceleration is complete, i.e. until the vena contracta is reached. Consider now the total head of the water at points M and N of a typical stream-line, M being in the surface and N being in the plane of the vena contracta. From Bernoulli, the total head at M is:

u
And at N is:

2 m

2g

2 n

2g

So that, if the energy were conserved, i.e. if there were no loss of total head:

2 m

2g

u
m

2 n

2g

(4.1)

In this equation, Pm and Pn are equal, since both are at atmospheric pressure and um is negligibly small according to our assumption. Moreover,

z
2

(4.2)

So that, from Equation (4.1) and (4.2), the ideal velocity at N is given by:

2g

(4.3)

This result applies to all points in the plane of the vena contracta, so changing the notation to let uo be the ideal velocity in the plane of the vena contracta, which would occur if there was no energy loss.

2 o

2g

(4.4)

Because of the energy loss, which in fact takes place as the water passes down the tank and through the orifice, the actual velocity uc in the plane of the vena contracta will be less than uo, and may be calculated from the pitot tube reading by the equation:

2 c

2g

(4.5)

It is clear that (Ho - Hc) represents the energy loss. The ratio of actual velocity uc and ideal velocity uo is often referred to as the coefficient of velocity Cu of the orifice. From Equation (4.4) and (4.5), we obtain:

u u

c o

H H

c o

(4.6)

In a similar sense, the coefficient of contraction Cc is defined as the ratio of the crosssection of the vena contracta ac, to the cross-section of the orifice ao,

a a

(4.7)

Finally, the coefficient of discharge Cd is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to that which would take place if the jet discharge at the ideal velocity without any reduction of area. The actual discharge Q is given by:

u a
c

(4.8)

And if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity uo over the orifice area ao, the discharge Qo would be:

u a
o

2 gH

(4.9)

So, from the definition if the coefficient of discharge,

Q Q

u a u a
c o

c o

(4.10)

Or in terms of quantities measured experimentally,

Q 2 gH

(4.11)
o

From Equations (4.6), (4.7) and (4.10) it follows immediately:

C C
u

(4.12)

Procedures The equipment is set on the bench and leveled so that the base of the tank is horizontal. The flexible supply pipe from the bench control valve is connected to the inlet pipe of the apparatus which is positioned to discharge directly back to the weigh tank, and the overflow of the apparatus is directed onto the bench top. To obtain the steadiest readings the vertical position of the inlet pipe should be adjusted to be just submerged. The diameter of the sharp-edged orifice is noted.

Part I: Measurement of Cd, Cu and Cc at a single constant value of Ho. 1. Water is admitted to the tank to fill it to the height of the overflow pipe, and the inflow is regulated so that a small steady discharge is obtained from the overflow. This ensures that the level in the tank remains constant while the measurements are made. To measure Cd: Record the value of head Ho (the left tube) of the orifice and measure the discharge (take time to collect 5 liters of water from the orifice in the weighing tank).

2.

3.

4.

To measure Cu: Insert the pitot tube into the emerging jet close to the underside of the tank, and record the values of pitot head Hc (the right tube) on the orifice. To measure Cc: Measure the diameter of the jet at the vena contracta using the vernier caliper provided.

Part II: Measurement of discharge at different values of Ho. 1. 2. The inflow to the tank is reduced to lower the level in the tank. Record the value of head Ho (the left tube) of the orifice and measure the discharge (take time to collect 5 liters of water from the orifice in the weighing tank). Care should be taken to allow the level to settle to a steady value after the inflow to the tank has been changed, and it is advisable to read this level several times while the discharge is being collected and to record the mean value over the timed interval. About eight different flow rates should be sufficient (repeat 1 and 2 seven times) to establish the relationship between discharge and head on the orifice.

3.

4.

Data, Observation and Results Record your result for Part I in Table 4.1 Calculate Cd, Cu and Cc values (equation 4.11, 4.6 & 4.7). Calculate Cd using equation (4.12). Record your result for Part II in Table 4.2 Calculate Q and Ho1/2 Plot graph of Q against Ho1/2 (Graph 1). Draw a best fit line (straight line) through Graph 1 and state the slope on the graph.

Analysis and Discussion What is orifice? Explain what happen when water flow through the orifice. Comment on the Cd, Cu and Cc values obtained in Part I. Comment on graph 1. From the slope in Graph 1, calculate the Cd value. Compare and discuss the Cd values from part I and part II. List the possible sources of errors and safety precaution.

Table 4.1: Result for Part I. Notation Diameter of orifice Cross-sectional area of orifice Head on orifice Time required to collect 5 liter of water Discharge Pitot tube reading Diameter of jet Cross-sectional area of vena contracta Coefficient of discharge Coefficient of velocity Coefficient of contraction do ao Ho T Q Hc Jc ac Cd Cu Cc
C
d

Value/Equation 13.0

Unit mm m2 mm s m3/s mm mm m2

Q a 2 gH
o

Dimensionless
o

H H

c o

Dimensionless Dimensionless

a a

Table 4.2: Result for Part II (Measurements of Ho and Q) Volume (L) Time (s) Ho (mm) Q (m3/s) Ho1/2 (m1/2)